Green Technologies

Unit-I
 Solar Constant (Isc)
The “solar constant” (Isc) is the energy from the sun received on a unit area
perpendicular to solar rays at the mean distance from the sun (1.5 × 108 km)
outside the atmosphere.
Solar constant is characterised by the following:
(i) It is constant and not affected by daily, seasonal, atmospheric condition, clarity
of atmosphere etc.

ii) It is on a unit area on imaginary spherical surface around earth’s atmosphere for
mean distance between the sun and the earth.

(iii) It is on surface normal to sun’s rays. Sun rays are practically parallel (beam
radiation). (iv) It has a measured value of “1353 W/m2 ”.

Isc in terms of kJ/m2 . hour = 4870.8 kJ/m2 hour

The extraterrestrial relation observed on different days is known as apparent
extraterrestrial solar irradiance and can be calculated on any of the year using
the following relation:
I0 = Apparent extraterrestrial solar irradiance (W/m2 ),
n = Number of days of the year counting January 1 as the first day of the year, and
Isc = Solar constant = 1353 W/m2 .
(The standard value of the solar constant based on experimental measurements is 1367
W/m2 with accuracy of ±1.5%).

MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION

It is important to measure solar radiation, owing to the increasing number of solar
heating and cooling applications, and the necessity for accurate solar radiation data
to predict performance.
The following three devices are used for measuring the solar radiations.
1. Pyranometer; 2. Pyrheliometers; 3. Sunshine recorders.
Pyranometer
SOLAR RADIATION ON AN INCLINED SURFACE
The following three types of solar radiation constitute the total solar radiation on a
surface:
(i) Beams solar radiation (Ib);
(ii) Diffuse solar radiation (Id);
(iii) Solar radiation reflected from the ground and the surroundings.
Usually, Ib and Id on a horizontal surface are recorded.
In case of non-availability of data for beam and diffuse radiation, the following expression
for beam and diffuse radiation on the
Ib = INcosθ z
horizontal surface may be used:

Id = 1/3(Iext – IN ) cosθz
Where θz = Zenith angle

Li and Jordon (1962) suggested the following formula to evaluate total radiation
on a surface of “arbitrary orientation“:

IT = Ib Rb + Id Rd + ρ Rr (Ib + Id)
where, Rb, Rd and Rr = “Conversion factors“ for beam, diffuse and reflected
components respectively;

ρ = The reflection coefficient of the ground = 0.2 and 0.7 snow covered groun
respectively.

Expressions for Conversion factors :

Rb: It is defined as the ratio of flux of beam radiation incident on an inclined

surface to the flux of beam radiation incident on a horizontal surface

(Ib) = flux of beam radiation incident on an horizontal surface

(Ibt) = flux of beam radiation incident on an inclined surface
 For beam radiation,
For beam radiation, in most cases, the tilted surface faces due
south i.e., γ = 0, for this case,

cosθt = cosθ = sinδsin(Φ-β) + cosδcosωcos(Φ-β)

For horizontal surface cosθ = cosθ z = sin θ sin δ + cos Φ cos δ cos ω

Rd: It is the ratio of the flux of diffuse radiation falling on the tilted surface to that on
the horizontal surface.
Rr: The reflected component comes mainly from the ground and other
surrounding objects.
 Semiconductors
‘‘Semiconductors’’ are solid materials, either non-metallic elements or compounds,
which allow electrons to pass through them so that they conduct electricity

These elements can all be used in semiconductor manufacture. The degree of

conductivity is determined as follows:
1. Atoms with fewer than four valence electrons are good conductors.
2. Atoms with more than four valence electrons are poor conductors.
3. Atoms with four valence electrons are semiconductors.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
 A pure semiconductor is called “intrinsic semiconductor“.
 Here no free electrons are available since all the co-valent bonds are complete.
 A pure semiconductor, therefore, behaves as an insulator.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
In a pure semiconductor, which behaves like an insulator under ordinary conditions, if
small amount of certain metallic impurity is added, it attains current conducting
properties. The impure semiconductor is then called “impurity semiconductor“ or
“extrinsic semiconductor“.
Generally following doping agents are used:
(i) Pentavalent atom having five valence electrons (arsenic, antimony, phosphorus)
calle donor atoms.
(ii) (ii) Trivalent atoms having three valence electrons (gallium aluminium, boron) called
acceptor atoms

With the addition of suitable impurities to semiconductor, two type of semiconductors are:
(i) N-type semiconductor. (ii) P-type semiconductor.

N-type semiconductor:
The presence of even a minute quantity of impurity can produce N-type semiconductor. If
the impurity atom has one valence electron more than the semiconductor atom which it
has substituted, this extra electron will be loosely bound to the atom.

P-type semiconductor:
P-type extrinsic semiconductor can be produced if the impurity atom has one valence
electrons less than the semiconductor atom
Grid-Connected PV System:
Also known as grid-tied or grid-interconnected systems, these PV systems are connected
to the electrical grid. They generate electricity from solar panels and feed it directly into
the grid.

Stand-Alone PV System:
Stand-alone PV systems, also called off-grid systems, are not connected to the electrical
grid. They generate and store electricity in batteries for use when the sun is not shining.
These systems are typically used in remote areas where grid connection is not available
or economically feasible.

Hybrid PV System:
Hybrid PV systems combine solar PV with other sources of electricity generation, such as
wind turbines or diesel generators. These systems can provide power even when solar
energy is insufficient, ensuring a more reliable electricity supply.

Building-Integrated PV System:
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) involve incorporating solar panels directly into
the building materials. These systems can take the form of solar roof tiles, solar windows,
or solar facades, integrating the PV system with the building's architecture.
Concentrated PV System:
Concentrated photovoltaic systems use lenses or mirrors to focus sunlight onto small
high-ef ficiency PV cells. By concentrating the sunlight, these systems can achieve
higher electricity generation with fewer solar panels. They are often used in large-scale
solar power plants.

Floating PV System:
Floating photovoltaic systems are installed on bodies of water, such as lakes,
reservoirs, or ponds. They can be advantageous in areas where land availability is
limited. The f loating platforms support solar panels, which generate electricity while
also reducing water evaporation.
TYPES OF COLLECTORS

Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert it to
thermal energy, this thermal energy is further used for heating purpose
Solar collectors are broadly classified into the following types:
1. “Non-concentrating” or “Flat-plate type solar collector”
In such collectors, the area of a collector to grasp the solar radiation is
equal to the absorber plate and has concentration ratio of 1
2. “Concentrating” or “Focusing type solar collector”

In these collectors, the area of collector is kept less than the aperture through
which the radiation passes, to concentrate the solar flux and has high
concentration ratio

1. Parabolic trough collector

2. Parabolic dish collector
3. Central tower collector
Non-concentrating” or “Flat-plate type solar collector”

1. An absorber plate.
It intercepts and absorbs solar radiation. This plate is usually metallic (copper,
aluminium or steel), although plastics have been used in some low temperature
applications. In most cases it is coated with a material to enhance the absorption of
solar radiation. The coating may also be tailored to minimise the amount of infrared
radiation emitted.
2. Transparent covers.
These are one or more sheets of solar radiation transmitting materials and are placed
above the absorber plate. They allow solar energy to reach the absorber plate while
reducing convection, conduction and re-radiation heat losses.

3. Insulation beneath the absorber plate. It minimises and protects the absorbing
surface from heat losses.

4. Box-like structure. It contains the above components and keeps them in position.

Materials for flat-plate collectors:

1. Absorber plate: Copper, Aluminium, Steel, Brass, Silver etc.
2. 2. Insulation: Crown white wool, Glass wool, Expanded polystrene, foam etc.
3. 3. Cover plate: Glass, Teflon, Tedlar, Marlex etc.

Concentration ratio = 1
Exit fluid temperature = 100 0c
Efficiency is 25% of theoritical efficiency
Advantages:
1. Both beam and diffuse solar radiations are used.
2. 2. Require little maintenance.
3. 3. The orientation of the sun is not required (i.e. no tracking device needed)
4. 4. Mechanically simpler than the focusing collectors.
Disadvantages:
1. Low temperature is achieved.
2. 2. Heavy in weight.
3. 3. Large heat losses by conduction due to large area.
Applications:
1. Used in solar water heating.
2. 2. Used in solar heating and cooling.
3. 3. Used in low temperature power generation.

CONCENTRATING (OR FOCUSING) COLLECTORS

Concentrating collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of

solar radiation on the absorbing surface by the help of reflector or refractor.

In these collectors radiation falling on a relatively large area is focused on to a

receiver (or absorber) of considerably smaller area. As a result of the energy
concentration, fluids can be heated to temperatures of 500°C or more.
Types of Concentrating Collectors The different types of focusing/concentrating type
collectors are:
1. Parabolic trough collector.
2. Parabolic dish collector.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating Collectors
Advantages:
1. High concentration ratio.
2. High fluid temperature can be achieved.
3. Less thermal heat losses.
4. System’s efficiency increases at high temperatures.
5. Inexpensive process.
Disadvantages:
1. Non-uniform flux on absorber.
2. Collect only beam radiation components because diffuse radiation components
cannot be reflected, hence these are lost.
3. Need costly tracking device.
4. High initial cost.
5. Need maintenance to retain the quality of reflecting surface against dirt and
oxidation.
Parabolic Trough Collector
Figure shows the principle of the parabolic trough collector which is often used in
focusing collectors. Solar radiation coming from the particular direction is collected
over the area of ref lecting surface and is concentrated at the focus of the parabola,
if the ref le ctor is in the form of a trough with parabolic cross-section, the solar
radiation is focused along a line. Mostly cylindrical parabolic concentrators are used
in which absorber is placed along focus axis as shown in fig
Concentration ratio = 100
Exit fluid temperature = 600 0c
Efficiency is 50% of theoritical efficiency
Paraboloidal Dish Collector
In this type of collector all the radiations from the sun are focussed at a point. This
collector can generate temperature up to 300°C and contraction ratio from 10 to few
thousands. Its diameter is of the range between 6 to 7 m and can be commercially
manufactured

Concentration ratio = 10000

Exit fluid temperature = 1200 0c
Efficiency is 80% of theoritical efficiency
POWER TOWER SYSTEM
A heliostat uses a f ie ld of dual axis sun trackers that direct solar energy to a large
absorber located on a tower. To date the only application for the heliostat collector is
power generation in a system called the power tower .