A Primer of Chess

(Algebraic Notation)

José R. Capablanca

1935
ii

Author’s Note
The author wishes to acknowledge his obligation to Professor Ernest Hunter Wright for his most valuable
assistance in preparing the manuscripts for publication, and to Dr. B. M. Anderson, Jr. for his preface.
Ernest Hunter Wright, Professor of English at Columbia University for the last twenty-five years, is a very
good and enthusiastic chess player. He is the author of a book entitled ‘The Meaning of Rousseau’ and is
the editor-in-chief of ‘Richards Cyclopedia’ for juveniles.
B. M. Anderson, Jr., Ph.D. is one of the World’s leading economists. He was professor of Economics
both at Harvard and Columbia Universities, and he is today Economic adviser to one of the largest banks in
New York City. His technical training included not only practical money and banking, but also Philosophy,
Sociology and Economic Theory. With it all he is a first-class chess player.
Editor’s note:
I’ve updated the text, but I’ve tried to preserve the technical meanings of the original work. I’ve not
attempted to adust the time-related references, nor to incorporate advances in expert judgement over the
past century into the text itself. The main updates were to bring the nomenclature to the modern algebraic
method, add some automated Diagrams, and update some of the expressions to use modern alternatives. The
‘Illustrated Games’ chapters at the end of the book have not been updated nor included in this version.
In some questions, Wikipedia has been consulted for information on current chess wisdom. This book
has been prepared using LATEX.
At this point, my translation of the nomenclature has not been verified. Although I’m only a beginner,
I’ve worked through the translated text and play many times. Helpful comments and corrections appreciated
at j.v.donnelly3@gmail.com
The cover photo is of a four-year-old Capablanca playing chess with his father in 1892, and is in the
public domain.
Jim V. Donnelly, March 2024.
Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 A Short Sketch of the History of Chess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 The Game, The Pieces, Their Moves, The Object of the Game 3
2.1 The Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 The Moves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.1 The Rook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.2 The Bishop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.3 The Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.4 The Knight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.5 The King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.6 The Pawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.7 Check and Checkmate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.8 Stalemate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.9 Castling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.10 Chess Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.11 Taking ‘en passant’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 The Way to Learn and Improve Your Game 11

3.1 Simple Mates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.1 Rook and King against King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.1.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.1.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.2 Two Bishops and a King against a King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1.3 Queen and King Against King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.4 Two Rooks and a King against a King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Simple Endings, Pawn Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Two Pawns Against One Pawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.1.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.1.2 Variation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.1.3 Variation 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Relative Value of the Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

iii
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4 The Main Parts of the Game from an Elementary Point of View 22

4.1 The Opening Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1.5 Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2 The Middle Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.1.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.2.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.2.2 Variation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3 The End Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.3.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.3.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3.4 Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3.5 Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3.6 Example 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

5 Main Rules and Ethics of the Game 37

5.1 Chess Maxims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6 Part II 39
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.2 What to Do — What to Avoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3 The way to improve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.4 The End Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.1 Classical Endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.1.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4.1.1.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.4.1.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.4.1.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.4.2 A Classical Ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.4.3 Obtaining a Passed Pawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.4.3.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.4.4 How to Find Out Which Pawn Will Be First to Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.4.5 The Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.4.5.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4.6 The Relative Value of Knight and Bishop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4.7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.4.8 How to Mate With A Knight and A Bishop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.4.9 Queen Against Rook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.4.9.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.5 The Middle Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.5.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.5.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
CONTENTS v

6.5.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.5.4 Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.5.5 Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.5.6 Centre Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.5.7 Pawn Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.5.8 Castled Pawn Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.5.9 Type Positions and Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.5.9.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.5.9.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.5.9.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.5.9.4 Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.5.9.5 Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.5.9.6 Example 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.5.9.7 Example 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.5.9.8 Example 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.5.10 Valuation of Position in The Middle Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.5.10.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.5.10.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.5.10.2.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.5.10.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.5.10.4 Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.5.10.5 Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.5.10.6 Example 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.5.10.7 Example 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.5.10.8 Example 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.5.10.9 Example 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.6 The Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.6.1 General Opening Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.6.1.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.6.1.2 Variation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.6.2 Ruy Lopez and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.6.2.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.6.2.2 Variation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.6.2.3 Variation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.6.2.4 Variation 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.6.2.5 Variation 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.6.2.6 Variation 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.6.2.7 Variation 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.6.2.8 Variation 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.6.2.9 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.6.3 King’s Gambit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.6.4 King’s Bishop Gambit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.6.5 Centre Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.6.6 Centre Gambit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.6.7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.6.8 Queen’s Gambit and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.6.8.1 Variation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.6.8.2 Variation 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.6.8.3 Variation 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
vi CONTENTS

6.6.8.4 Variation 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.6.8.5 Variation 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.6.8.6 Variation 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.6.8.7 Variation 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.6.8.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.6.8.9 Variation 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.6.8.10 Variation 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.6.8.11 Variation 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.6.8.12 Variation 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.6.8.13 Variation 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.6.8.14 Variation 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.6.8.15 Variation 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.6.8.16 Variation 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.6.8.17 Variation 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.7 A Synthesis of General Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Chapter 1

Introduction

The object of this book is to fill an existing need in chess literature. Thirteen years ago I wrote a treatise
called ‘Chess Fundamentals’ bringing out a number of things which had never appeared in a chess book.
‘Chess Fundamentals’, as the title explains, covers all the principles in chess, but it does not deal so minutely
as this book will with the things that beginners need to know. When ‘Chess Fundamentals’ appeared, I had
intended to write two other treatises related to each other and to ‘Chess Fundamentals’, thus making a
complete unit. ‘A Primer of Chess’ is one of these two treatises. A little later the third book will appear
(ed. this was not published) and naturally it will deal only with that part of the game which has been least
discussed in the first two. The third volume will mainly treat the openings. The middle game and the end
game will be mentioned only in so far as they’re related to the openings treated in the text. All of this is said
with the intention of impressing upon the reader to the close relation that will exist between a ‘Primer of
Chess’ and ‘Chess Fundamentals’. Although every effort has been made in the present book to refer as little
as possible to ‘Chess Fundamentals’, the reader will realize that some reference to ‘Chess Fundamentals’
will be necessary from time to time.
In writing for beginners I shall strive to make the language simple and concise in the aim of making it as
easy as possible for anyone to learn to play without the aid of a teacher.

1.1 A Short Sketch of the History of Chess

Many colourful tales have been told about the origin and history of chess. The truth about the origin is
really unknown. We can trace the story of the game back to 3000 B.C. and then we lose the thread as with
so many other things in history. Chess has not always been played just as it’s today. In Europe the last
change took place some hundred years ago. Until recently the game has been played under different rules
in different country and among different races, oriental and occidental. Years ago, while playing a friendly
game with the Emir of Transjordania, I found that he was used to castling in a different way from ours; and
a short time ago I was informed by Mir Sultan Khan, the leading player of Great Britain, that in his native
country of India he had originally learned to play the game under quite different rules: castling was totally
different and Pawns never moved more that one square at a time, while in our game they’re permitted to
move two squares on the first move. No doubt in other places other differences have existed, but in all lands
the European influence has now prevailed and at last the game can be said to be a universal pastime under
the same rules everywhere.
There’s no doubt that our game as played today is Medieval in its character. It’s a warlike and courtly
game, as may be seen from the names and actions of the pieces. It was the game of kings and it’s today the
king of games. The Pawns may be said to represent yeomen of the guards, covering and battling in front of
the Knights, Bishops and Royal Personages. The Knights, Bishops, King and Queen are self-explanatory,
while the Rooks and Castles represent the strongholds of the Noblemen. If all of these titled personages have
disappeared from many countries of the world, the game of chess has remained a game of social distinction

1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

which taxes the highest effort of the human mind.

For a long time it was felt that chess was a pastime for the privileged classes only, but now the game is
advocated by educators and philosophers as excellent training for the mind. Truly enough it’s difficult to
play chess well, but quite as truly it’s easy to learn the elements of the game; and when once these have been
learned, the practice of them will provide more enjoyment and satisfaction than will come from any other
known game.
Chapter 2

The Game, The Pieces, Their Moves, The

Object of the Game

To those who are uninitiated in its mysteries, the game of chess seems much too complicated for the average
individual. But this is really not the case. With a little application, the average person should be able to play
the game after only ten to twelve lessons.

2.1 The Game

The game of chess is played on a board of sixty-four squares, eight
on each side. The board is placed with a white square in the corner to
the right of the player. There as sixteen men on each side, and they’re
8
3r2n4b5q1k4b2n3r placed as in Diagram 2.1.
7
6p6p6p6p6p6p6p6p As the reader may observe, the pieces are placed symmetrically,
6
zzzzzzzz facing one another. Reading from left to right in the back row we
5
zzzzzzzz have: Rook, Knight, Bishop, Queen, King, Bishop, Knight and Rook.
4
zzzzzzzz One Pawn is placed immediately in front of each of these pieces. The
3
zzzzzzzz Rook and Knight on the King’s side should be marked with a red
2
6P6P6P6P6P6P6P6P mark to distinguish them from the Rook and Knight on the Queen’s
1
3R2N4B5Q1K4B2N3R side.
a b c d e f g h It’s advisable to play on a board with buff and black squares or buff
and green squares. The pieces should be of the so-called Staunton
Diagram 2.1 Starting Position pattern and their base should be about two-thirds the size of the
square. This combination will give the student an easy and clear view of the board. The player having
the white pieces begins the game. Each player moves alternately.

2.2 The Moves

For a formal version of the rules of chess see the LawsOfChess.pdf .

3
4 CHAPTER 2. THE GAME, THE PIECES, THEIR MOVES, THE OBJECT OF THE GAME

2.2.1 The Rook

The Rook (indicated in chess notation by the letter R) moves in a
straight line, on its rank or file, one or more squares at a time so long
as they’re not any of it own pieces in the way. The Rook cannot jump
8
zzzzzzzz over any piece. Should there be an opponent’s piece in the way, the
7
zzzzzzzz Rook may capture it by removing it from the board and taking its
6
zzzzzzzz place on the square where the piece stood.
5
zz3rzzzzz It’s interesting to note that because of the nature of the Rook’s
4
zzzz3rzzz moves, it commands the same number of squares no matter where
3
zzzzzzzz it’s put. This does not occur with any of the other pieces.
2
zzzzzzzz In Diagram 2.2 the Rooks stand at locations e4 and c5. The mean-
1
zzzzzzzz ing of this notation will be seen later in the Section on notation on
a b c d e f g h page 9.

Diagram 2.2 Rook Moves

2.2.2 The Bishop
The Bishop (indicated in chess notation by the letter B) moves in
a diagonal line, along the diagonals on which it stands, one or more
squares at a time, provided there’s no obstruction on its way. It cannot
8
zzzzzzzz jump over another piece, but should an opponent’s piece be in its way,
7
zzzzzzzz it can take the piece, occupying the square on which the piece stood.
6
zzzzzzzz The Bishop commands more or less squares according to its po-
5
z4bzz4bzzz sition. In the diagram, the Bishop moving along the white squares
4
zzzzzzzz commands nine squares besides the one they stand on; the Bishop
3
zzzzzzzz moving along the black squares four more squares than the other, or
2
zzzzzzzz thirteen in all, besides the one they stand on. As the reader progresses,
1
zzzzzzzz they will understand the importance of these details.
a b c d e f g h It should be noted that because of the nature of its movements a
single Bishop can move only over 32 of the 64 squares of the board.
Diagram 2.3 Bishop Moves When in the center of the board, however, it commands just one
square less than the Rook, which can travel to all squares on the board.

2.2.3 The Queen

8
zzzzzzzz The Queen (indicated in chess notation by the letter Q) has the
7
zzzzzzzz combined moves of the Rook and Bishop. It can move to any
6
zzzzzzzz square of the rank or file on which it stands, or it can move to any
5
zzzz5qzzz of the squares along the diagonals on which it stands. It can do so
4
zzzzzzzz only so long as there is no obstruction on its way. It cannot jump
3
zzzzzzzz over another piece. Should an Opponent’s piece be in its way,
2
zzzzzzzz the Queen can capture it, occupying the square on which stood
the opponent’s piece. When in the center of the board, as in the
1
zzzzzzzz diagram, the Queen commands 27 squares besides the square on
a b c d e f g h
which it stands. The Queen is by far the most powerful piece of
Diagram 2.4 Queen Moves the whole game.
2.2. THE MOVES 5

2.2.4 The Knight

The Knight (indicated in chess notation by the letter N) moves in a
rather peculiar way. To explain the move of the Knight it may be best
to refer to Diagram 2.5.
8
zzzzzzzz In Diagram 2.5 the Knight situated on the square d4 can move to
7
zzzzzzzz any of the eight squares indicated by the arrows. This means that any
6
zzzzzzzz Knight always moves from a white square to a black square, or vice
5
zzzzzzzz versa, and never stays on the same colour during a move. It means
4
zzz2nzzzz that the Knight moves one square vertically or horizontally — North
3
zzzzzzzz or South, East or West — and then one more square diagonally in the
2
zzzzzzzz same general direction. For instance, if it moves vertically North, it
1
zzzzzzzz will move North-East or North-West diagonally.
a b c d e f g h The Knight commands more or less squares according to the po-
sition it occupies. Eight is the largest number of squares it can com-
Diagram 2.5 Knight Moves
mand at one time. It may capture any of the opponent’s pieces that
may be place in any of the squares under its command. Because of the peculiar nature of its movement
the Knight is the only piece that can jump over other pieces, either of their side or of the opponent’s. The
Knight, like the Queen and the Rook, can move over all of the sixty-four squares. An interesting exercise is
to try to move the Knight so as to cover all the sixty-four squares without going to the same square twice,
the ‘Knight’s Tour’.

2.2.5 The King

8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz The King (indicated in chess notation by the letter K) moves one
4
zzzzzzzz square at a time in any direction. In Diagram 2.6 the King standing
3
zzzz1kzzz at e3 can go to any of the squares indicated by the arrows. The
2
zzzzzzzz King captures in exactly the same way as it moves. The King is the
1
zzzzzzzz only piece that cannot move into or through a square commanded
by any of the opponent’s pieces. In consequence, the King is never
a b c d e f g h
taken. Eight is the largest number of squares that the King may
Diagram 2.6 King Moves command at one time.
6 CHAPTER 2. THE GAME, THE PIECES, THEIR MOVES, THE OBJECT OF THE GAME

2.2.6 The Pawn

The Pawn (indicated in chess notation by the letter P) is the least
valuable of all of the pieces. The Pawn can move forward only, never
backward and never sideways. It moves forward in its file, one square
8
3r2n4b5q1k4b2n3r at a time, except on the first move when it has the option of moving
7
6p6p6p6p6p6p6p6p either one or two squares.
6
zzzzzzzz The pieces are set for the game to begin. In this position any Pawn
5
zzzzzzzz can move either one or two squares, as indicated in Diagram 2.7. The
4
zzzzzzzz Pawn in front of the Queen has moved one square only. The Pawn
3
zzzzzzzz in front of the King has moved two squares, but once it has moved it
2
6P6P6P6P6P6P6P6P can continue to move forward only one square at a time after the first
1
3R2N4B5Q1K4B2N3R move.
a b c d e f g h It can do so if there’s no piece in front of it to stop its march for-
ward. The Pawn does not capture in the way that it moves, and in this
Diagram 2.7 Basic Pawn Moves
it differs from all of the other pieces. It captures diagonally, as shown
in Diagram 2.8.

8
zzzzzzzz In the position in Diagram 2.8, the White Pawn at e4 can capture
7
zzzzzzzz either one of the Black Pawns, but it cannot capture the Knight.
6
zzzzzzzz The Pawn has one more power. When it reaches the eighth rank
5
zzz6p2n6pzz it becomes, at the player’s choice, any piece of its own colour
4
zzzz6Pzzz except a King. Thus, there may be a game with three or more
3
zzzzzzzz Rooks, Knights, Bishops or Queens on one side, but never more
2
zzzzzzzz that one King. Since the Queen is the most valuable piece, when
a Pawn reaches the eighth rank, it’s generally exchanged to form
1
zzzzzzzz a Queen; hence the expression ‘Queening a Pawn’.
a b c d e f g h
Thus, the least important of all the pieces may occaisionally be-
Diagram 2.8 Pawn Captures come the most important of the whole lot.

2.2.7 Check and Checkmate

When the King is attacked by a piece it’s said that the King is in
8
5Qzzz1kzzz check. Now, by the rules of the game, the King must get out of
7
zzzzzzz3R check in the next move. The King may get out of check in three
6
zzzzzzzz ways: by moving the King away from the line of action of the
5
zzzzzzzz attacking piece, by capturing the attacking piece, or by interposing
4
z2nzzzz6pz one of their own pieces between the King and the attacking piece.
3
z4b6pzzzzz When the King is attacked in such a way that none of these three
2
z6Pzzz5qz6P means of getting out of check is available, then it’s said that the
1
zz1Kzzzzz King is checkmated.
The object of the game is to checkmate the King, i.e. to check
a b c d e f g h
the King in such a manner that they have no way of getting out of
Diagram 2.9 A Checkmate check.
In the position in Diagram 2.9 White has won the game because the Black King has been checkmated.
All the requisites are there: the King is in check by the action of the White Queen. This Queen cannot be
taken by any of the Black pieces, nor is there any Black piece which can be interposed between the checking
2.2. THE MOVES 7

Queen and the checked King, and finally the five squares to which the King might move are all commanded
either by the checking Queen or the Rook standing at h7.

2.2.8 Stalemate

8
z3Rzzz2n1kz When a King not subjected to a check is in such a position that
7
zzzzz6pz6p they cannot move without going into check, and at the same time
6
zzzzz4Bz6P there’s no other piece which can be moved, then the King is said
5
zzzzzzzz to be stalemated, and the game is drawn, i.e. neither side wins.
4
zzzzzz1Kz In the position shown in Diagram 2.10, it’s Black’s turn to move.
3
zzzzzzzz The Black King is not attacked, that is, they’re not in check. On
2
zzzzzzzz the other hand, they cannot move without going into check, which
is not allowed by the rules of the game; nor can Black move the
1
zzzzzzzz Knight, because it would uncover the King which would then be
a b c d e f g h
under check by the White Rook. Black is therefore in a stalemate
Diagram 2.10 A Stalemate position and the game is a draw.

2.2.9 Castling

8
3rzz5q1kzz3r 8
3rzz5q1kzz3r
7
6p6p6p2n4b6p6p6p 7
6p6p6p2n4b6p6p6p
6
zzz6pz2nzz 6
zzz6pz2nzz
5
zzzz6pzzz 5
zzzz6pzzz
4
zz4B6P6Pz4bz 4
zz4B6P6Pz4bz
3
zz2N5Qz2Nzz 3
zz2N5Qz2Nzz
2
6P6P6Pzz6P6P6P 2
6P6P6Pzz6P6P6P
1
3Rz4Bz1Kzz3R 1
3Rz4Bzz3R1Kz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 2.11 Before Castling Diagram 2.12 After King-Side Castling

Castling is a combined move which each player can make only once in a game and which is made jointly
by the King and one Rook.
In order to make this move neither the Knight nor the Rook must have been moved before, and the squares
between the two pieces must be free, such as shown in Diagram 2.11 for the squares f1 and g1. Under those
conditions the Rook is brought over next to the King, and the King is moved over to the other side of the
Rook, as shown in Diagram 2.12.
This is castling on the King’s side, and the move should be made by taking and moving both pieces simul-
taneously. Under the conditions existing in the example, castling on the Queen’s side would be impossible
because of the Bishop at c1 between the King and the Rook.
8 CHAPTER 2. THE GAME, THE PIECES, THEIR MOVES, THE OBJECT OF THE GAME

8
3rzz5q1kzz3r 8
3rzz5q1kzz3r
7
6p6pz2n4b6p6p6p 7
6p6pz2n4b6p6p6p
6
zz6p6pz2nzz 6
zz6p6pz2nzz
5
zzzz6pzzz 5
zzzz6pzzz
4
zz4B6P6Pz4bz 4
zz4B6P6Pz4bz
3
zz2Nz4B2Nzz 3
zz2Nz4B2Nzz
2
6P6P6P5Qz6P6P6P 2
6P6P6P5Qz6P6P6P
1
3Rzzz1Kzz3R 1
zz1K3Rzzz3R
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 2.13 Before Castling Diagram 2.14 After Queen-Side Castling

In Diagram 2.13 the squares are cleared between both the Rooks and the King, and therefore castling can
take place as before or as shown in Diagram 2.14.
This is called castling on the Queen’s side and in chess notation is written O–O–O, as against O–O for
castling on the King’s side.

8
3r2nz5q1kzz3r
7
6pzz2n4b6p6p6p
6
4b6pzz6pzzz
5
zz6p6p6Pzzz The rules of the game do not permit castling while the King is
4
zzz6Pzzzz in check, nor if the King or the castling Rook has been moved
3
z4B2Nz4B2Nzz previously, nor while one of the squares over which the King must
2
6P6P6Pzz6P6P6P pass is under attack by an opponent’s piece. For instance, castling
by White is not permitted under the conditions of Diagram 2.15.
1
3Rzz5Q1Kzz3R The reason is that the square f1 is under the attack of the Black
a b c d e f g h
Bishop at a6. In all five diagrams above, if it were Black’s move,
Diagram 2.15 Castling Rules Black could castle on the King’s side.
2.2. THE MOVES 9

2.2.10 Chess Notation

For the purpose of the study of the game and to facilitate the task of
Queen Side King Side scoring and recording games, several systems of chess notation have
been devised over the years. The notation is the system used to de-
zzzzzzzz
8 a8 b8 c8 d8 e8 f8 g8 h8 scribe the placement of the pieces on the board, and to describe their
zzzzzzzz
7 a7 b7 c7 d7 e7 f7 g7 h7 movements and actions on the board. In the original edition of this
book, the so-called ‘English Notation’ was used. The notation has
zzzzzzzz
6 a6 b6 c6 d6 e6 f6 g6 h6
been revised in this version of the book to use the modern standard
zzzzzzzz
5 a5 b5 c5 d5 e5 f5 g5 h5
‘Algebraic Notation’.
zzzzzzzz
4 a4 b4 c4 d4 e4 f4 g4 h4
The Algebraic Notation is based on a system of coordinates (a –
zzzzzzzz
3 a3 b3 c3 d3 e3 f3 g3 h3
h for across the board (files), and 1 – 8 for along the board (ranks)
zzzzzzzz
2 a2 b2 c2 d2 e2 f2 g2 h2
to uniquely identify each square, as shown in Diagram 2.16. That
zzzzzzzz
1 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 h1
diagram also shows the Queen and King sides of the board.
a b c d e f g h
Queen Side King Side

Diagram 2.16 Square Coordinates

The format of this notation used for one move in this book is
[Piece][operation][destination][extra]
where Piece can be one of (P,R,N,B,Q,K). In cases where there’s ambiguity, a start-
ing location may be specified. Additionally, O–O or O–O–O indicates
castling.
operation can be ‘–’ for a simple move or ‘x’ for a move with capture at the end.
Destination is specified by rank and file, such as ‘a1’ for the Queen-side White Rook
initial location.
Extra can be one of : (nothing), ‘+’ for a move leading to check, ‘#’ for a move
leading to mate, or e.p. for en passant. In cases where a Pawn Queens,
the new piece can be specified as ‘(Piece)’.
A series of moves can be presented in tabular format as

(White move) (move number) (Black move)

.. .. ..
. . .

or in in-line text format as

(move number). (White move), (Black move); . . .
More compact versions of Algebraic Notation are often used.
10 CHAPTER 2. THE GAME, THE PIECES, THEIR MOVES, THE OBJECT OF THE GAME

2.2.11 Taking ‘en passant’

8
zz5q3r3rz1kz 8
zz5q3r3rz1kz
7
6p6p4bz2n6p6p6p 7
6p6p4bz2n6p6p6p
6
zz6pz4b2nzz 6
zz6pz4b2nzz
5
zzz6p2Nzzz 5
zzz6p2Nzzz
4
zz6P6P6p6Pzz 4
zz6P6Pzzzz
3
zz2Nz4Bzzz 3
zz2Nz4B6pzz
2
6P6P4Bz5Qz6P6P 2
6P6P4Bz5Qz6P6P
1
zzz3Rz3R1Kz 1
zzz3Rz3R1Kz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 2.17 Before en passant Diagram 2.18 After en passant

Now that the student is familiar with the notation, we will proceed with the one move purposely left out
so far, called taking ‘en passant’, which is simply French for taking ‘in passing’.
In Diagram 2.17, White’s last move was to advance their Pawn to f4. In so doing, they have passed
through the square f3 controlled by the Black Pawn at e4. Under such conditions, Black has the right to take
the Pawn ‘en passant’ as indicated in Diagram 2.18.
As Diagram 2.18 shows, the result is the same as if White had only moved their Pawn one square to f3
and then Black had taken it. Had Black decided not to take the Pawn en passant in their next move, they
couldn’t later take it with their Pawn at e4 — because, according to the rules of the game, the capture must
be made at once, or the right to take the en passant capture is lost.
Proper consideration will show that a capture en passant can only take place with a Pawn situated on the
adjacent file, provided that the advancing Pawn has not previously moved, and it moves two squares at that
time.
All these conditions must exist for such a move to take place. For instance, had White’s Pawn been at f3
instead of f2, before it was moved to f4, capture by en passant would not be allowable. Taking en passant is
optional, not compulsory, but it must be done in the following move or the right to take is lost. Because of
the difficulty involved in the comprehension of this move the student should go over the above explanations
with care to make certain that they understand the moves. Before proceeding any further the student should
go over what has been written with regard to the moves of the pieces and the notation, and make sure that
they’re familiar with it.
Chapter 3

The Way to Learn and Improve Your Game

Chess is easy to learn but difficult to play well. Order and method will do a great deal towards good play.
The student should therefore go carefully over what has already been written. Once they’re certain that
they’re familiar with the moves and the notation, they should practice by themselves, placing the King in
different mating positions. They should, for the purpose, use different pieces against the King. This practice
will develop the student’s imagination and will make the game more interesting to them, thus increasing
their desire to improve. It should be evident that the handling of a few pieces is easier than the handling of a
larger number. For that reason we shall begin by giving a few simple mates and simple endings which will
serve as a guide for the student. Once they learn and master those endings, they should try to put up similar
endings for themselves, using their imaginations for the purpose, and try to solve those endings along the
same lines as those given before. By such practice they ought to improve their game considerably.
The same kind of practice should be later used with the openings and the middle game. By constantly
using and developing their imagination the player will not only improve their play, but will realize the
beauties of the game and thereby increase their desire to master it. Throughout the practice it will be found
easy to put the pieces in different positions apparently similar to those previously studied. What will be
difficult will be to solve them along the same lines. It will be difficult to increase the number of pieces and
yet handle them efficiently, since coordinating the action of the pieces is not only one of the most important
things in chess, but also one of the most difficult. It is in the enormous variety in chess which makes the
game so difficult and also so interesting and so beautiful.
The student will also find it difficult to avoid gross errors. They should not be discouraged thereby, as
even the best Players suffer from such lapses.

3.1 Simple Mates

The first thing the student should do is to familiarize themselves with the power of the pieces. This can best
be done by learning how to accomplish quickly some simple mates.

11
12 CHAPTER 3. THE WAY TO LEARN AND IMPROVE YOUR GAME

3.1.1 Rook and King against King

3.1.1.1 Example 1
The principle is to drive the opposing King to the last line on any side of the board.

In this position the power of the Rook is demonstrated by the first

move, R–a7, which immediately confines the Black King to the last
rank, and the mate is quickly accomplished by
8
zzzzzzz1k
7
zzzzzzzz R–a7 1 K–g8
6
zzzzzzzz K–g2 2
5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz The combined action of a King and Rook is needed to arrive at a
3
zzzzzzzz position in which mate can be forced.
2
zzzzzzzz The general principle for a beginner to follow is to
1
3Rzzzzzz1
1
K
a b c d e f g h keep their King as much as possible on the same rank,
or, as it this case, file, as the opposing King.
Diagram 3.1
When, in this case, the King has been brought to the sixth rank, it’s better to place it, not on the same file,
but on the one next to it towards the center.

... 2 K–f8
K–f3 3 K–e8
K–e4 4 K–d8
K–d5 5 K–c8
K–d6 6

Not K–c6, because then the Black King will go back to d8 and it will take much longer to mate. If now
the Black King moves back to d8, R–a8 mates at once.

... 6 K–b8
R–c7 7 K–a8
K–c6 8 K–b8
K–b6 9 K–a8
R–c8# 10

leading to the position in Diagram 3.1. It has taken exactly ten moves to mate from the original position.
On move 5 Black could have played K–e8, and, according to principle, White would have continued

K–d6 6 K–c8

The Black King will ultimately be forced to move in front of the White King and be mated by R–a8.
3.1. SIMPLE MATES 13

3.1.1.2 Example 2
Since the Black King is in the center of the board in Diagram 3.2, the
best way to proceed is to advance your own King thus:
8
zzzzzzzz
1
K–e2 1 K–d5
7
zzzzzzzz K–e3 2
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzz1kzzz As the Rook has not yet come into play, it’s better to advance the
4
zzzzzzzz King straight into the center of the board, not in front, but to one side
3
zzzzzzzz of the other King.
2
zzzzzzzz Should now the Black King move to e5, the Rook drives it back by
1
zzzz1Kzz3R R–h5+. On the other hand, if
a b c d e f g h
... 2 K–c4
Diagram 3.2 R–h5 3 K–b4
K–c3 4

but if instead

... 3 K–c3
R–h4 4

keeping the King confined to as few squares as possible.

Now the ending may continue:

... 4 K–c2
R–c4+ 5 K–b3
K–d3 6 K–b2
R–b4+ 7 K–a3
K–c3 8 K–a2

It should be noticed how often the White King has moved next to the Rook, not only to defend it, but also
to reduce the mobility of the opposing King.
Now White mates in three moves thus:

R–a4+ 9 K–b1
R–a(any) 10

forcing the Black King in front of the White,

... 10 K–c1
R–a1# 11

It has taken eleven moves to mate, and, under any conditions, I believe it should be done in under twenty.
While it may be monotonous, it’s worthwhile for the beginner to practice such things, as it will teach them
the proper handling of their pieces.
14 CHAPTER 3. THE WAY TO LEARN AND IMPROVE YOUR GAME

3.1.2 Two Bishops and a King against a King

Since the Black King is in the corner in Diagram 3.3, White can play

B–d3 1 K–g7
8
zzzzzzz1
1
k B–g5 2 K–f7
7
zzzzzzzz B–f5 3
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz and already the Black King is confined to a few squares. If the
4
zzzzzzzz Black King, in the original position, had been in the center of the
3
zzzzzzzz board, or away from the last row, White should have advanced their
2
zzzzzzzz King, and then, with the aid of their Bishops, restricted the Black
1
zz4Bz1K4Bzz King’s movements to as few squares as possible.
We might now continue:
a b c d e f g h

Diagram 3.3 ... 3 K–g7

K–f2 4

In this ending the Black King must not only be driven to the edge of the board, but they must also be
forced into a corner, and, before a mate can be given, the White King must be brought to the sixth rank and,
at the same time in one of the last two files; in this case to either h6, g6, f7, or f8. As h6 and g6 are the
nearest squares, it’s to one of these squares that the King ought to go.

... 4 K–f7
K–g3 5 K–g7
K–h4 6 K–f7
K–h5 7 K–g7
B–g6 8 K–g8
K–h6 9 K–f8

White must now mark time and move one of the Bishops, so as to force the Black King to go back:

B–h5 10 K–g8
B–e7 11 K–h8

Now the Bishop must take up a position from which it can give check on the next move, along the White
diagonal, when the Black King moves back to g8.

B–g4 12 K–g8
B–e6+ 13 K–h8
B–f6# 14

It has taken fourteen moves to force the mate, and, from any position, it should be done in under thirty.
In all endings of this kind, care should be taken not to drift into a stalemate.
In this particular ending, one should remember that the King must not only be driven to the edge of the
board, but also into a corner. In all such endings, however, it’s immaterial whether the King is forced onto
the last rank or to an outside file, e.g. h5 or a4, e1 or d8.
3.1. SIMPLE MATES 15

3.1.3 Queen and King Against King

As the Queen combines the power of the Rook and the Bishop, it’s
the easiest mate of all and should always be accomplished in under
ten moves. Take the position in Diagram 3.4
8
zzzzzzzz
1
A good way to begin is to make the first move with the Queen,
7
zzzzzzzz trying to limit the Black King’s mobility as much as possible. Thus:
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzz1kzzz Q–c6 1 K–d4
4
zzzzzzzz K–d2 2
3
zzzzzzzz Already, the Black King has only one available square.
2
zzzzzzzz
1
zzzz1Kzz5Q ... 2 K–e5
a b c d e f g h
K–e3 3 K–f5
Diagram 3.4 Q–d6 4 K–g5

(Should Black play K–g4 instead, then Q–g6+.)

Q–e6 5 K–h4

(if K–h5, then K–f4 and mate next move.)

Q–g6 6 K–h3
K–f3 7 (King moves)
(Queen mates) 8

In this ending, as in the case of the Rook, the Black King must be forced to the edge of the board. Only,
the Queen being so much more powerful than the Rook, the process is far easier and shorter.
These are the three elementary endings and in all of these the same principle is used. In each case the
co-operation of the King is needed. In order to force a mate without the aid of the King, at least two Rooks
are needed.

3.1.4 Two Rooks and a King against a King

8
zzzzzzzz 8
z3Rz1kzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 1 7
3Rzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzz1kzzz 5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz 4
zzzzzzzz
3
zzzzzzzz 3
zzzzzzzz
2
zzzzzzzz 2
zzzzzzzz
1
3Rzzz1Kzz3R 1
zzzz1Kzzz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 3.5 Diagram 3.6 After White’s 6th

With two Rooks the process is simple. As usual the King must be driven to the last line or rank. From the
Position in Diagram 3.5, we begin by
16 CHAPTER 3. THE WAY TO LEARN AND IMPROVE YOUR GAME

R–h4 1 K–f5
R–a5+ 2 K–g6

Now we cannot play R–h6+, because the King would take the Rook. The thing to do is to bring the Rook
along the same rank where it stands, as far away as possible from the King, without putting it on the same
file as the Rook. Thus, we now play

R–b4 3 K–f6
R–b6+ 4 K–e7
R–a7 5 K–d8
R–b8+# 6

Leading to the position in Diagram 3.6.

The method followed in these endings is simple and the student should find no trouble in learning the
proper procedure.

3.2 Simple Endings, Pawn Promotion

The gain of a Pawn is the smallest material advantage that can be obtained in a game; it’s often sufficient for
a win, even when the Pawn is the only remaining unit apart from the Kings.
It’s essential, speaking generally, that

the King should be in front of their Pawn, with at least one intervening square

If the opposing King is directly in front of the Pawn, then the game cannot be won. This can be explained
by the following examples.

3.2.1 Example 1
The position in Diagram 3.7 is drawn, and the way for Black to pro-
ceed is to keep the King always directly in front of the Pawn, and
when it cannot be done, as for instance in this position because of the
8
zzzzzzzz
1
White King, then the Black King must be kept in front of the White
7
zzzzzzzz King.
6
zzzzzzzz The play would proceed thus:
5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzz1kzzz P–e3 1 K–e5
3
zzzzzzzz K–d3 2 K–d5
2
zzz1K6Pzzz This is a very important move. Any other move by Black would
1
zzzzzzzz lose, as will be shown later. As the Black King cannot be kept close
a b c d e f g h
up to the Pawn, it must be brought as far forward as possible, and, at
Diagram 3.7 in front of the White King.
the same time,

P–e4+ 3 K–e5
K–e3 4 K–e6
K–f4 5 K–f6

Again the same case. As the White King comes up, the Black King must be kept in front of it, since it
cannot be brought up to the Pawn.
3.2. SIMPLE ENDINGS, PAWN PROMOTION 17

P–e5+ 6 K–e6
K–e4 7 K–e7
K–d5 8 K–d7
P–e6+ 9 K–e7
K–e5 10 K–e8
K–d6 11 K–d8

If now White advances the Pawn, then Black King gets in front of it and White must either give up the
Pawn or play K–e6, and a stalemate results.
If, instead of advancing the Pawn, White withdraws their King, then Black brings their King up to the
Pawn. When forced to go back, Black moves their King in front of the Pawn, and are ready for White to
come up again or to move in front of the White King, as before, should the latter advance.
The whole mode of procedure is very important and the student should become thoroughly conversant
with its details. For, it involves principles to be taken up later on, and because many a beginner has lost
identical positions from lack of proper knowledge. I cannot lay too much stress on its importance.

3.2.2 Example 2
In the position in Diagram 3.8 White wins, as the King is in front of
their Pawn and there’s one intervening square.
The method is to
8
zzzzzzzz
1
7
zzzzzzzz Advance the King as far as is compatible with the safety
6
zzzzz1kzz of the Pawn and never advance the Pawn until it’s essen-
5
zzzzzzzz tial to its own safety.
4
zzzzz1Kzz Thus
3
zzzzzzzz
2
zzzz6Pzzz K–e4 1 K–e6
1
zzzzzzzz
a b c d e f g h Black does not allow the White King to advance, therefore White
is now compelled to advance their Pawn so as to force Black to move
Diagram 3.8 away. They are then able to advance their own King.

P–e3 2 K–f6
K–d5 3 K–e7

If Black had played

... 3 K–f5

then White would be forced to advance the Pawn to e4, since they couldn’t advance their King without
leaving Black the opportunity to play K–e4, winning the Pawn. Since they have not done so, it’s better for
White not to advance the Pawn yet, since its own safety does not require it, but to try to bring the King still
farther forward. Thus:

K–e5 4 K–d7
K–f6 5 K–e8

Now the White Pawn is too far back and it may be brought up within the protection of the King.

P–e4 6 K–d7
18 CHAPTER 3. THE WAY TO LEARN AND IMPROVE YOUR GAME

Now it would not do to play K–f7, because Black would play K–d6, and White would have to bring back
their King to protect the Pawn. Therefore, they must continue

P–e5 7 K–e8

Had they moved anywhere else, White could have played K–f7, followed by the advance of the Pawn to
e6, e7, e8; all of these squares being protected by the King. As Black tries to prevent that, White must now
force them to move away, at the same time always keeping the King in front of the Pawn. Thus:

K–e6 8

P–e6 would make it a draw, as Black would then play K–f8, and we would have a position similar to the
one explained in connection with Example 5.

... 8 K–f8
K–d7 9

King moves and the White Pawn advances to e8, becomes a Queen and it’s all over.
This ending is like the previous one, and for the same reason should be thoroughly understood before
proceeding any further.

3.3 Two Pawns Against One Pawn

3.3.1 Example 1
The kind of ending shown is apt to occur either in the form shown in
Diagram 3.9 or in a similar form. Sometimes there may be three
Pawns against two, or four Pawns against three. Sometimes the
8
zzzzzzzz
1
Pawns may all be on one side of the board, or again they may be
7
zzzzzzzz on both sides.
6
zzzzzzzz When the Pawns are on one side of the board only, as in Dia-
5
zzzzzzzz gram 3.9, the procedure is always the same, and consists in exchang-
4
zzzz1kz6pz ing one of White’s Pawns for one of Black’s Pawns in such a way as
3
zzzzzzzz to obtain a winning position. Except in those cases where one of the
2
zzzz1K6P6Pz two Pawns is on the Rook’s file, two Pawns against one will win in
1
zzzzzzzz almost every case.
a b c d e f g h

Diagram 3.9
3.3.1.1 Variation 1

In the position in Diagram 3.9 if White plays

P–f3+ 1

the game will be a draw because Black will play Pxf3 and then always keep their King in front of the Pawn
in the way shown in the first part of this section on Pawn promotion. White, however, may easily avoid such
a thing by playing first
3.3. TWO PAWNS AGAINST ONE PAWN 19

P–g3 1 K–d4
P–f3 2 Pxf3
Kxf3 3 (any move)
K–g4 4 (any move)
K–h5 5

obtaining the position with the King in front of the Pawn with one intervening square in between, which,
as already shown, wins.

3.3.1.2 Variation 2
From the position in Diagram 3.9 if play continues

P–g3 1 K–e5
K–e3 2 K–f5
K–d4 3 K–f6
K–e4 4 K–g5
K–e5 5 K–g6
K–f4 6 K–h5
K–f5 7 K–h6
Kxg4 8

and with two Pawns for nothing, White will have no trouble to Queen one of them.

3.3.1.3 Variation 3
From the position in Diagram 3.9 if play continued

P–g3 1 K–f5
8
zzzzzzzz K–d3 2 K–e5
7
zzzzzzzz K–e3 3
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzz1kzz and get the position in Diagram 3.10, exactly the same position as
4
zzzzzz6pz played before.
3
zzzzzz6Pz The reason for White’s second move K–d3 is based on the laws
2
zzzz1K6Pzz governing ‘Opposition’, a matter which will be discussed on page 47.
1
zzzzzzzz At present it’s too early to discuss the matter, but its importance must
a b c d e f g h be apparent from the example just given.
The student may also realize the great importance of the handling
Diagram 3.10 After Black’s 1st of the King. No smaller advantage can be obtained than that of a
Pawn, but when there’s almost nothing left on the board, the game
can be won by the proper handling of the King.
20 CHAPTER 3. THE WAY TO LEARN AND IMPROVE YOUR GAME

3.3.2 Example 2
When the Pawns are on both sides of the board, as in Diagram 3.11,
the procedure is easier. First, we bring up the King to the Pawns in
order to ensure their safety, then advance a Pawn that is free from Op-
8
zzzzzzzz
1
position — that is, a Pawn that does not have another Pawn opposing
7
z6pzz1kzzz it — thus obtaining a so-called ‘passed Pawn’. Then, through a pol-
6
6pzzzzzzz icy of ‘blocking’ and ‘attrition’, we get the desired results. This latter
5
zzzzzzzz policy will be very easily understood by the following text. Thus,
4
zzzzzz6pz
3
6P6Pzzzzzz K–e2 1 K–e6
2
zzzzz6P6Pz P–f3 2 Pxf3
1
zzzz1Kzzz Kxf3 3
a b c d e f g h
(it’s always best to have the free Pawn as far away from the others
Diagram 3.11 as possible),

... 3 K–f5
P–g4+ 4 K–g5

Now the ‘blocking’ process can be started on the other side:

P–b4 5 P–b6
P–a4 6 K–g6
K–f4 7 K–f6
P–g5+ 8 K–g6

Once more, White may safely advance on the Queen’s side to finish the ‘blocking’ process

P–b5 9

It’s better to advance the ‘b’ Pawn so that, if Black decides to ex-
change, the Pawns left will remain on the ‘b’ file. The ‘a’ Pawn is the
only Pawn that cannot be Queened against the King, no matter how
8
zzzzzz1kz many intervening squares there may be between the King in front of
7
zzzzzz6Pz the Pawn and the Pawn itself.
6
z6pzzz1Kzz
5
6p6Pzzzzzz ... 9 P–a5
4
6Pzzzzzzz
3
zzzzzzzz The ‘blocking’ process is now finished, and the process of ‘attri-
2
zzzzzzzz tion’ begins.
1
zzzzzzzz K–g4 10 K–g7
a b c d e f g h
K–f5 11 K–f7
Diagram 3.12 After Black’s 15th P–g6+ 12 K–g7
K–g5 13 K–g8
K–f6 14 K–f8
P–g7+ 15 K–g8

The process of ‘attrition’ has now ended with the position in Diagram 3.12 .
White cannot continue with
3.4. RELATIVE VALUE OF THE PIECES 21

K–g6 16

because it would result in stalemate, which as already stated makes the game a draw. But White can
now abandon the single Pawn and run quickly with their King to the other side of the board to take the two
defenceless Black Pawns. Thus

K–e6 16 Kxg7
K–d6 17 K–f7
K–c6 18

followed by Kxb6 and Kxa5, and, with two Pawns for nothing, White will have no trouble Queening one
of them.
It’s now time for the student to review what has been written before in order to make certain that every-
thing is thoroughly understood. They should, by themselves, out of their own imagination, put up different
Pawn endings similar to those explained above.
It should be borne in mind that a player strong in the endings will have a decided advantage over the
others. The champions of the world for the last eighty years have had, as a characteristic of their skill,
extraordinary ability in end-game playing.

3.4 Relative Value of the Pieces

Before going on to the general principles of the openings, it’s advisable to give the student an idea of the
proper relative values of the pieces. There’s no complete and accurate table for all of them, and the only
thing to do is to compare the pieces separately1 .

• For all general theoretical purposes the Bishop and Knight have to be considered as of the same value,
though it’s my opinion that the Bishop will prove the more valuable piece in most cases. And it’s well
known that two Bishops are almost always better than two Knights.

• The Bishop will be stronger against Pawns than the Knight, and in combination with Pawns will also
be stronger against the Rook than the Knight will be.

• A Bishop and a Rook are also stronger than a Knight and a Rook, but a Queen and a Knight may be
stronger than a Queen and a Bishop.

• A Bishop is often worth more than three Pawns, but a Knight is very seldom so, and may not even be
worth so much.

• A Rook will be worth a Knight and two Pawns, or a Bishop and two Pawns, but, as said before, the
Bishop will be a better piece against the Rook.

• Two Rooks are slightly stronger than a Queen. They are slightly weaker than two Knights and a
Bishop, and a little more so than two Bishops and a Knight. The power of the Knight decreases as the
pieces are changed off. The power of the Rook, on the contrary, increases.

• The King, a purely defensive piece throughout the middle game, becomes an offensive piece once all
the major pieces are off the board, and sometimes when there’s only one or two minors left. The
handling of the King becomes of paramount importance once the end-game is reached.

1
A set of numerical values consistent with the more detailed considerations presented is 1:3:3:5:9 for the
Pawn:Knight:Bishop:Rook:Queen.
Chapter 4

The Main Parts of the Game from an

Elementary Point of View

4.1 The Opening Game

The opening is the beginning of the game, as the word indicates. A sound beginning is often the key to a
good ending. The openings pave the way for what is to follow and the result of the game may hinge on
the first half-dozen moves. Because the thirty-two pieces are involved, the opening is naturally the most
difficult part of the game, and thousands of books have been written on its technical aspects. Beginners,
however, should not go too deeply into it from a general point of view. This will be the line of procedure
for the present book. For the more advanced player, as well as the expert, they’re several chapters in ‘Chess
Fundamentals’ covering the essential points. The technical works on the subject are intended only for the
experts or those who wish to become experts in the game.
From an elementary point of view the openings mean the bringing into action of the pieces by both sides.
The centre Pawns should be advanced, in order to make room for the Bishops and the Queen. When once
these pieces and the Knights have been moved and brought into action, and the squares between the Rooks
and the King have been cleared, castling may take place; and finally by bringing the Rooks towards the
centre and putting them on the open files we have the whole force of each side in action. All this should be
done in from eight to twelve moves, and to get it done while hampering the opponent at the same time is the
crux of the matter. If a player succeeds in obtaining full development for all of their forces ahead of their
opponent, they may feel fully satisfied with their work. This should outweigh any other consideration in the
student’s mind. We shall now proceed with the elementary general theory of the game.
For theoretical purposes, the game is divided into three parts: the opening, the middle game, and the end
game. In the opening, the beginner should strive for a quick development, posting their pieces offensively
but with due regard for their safety. The opening should be completed withing ten or twelve moves and
care should be taken not to lose a single Pawn in the process. Should the opponent offer any material,
even a Pawn, which in your estimation you may capture without danger, it’s advisable to take the offered
piece, even if as a result full development is retarded for one or two moves. If, as a result of the capture
full development will be retarded more than two moves, then it is doubtful whether the capture should be
made. It might be risked with the White pieces but never with the Black, except on very rare occaisions. No
definite rule can be given in such matters. The player must also use their own judgment and they must also
consider the type of opponent they’re pitted against.
Castling should generally be done on the King’s side, because it is usually safer, but no material or
positional advantage should be sacrificed on that account.
I am giving below examples to illustrate these points.

22
4.1. THE OPENING GAME 23

4.1.1 Example 1
P–e4 1 P–e5

With this move, both White and Black open the way for their Queen and one of their Bishops. There’s
only one other move, viz. P–d4, that will have the same effect, and therefore we must consider these two
moves as the two best opening moves.

N–f3 2 N–c6

White brings out a Knight and at the same time attacks Black’s
Pawn; while Black defends the Pawn and develops a piece at the same
time. It should be borne in mind that whenever we speak of pieces we
8
3rz4b5q1k4b2n3r mean only the big pieces like Bishops, Knights, Rooks and Queens,
7
6p6p6p6pz6p6p6p and not the Pawns or the Kings which are invariably designated by
6
zz2nzzzzz their own names.
5
z4Bzz6pzzz
4
zzzz6Pzzz B–b5 3
3
zzzzz2Nzz
2
6P6P6P6Pz6P6P6P The position in Diagram 4.1 constitutes the Ruy Lopez, one of the
1
3R2N4B5Q1Kzz3R oldest, soundest and best of all the openings. There’s now several
a b c d e f g h
ways for Black to proceed. We shall take one at random.
Diagram 4.1 Ruy Lopez
... 3 N–f6
O–O 4

Black should now proceed with their development either by playing B–e7 or P–d6, but should not take the
proffered Pawn, as it’s a trap. Were Black to capture the Pawn, White would play P–d4 and thereby obtain
a great advantage in development which would finally bring them back their Pawn with interest.

4.1.2 Example 2

8
3r2n4b5q1kz2n3r
7
6p6p6p6pz6p6p6p P–e4
N–f3
1
2
P–e5
B–c5
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zz4bz6pzzz In the position in Diagram 4.2 Black offers a Pawn hoping to gain
4
zzzz6Pzzz time for development in case White should take it. In accord with
3
zzzzz2Nzz the theory explained above, White should take it because it will
2
6P6P6P6Pz6P6P6P retard their development by only one or two moves. In all such
1
3R2N4B5Q1K4Bz3R cases the thing for the player to consider is what the immediate
a b c d e f g h danger is, and if they see none they should take the Pawn and face
the consequences. Very often experience alone will teach them
Diagram 4.2 After Black’s 2nd when to take and when to decline.
24 CHAPTER 4. THE MAIN PARTS OF THE GAME FROM AN ELEMENTARY POINT OF VIEW

4.1.3 Example 3
Let’s look now at a Queen’s Pawn opening.

P–d4 1 P–d5

With the advance of this Pawn the way is opened for both the Queen and the Bishop. The difference from
the previous opening is that the Pawn is defended, which is not the case when the ‘e’ Pawn is advanced.
This is one argument in favour of considering this the strongest opening. For the time being, however, that
argument is beyond the scope of the present book. We must for our purpose consider P–d4 as no better than
P–e4.

N–f3 2 N–f6

Following the general rule, both sides bring out their King’s Knight.

P–c4 3

The position shown in Diagram 4.3 constitutes the Queen’s Gam-

bit. Experience has shown that it’s advisable to make this move. In
fact, in all Queen-side openings, if White’s intention is to play their
8
3r2n4b5q1k4bz3r Knight at b1 to c3, it has been found best to play P–c4 first. When it
7
6p6p6pz6p6p6p6p is their intention to play their ‘b’ Knight to d2 then it’s not necessary
6
zzzzz2nzz to make the Pawn move first.
5
zzz6pzzzz It’s true that White offers a Pawn apparently for nothing, but ex-
4
zz6P6Pzzzz perience has shown that Black cannot hold the Pawn without danger.
3
zzzzz2Nzz We now have an example of one of the principles enunciated above,
2
6P6Pzz6P6P6P6P i.e. that
1
3R2N4B5Q1K4Bz3R They can afford to offer a Pawn if in doing so they gain
a b c d e f g h
one or two moves in development
Diagram 4.3 Queen’s Gambit
and also that

They should take any gift provided they’re not retarded too much in their own development

... 3 Pxc4
N–c3 4 B–f5

Black wants to get their pieces out as quickly as possible in accord with the general theory explained
before.
It should be noticed that White could have regained their Pawn immediately by Q–a4+ followed by Qxc4,
but they’re in no hurry to do so because it will retard their development. Besides, it’s generally bad policy
to bring out the Queen so early in the game, before the smaller pieces are out and doing something.

P–e3 5 P–e6
Bxc4 6 B–e7
O–O 7 O–O
4.1. THE OPENING GAME 25

With the position in Diagram 4.4 the game is now well on its way.
The opening has not followed the well-known classical lines to be
8
3r2nz5qz3r1kz found in many a text book, but the rather simple general system ex-
7
6p6p6pz4b6p6p6p pounded in the present volume. Later on, in the second part of this
6
zzzz6p2nzz book, we shall see that we have not deviated far from the straight
5
zzzzz4bzz and narrow path. In fact, the general development would be found
4
zz4B6Pzzzz deficient only against experts, and the development on Black’s side
3
zz2Nz6P2Nzz would only be so because of certain idiosyncrasies of this opening
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P beyond the scope of this book.
1
3Rz4B5Qz3R1Kz The main thing for the reader to realize is the general way in which
a b c d e f g h the game is gradually developed, bringing out first the Knight then the
Bishop, then once more a Knight or a Bishop and then castling, the
Diagram 4.4 Queen being kept back. The Queen, being the most valuable piece,
should not be brought without proper support. The Queen needs the
smaller pieces to protect it or help it do its work.

4.1.4 Discussion
Let’s now consider certain further things with regard to the openings. The squares d4, e4, d5 and e5 are the
center squares. They are of the greatest importance for the general theory of the game and especially the
openings. Control of the center is essential for a complete and sound development. Control of the centre
is also essential, during the middle game, for any successful attack against the King; and finally, breaking
up the enemy’s centre is one of the strategic advances to work for, both in the opening and in the middle
game. Incidentally, this shows the close relation between the openings and the middle game. Some of the
principles of the openings are also the principles of the middle game, and in the same manner some of the
principles of the middle game are principles of the end game also.
Coming back to the openings we find that most of the gambits (i.e. openings in which a Pawn is offered)
have as one of their main objects the aim of breaking up the opponent’s centre. Take the Queen’s Gambit
for example. The play is as follows:

P–d4 1 P–d5
P–c4 2

Apart from any other consideration, White tries to induce Black to take the Pawn in order to have a
preponderance of force in the centre.
With the King’s Gambit it’s the same. The play is as follows:

P–e4 1 P–e5
P–f4 2

Again, a Pawn is offered in order to draw away Black’s Pawn at e5 and thus obtain control of the centre.
With that principle in mind let’s look at another opening.
26 CHAPTER 4. THE MAIN PARTS OF THE GAME FROM AN ELEMENTARY POINT OF VIEW

4.1.5 Example 4
This opening begins

P–e4 1 P–e5
8
3rz4b5q1kz2n3r N–f3 2 N–c6
7
6p6p6p6pz6p6p6p B–c4 3 B–c5
6
zz2nzzzzz
5
zz4bz6pzzz The position in Diagram 4.5 is called the ‘Giuoco Piano’, Italian
4
zz4Bz6Pzzz words which mean ‘slow game’. The name of the opening is probably
3
zzzzz2Nzz due to the fact that the development is methodical and easy on both
sides.
2
6P6P6P6Pz6P6P6P
1
3R2N4B5Q1Kzz3R O–O 4 N–f6
a b c d e f g h
P–d3 5 P–d6
B–e3 6 B–b6
Diagram 4.5 Giuoco Piano
Black could have taken the Bishop at e3, but on retaking, White would have their centre reinforced by
their Pawn now at e3. To have doubled Pawns is usually a disadvantage, but in the openings, when the Pawn
is doubled towards the centre, there’s a compensation that often outweighs the disadvantage of the doubled
Pawn. In this particular case there’s a further consideration, namely that in doubling the Pawn, Black would
open a file for the White ‘f’ Rook, thus bringing into action a very powerful piece that was doing nothing.
From the above it’s evident that the balance of opinion would be for the text move, as opposed to Bxe3.

N–d2 7 O–O
P–c3 8 B–e6

Black repeats White’s manoeuvre. The situation, however, is not

the same, since White’s game is now fully developed, and further-
more they have already prepared an advance against Black’s centre
8
3rzzzz3r1kz through their last move, P–c3.
7
z6p6p5qzz6p6p
6
z6p2n6p6p2nzz Bxb6 9 Pa7xb6
5
zzzzzzzz Bxe6 10 Pxe6
4
zzz6P6Pzzz Q–b3 11 Q–d7
3
z5Qzzz2Nzz P–d4 12 Pxd4
2
6P6Pz2Nz6P6P6P Pxd4 13
1
3Rzzzz3R1Kz In the position in Diagram 4.6, the opening is over. White has
a b c d e f g h
obtained control of the centre, but Black’s position is solid; White
Diagram 4.6 has a little more freedom for their pieces, but Black has two open
files for their Rooks while White has only one, the ‘c’ file. All things
considered, White has a slight advantage of position, but probably not enough to win. With proper playing
the White side should always obtain a slight advantage of position, because of the first move which gives
them the initiative, and to have the initiative is always an advantage.
With this example the discussion of the opening is over for the first part of this book.

4.2 The Middle Game

In the middle game, the player should strive for combinations leading to a direct attack against the King,
whenever possible. This is not exactly the point of view of the expert, who will conspire for positional or
4.2. THE MIDDLE GAME 27

material advantage of any kind, irrespective of whether the attack is made against the King or any other
piece, but the beginner should practise mostly combinations involving attacks against the King. It will bring
them more enjoyment because of the type of game involved, and at the same time it will give them very much
needed practice for the day when they will reach a more advanced stage. In making a direct attack against
the King, or in building up the combinations leading to such an attack, the beginner should not hesitate to
sacrifice material to the extent of a Pawn, or even a Knight or Bishop; but they should be extremely careful if
the sacrifice involves as much as a Rook, to say nothing of the Queen, since the latter pieces can be sacrificed
only when there’s an immediate mate to follow; otherwise the chances of success are practically zero.
I give below some illustrations covering these points.

4.2.1 Example 1
The position in Diagram 4.7 is a simple position. The material is
the same on both sides, but White has the advantage of having taken
possession of the open file, and also of having the Queen and Bishop
8
3rzzz3rz1kz placed in an attacking position against the King. If it were Black’s
7
zz4bzz6p6pz move they could quickly equalize the game by playing either N–e5
6
6p5q2nz6pzz6p or one of the Rooks to d8. It’s therefore evident that White must
5
z6pzzzzzz anticipate this by playing
4
zzzz6Pzzz
3
z6Pz5Qz2N6Pz P—e5 1 Nxe5
2
6Pzzzz6Pz6P Nxe5 2 Bxe5
1
z4Bz3Rz3R1Kz Q–h7+ 3 K–f8
a b c d e f g h R–d7 4

Diagram 4.7 and mate follows since Black can prevent the check at h8 only by
advancing their ‘g’ Pawn and then White would play Q–f7 mate.
This is a very simple case, and, of course, Black should not have taken the Pawn offered by White.

4.2.1.1 Variation 1

But let’s go back to Diagram 4.7 and assume that Black plays the best move. Then we have

P–e5 1 P–f6
Q–e4 2 R–d8
Q–f4 3

and White has an excellent attack against the King. In fact I am inclined to think that with proper playing
White should evolve a win from that position. At present, however, the student should not concern them-
selves with this aspect of the subject, but only with the way to work their pieces into an attacking position.
In the next examples we shall go deeper into the matter.
28 CHAPTER 4. THE MAIN PARTS OF THE GAME FROM AN ELEMENTARY POINT OF VIEW

4.2.2 Example 2
The example in Diagram 4.8 is taken from a game Capablanca-
Schroeder played at the end of 1915 in the Rice Memorial Tour-
8
3rzzz3r1kzz nament. It’s given to show that the safest course is not always the
7
zzzzz6p6p5Q best, and that very often it pays to be enterprising. The beginner
6
6pzzz6pzz6p is not expected to play accurately, but it’s their style that we are
5
5qz4bzzz2Nz concerned with at present; hence the insistence upon showing po-
4
6P6pzzzzzz sitions to be won by direct and violent attacks against the King.
3
z6Pzz6Pzzz In the position of the diagram White could have played safely as
2
zzzzz6P6P6P follows:
1
zz3Rz1Kzz3R N–e4 1 B–b6 (best)
a b c d e f g h
R–c6 2 Q–f5
Diagram 4.8
(much the best. Any other move would give White an easy win.)

Qxf5 3 Pxf5
8
zz3rzz1kzz N–d6 4 Re8–b8
7
zzzzz6p6pz Nxf5 5 R–c8
6
6p4bzzzzz6p Rxc8 6 Rxc8
5
zzzzz2Nzz K–d2 7
4
6P6pzzzzzz
3
z6Pzz6Pzzz Those moves lead to the position in Diagram 4.9, to prevent R–c2
2
zzz1Kz6P6P6P and to make room at the same time for the Rook, so that if Black
1
zzzzzzz3R plays R–c3 White can answer with R–b1 defending the Pawn. The
result of all this would be an ending with a Pawn ahead, and to be
a b c d e f g h
sure White could win with proper play; but it would take some time
Diagram 4.9 After White’s 7th and a great deal of care.

4.2.2.1 Variation 1
Instead of all this, White played for the attack as follows (go back to Diagram 4.8):

Q–h8+ 1 K–e7
Qxg7 2 Pxg5
Qxg5+ 3 K–d6

(The King has to go to the protection of the Bishop and thus becomes exposed to the attack of all the
White pieces.)

K–e2 4 Ra8–c8
R–c4 5 K–c6

Black wants to go over to safety with their King while they have a chance.

Rh1–c1 6 K–b6
4.2. THE MIDDLE GAME 29

Now everything is safe for Black, for the moment, but White
takes advantage of the fact that all the Black pieces are ‘pinned’ or
8
zz3rz3rzzz ‘blocked’: that is, the Black Queen cannot move at all, the King can-
7
zzzzz6pzz not move without losing the Bishop and the Rook at c8 cannot leave
6
6p1kzz6pzzz the defence of the Bishop, nor can the Bishop move because it will
5
5qz4bzzz5Qz lose a Rook. Black’s pieces can now be said to be fixed, and with
4
6P6p3Rzzzz6P plenty of time White begins advancing their free Pawn so as to take
3
z6Pzz6Pzzz it to the eighth row and Queen it. Thus
2
zzzz1K6P6Pz P–h4 7
1
zz3Rzzzzz
a b c d e f g h
Leading to the position in Diagram 4.10.
Diagram 4.10 After White’s 7th
... 7 P–f5
Q–g7 8

(in order to come back to e5, keeping Black’s pieces tied up and exerting the maximum of pressure; and
also protecting the square h8, where the Pawn is going to Queen).

... 8 R–e7
Q–e5 9 R–c6

A gross error, but Black’s game was hopeless anyway, so

Rxc5 10

and Black resigns, because if they play Rxc5 White will answer

Q–d6+ 11 (King moves)

Rxc5 12

attacking the Queen and the other Rook will also go.

4.2.2.2 Variation 2
But suppose that we go back to Diagram 4.10, and that Black had played their best move instead

... 7 R–c7

then we should have

P–h5 8 Re8–c8
P–h6 9 B–d6

This is the only place where the Bishop can go without losing a Rook.

Qxa5+ 10 Kxa5
Rxc7 11 Rxc7

Not Bxc7 because then R–c6 will paralyse all the Black pieces.

Rxc7 12 Bxc7
30 CHAPTER 4. THE MAIN PARTS OF THE GAME FROM AN ELEMENTARY POINT OF VIEW

Leading to the position shown in Diagram 4.11. Now we have a

most interesting situation. Black has come out of the battle ahead in
8
zzzzzzzz material, but their King is over on the Queen’s side, while the issue
7
zz4bzz6pzz is going to be decided on the King’s side; and in an end game, with
6
6pzzz6pzz6P practically no pieces on the board except Pawns, it’s generally fatal to
5
1kzzzzzzz have the King away from the scene of action. White must now try to
4
6P6pzzzzzz Queen their Pawn before Black can bring their King over. Therefore
3
z6Pzz6Pzzz they play:
2
zzzz1K6P6Pz
1
zzzzzzzz P–f4 13 B–d8
a b c d e f g h

(White wants to play P–h7 and then Queen the Pawn. Black tries to
Diagram 4.11 After Black’s 12th
prevent it by placing their Bishop at f6 where it commands the square
h8.)

P–g4 14 B–f6
P–g5 15 B–h8
P–e4 16 K–b6

The King begins to move over to the King’s side; unfortunately, they are too far and cannot arrive in time.

P–f5 17 Pxf5
Pxf5 18 K–c5
P–g6 19 Pxg6
Pxg6 20 (any move)

and Black has no defence against

P–g7 21

This shows how an apparently dull game may suddenly become very lively and exciting. It shows also the
great importance of the element of time in the endings, and the important part that the King plays in the end
games, sometimes as a defensive piece, and at other times as an attacking piece. The whole example, while
not so valuable to the expert, is most useful to the average player, because it involves a number of general
principles that the student should always bear in mind.
4.2. THE MIDDLE GAME 31

4.2.3 Example 3
Let’s analyse the position in Diagram 4.12 in the light of what has
gone before. The material is even except for the fact that Black has
a Rook for a Knight. That is already a decided advantage; more than
8
z4b3r3r2nz1kz enough to win, provided there be no immediate danger. But with re-
7
6p4bz5qz6p6p6p gard to Position the spectacle changes at once. Black has taken the
6
z6p6pz6pzzz open file by putting both their Queen and their Rook on it. White
5
zzzz6Pzzz blocks the immediate action by the position of their Knight at d3;
4
zz6Pzzzzz but that is purely defensive and if there were no other compensation
3
z6Pz2Nz2Nzz the preponderance of material on Black’s side would decide the is-
2
6P4B5Qzz6P6P6P sue. White, however, has the move, and the rest of their pieces are
1
z4Bzz3Rz1Kz better posted than Black’s. They can therefore take advantage of the
a b c d e f g h element of Time as well as of the element of Position.
Let’s consider further the position of the pieces on both sides.
Diagram 4.12 Black has their two Bishops blocked, one by the White Pawn at e5
and the other by their own Pawn at c6. Their Rook at ‘c’ is doing nothing at present and needs time to be
manoeuvred into a position of attack or defence. Their Knight at e8 is in a purely defensive position. Yet,
the fact that it is the one piece placed defensively near the King makes the position good from a defensive
point of view, and the advantage of material on their side makes this a point rather in Black’s favour. The
one bad feature of the position of Black’s Knight is that it blocks the moves of their own pieces and prevents
them from going over to the defence of the King.
All in all, a look at the board will show that Black’s position is cramped. If it were Black’s move, they
could relieve their position considerably by playing P–c5, and at the same time begin an attack. By that move
they would threaten Bxf3, breaking up White’s King’s side and reducing the attacking forces of White. The
chances are that, notwithstanding everything else to the contrary, this would be sufficient to decide the game
in Black’s favour. It’s therefore needful for White to prevent the advance of that Pawn.
Let’s look now to the White side of the question. All of White’s pieces are fairly well posted. With the
exception of the Bishop at b1 all the pieces have plenty of mobility and can be quickly shifted from one side
of the board to the other. Furthermore, the Bishop at b1 supports the Queen in the masked attack against the
Black King, an attack which will develop as soon as their Knight at d3 is moved forward. This completes
the general survey of the position and from it we gather that There’s two main objects to consider: viz., to
prevent the advance of Black’s ‘c’ Pawn and to move forward White’s Knight at d3.
The first object might be easily accomplished by P–c5. This would be a good move but rather slow in its
effect, and the chances are that by skilful defence Black might get out without losing the game. The second
object could be accomplished by moving the Knight to b4, f4 or c5. The first move would leave the Knight
alone on the Queen’s side, doing nothing. It would therefore be a bad move. The second move would bring
the Knight over to the attack on the King’s side and would therefore be, from a general point of view, an
excellent move. Black, however, by playing P–g6, would be able to defend the position and possibly to
escape from disaster. The third move, N–c5, is the one that accomplishes the desired object. It blocks the
advance of Black’s ‘c’ Pawn, and by attacking the Queen it prevents Black from defending the attack on
their King.
32 CHAPTER 4. THE MAIN PARTS OF THE GAME FROM AN ELEMENTARY POINT OF VIEW

It’s true that the Knight is given up, but we have already recom-
mended such tactics whenever there’s a chance of success. Let’s see
8
z4b3r3r2n1kzz what would happen:
7
6p4bz5qz6p6p5Q
6
zz6pz6pzzz N–c5 1 Pxc5
5
zz6pz6Pzzz Qxh7+ 2 K–f8
4
zz6Pzzzzz With the position in Diagram 4.13, White can already do as they
3
z6Pzzz2Nzz please. They can draw the game by perpetual check, since after
2
6P4Bzzz6P6P6P Q–h8+ 3 K–e7
1
z4Bzz3Rz1Kz Q–h4+ 4
a b c d e f g h

Black could do nothing better than to go back with their King to

Diagram 4.13 After Black’s 2nd g8, and thus White could keep on checking for ever.
Under these conditions White can now consider whether or not
there’s something better to do, and they find that by playing B–a3 instead they will get back all their material
with interest. Thus

B–a3 3 B–d6

This is the only way to avoid immediate disaster, for Black cannot stand Bxc5+ by White.

Pxd6 4

8
zz3r3rzzzz
7
6p4bzz1k6p6pz R–d1 would also win, but it would lead to more complications;
6
zz6p3R6pzzz and once the game is won the best procedure is to finish in the
simplest way in order to avoid the chance of errors.
5
zz4Bz2Nzzz
4
zz6Pzzzzz ...
Bxc5
4
5
Nxd6 (Qxd6 would be no better)
K–e7
3
z6Pzzzzzz N–e5 6 Q–e8
2
6Pzzzz6P6P6P R–d1 7 Q–h8
1
z4Bzzzz1Kz Qxh8 8 Rxh8
a b c d e f g h
Rxd6 9 Rh8–d8
Diagram 4.14 After Black’s 9th Leading to the position in Diagram 4.14.

R–d7+ 10 K–f6
Rxf7+ 11 K–g5 (if Kxe5; 12. P–f4+#)
B–e3+ 12 K–h4
R–f4+ 13 K–h5
B–g6+ 14 K–g5
P–h4+ 15 K–h6
R–(any)+# 16
and it’s checkmate by the Bishop at e3.
(if 10. . . . ,K–e8, 11. R–e7+, followed by Rxb7+)
The position has been carried to the very end so that the student may see what coordination of the action
of the pieces will do. Coordinating the action of the pieces is the main feature of the middle game, especially
when carrying a direct attack against the King. With this example we leave, for the time being, the middle
game, and pass on to the end game, where the Time element is often of paramount importance.
4.3. THE END GAME 33

4.3 The End Game

In the ending, the element of Time is of great importance. Material also counts for more, because with
the lesser number of pieces the percentage represented by a single Pawn is much greater. The King, which
during the opening- and middle-game stage is often a burden because it has to be defended, becomes in
the end game a very important and aggressive piece, and the beginner should realize this, and utilize their
King as much as possible. In end games where Kings and Pawns only are left on the board the King should
usually be marched forward to the centre of the board. Even in endings where Rooks or small pieces only are
involved, the King often should be marched forward toward the centre. The beginner is generally afraid to
utilize their King for such purposes and is therefore handicapped when facing a more experienced opponent.
The fact is that many endings are decided by the respective positions of the Kings or the ability of the Kings
to march forward toward the centre of the board. The beginner should therefore practise along these lines at
every opportunity. In doing so, they will find the game more exhilarating and at the same time they will be
marching along the road to success.
The following illustrations cover these points.

4.3.1 Example 1
In position in Diagram 4.15, White wins because the Black King is
one square too far from the Queen-side Pawns. Were the Black King
at g8 instead of h8, or were Black to move first, so that they could play
8
zzzzzzz1k K–g8 before White started to advance their Pawns, the ending would
7
zzzzzz6pz be in favour of Black, although, with skilful playing on White’s part,
6
6p6pzzzzz6p the game would probably be a draw.
5
zzzzzzzz All this shows clearly the importance of the element of Time in
4
6P6Pzzzzzz the endings. In fact it’s only the move that decides the issue, not the
3
zzzzzzzz Position nor the Material; since the material is equal on both sides
2
zz6Pzz6Pz1K and the position is rather in favour of Black (because of the fact that
1
zzzzzzzz the Black forces are well balanced on both sides of the board, while
a b c d e f g h the White forces are not). In order for the position to be considered
even, all of White’s Pawns would have to be on the Queen’s side, so
Diagram 4.15 that the preponderance of material on that side would be large enough
to offset the advantage of the equally balanced force on Black’s side. This point is brought up because of
its importance in the general discussion of the strategy and tactics of the game. It will come up again in the
second part of this book.
Going back to the position in Diagram 4.15, we find that the way to win is as follows:

P–c4 1 K–g8
P–c5 2 Pxc5
P–b5 3

This is the point of the whole thing. If White retakes the Pawn, Black arrives on time with their King. By
advancing the Pawn, White goes to Queen on the ‘b’ file, one square farther away from the Black King, and
that is enough to win.

... 3 Pxb5
Pxb5 4

White could also play P–a5, Queening the Pawn one square farther still from the Black King; but this is
not necessary, and since it would leave Black with a larger force it should not be done.
34 CHAPTER 4. THE MAIN PARTS OF THE GAME FROM AN ELEMENTARY POINT OF VIEW

... 4 K–f8
P–b6 5 K–e8
P–b7 6

Queening on the next move and winning easily. Take another example.

4.3.2 Example 2

In the position in Diagram 4.16 it’s again possession of the move that
wins for White. This time the position and forces are practically bal-
anced on both sides. The fact that Black’s Pawns on the King’s side
8
zzzzzzz1k are united is an advantage, but too small in this case to be of any
7
zzzzzz6pz consequence. The position of the White Pawns on the Queen’s side
6
6p6pzzzzz6p is offensively an advantage, but defensively a disadvantage. Offen-
5
zzzzzzzz sively the Pawns are strongest the farther away they’re from their base
4
6P6Pzzzzzz of operation; defensively they’re strongest the nearer they’re to that
3
zzzzzzzz base. What decides the issue in this ending is the respective positions
2
zzzzz6P1K6P of the Kings.
1
zzzzzzzz With the move, Black by playing K–g8 would be in a position to
a b c d e f g h meet the rush of the White King, but without the move, they will be
helpless in a short time. Thus:
Diagram 4.16

K–f3 1 K–g8
K–e4 2 K–f7
K–d5 3 K–e7
K–c6 4

and White will win the two Black Pawns for nothing. In this example is shown the important part that the
King can play in an end game, as well as the importance of the element of time; since having the move, that
is, being one move ahead (which is being one time ahead) is what decides the issue.

4.3.3 Example 3

8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz It will be convenient now to call attention to the fact that, because
4
zzzzzzzz of the nature of the chessboard and of the way the King moves, the
3
zzzzzzzz square a8 (marked on Diagram 4.17 with a cross) can be reached
2
zzzzzzzz by the White King in the same number of moves no matter where,
1
zzzzzzz1K on the bottom rank, the King may be placed.
Whether the White King be placed as in Diagram 4.17, or at any
a b c d e f g h
of the squares a1 through to g1, they will take exactly the same
Diagram 4.17 number of moves to reach a8.
4.3. THE END GAME 35

4.3.4 Example 4

8
zzzzzzz1k
7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz Similarly, in Diagram 4.18 both the Kings can reach the square c6
3
zzzzzzzz in the same number of moves. Accuracy as to the time it takes for
2
zzzzzzzz the King to reach a given square is of the utmost importance in the
end game.
1
zzzzzzz1K King and Pawn endings occur very frequently, and therefore the
a b c d e f g h
student would do well to become proficient in them: it will score
Diagram 4.18 many a game for them.

4.3.5 Example 5
Let’s now look at endings where Rooks are involved. In Dia-
gram 4.19, once more, having the move decides the issue. The
8
3rzzzzzzz position of the pieces is exactly the same on both sides. It’s the
time element alone that counts. Whoever moves first plays R–
7
6pzzzz6p6p1k e(any) and obtains a winning game. Thus:
6
z6p6pzzzz6p
5
zzz6pzzzz R–e1 1 K–g6
4
zzz6Pzzzz R–e7 2 P–c5
3
z6P6Pzzzz6P Pxc5 3 Pxc5
2
6Pzzzz6P6P1K R–d7 4
1
3Rzzzzzzz and White wins a Pawn; usually sufficient to win the game among
a b c d e f g h
players of the same strength, provided they have learned how to
Diagram 4.19 handle their King.
36 CHAPTER 4. THE MAIN PARTS OF THE GAME FROM AN ELEMENTARY POINT OF VIEW

4.3.6 Example 6
Let’s look now at an example where the King is used in conjunction
with the Rook.
In Diagram 4.20 the material is even, but White has an advantage
8
zzzzzzzz in position. The Black Rook cannot leave the second line because
7
6p3rzzzzz6p White will then take the ‘a’ Pawn. Furthermore, as soon as the Black
6
3Rz6p1kzzzz Rook leaves the ‘b’ file, White will be able to play P–b5, threatening
5
zzz6pz6pz6P to win a Pawn. Black in fact has not very much to do except to mark
4
z6Pzzzzzz time and wait for White. With all this, White couldn’t win if it were
3
zz6P1K6Pzzz not because of the intervention of their own King. Thus, the way to
2
zzzzz6Pzz proceed is as follows:
1
zzzzzzzz K–d4 1 P–h6
a b c d e f g h
P–f4 2
Diagram 4.20 This forces Black to move either their Rook or their King. They
can move their King only to d7 or c7 and still protect their ‘c’ Pawn, and then White would play K–e5
winning the ‘f’ Pawn. They must, therefore, move their Rook.
... 2 R–e7
P–b5 3 R–c7
Black could also play R–e4+, but then, after K–d3 for White, they would have to play R–c4 to defend
their ‘c‘ Pawn, bringing about very much the same position as in the text.
Pxc6 4
(not Rxc6+, because of Rxc6+, Pxc6, Kxc6 and Black with their passed Pawn on the ‘a’ file would have
an excellent chance of winning the game).
... 4 Rxc6
If the Black King moved to e6, White would play K–c5, and if the Rook moved anywhere on the second
row, White would play P–c7+, winning at least one more Pawn.
Rxa7 5 R–c4+
To drive back the King. The play continued
K–d3 6 R–c7
White threatened to play R–h7 winning the Pawn at h6.
R–a8 7
White could also win by exchanging the Rooks and bringing about a King and Pawn ending similar to
those already shown in this chapter, but the text move is more accurate, and is made with the object of
showing the combined action of Rook and King.
... 7 R–h7
White threatened to play R–h8 winning the Pawn at h6.
K–d4 8 K–e6
R–e8+ 9 K–d6
R–d8+ 10
and White wins the d5 Pawn and, with two Pawns to the good, they should have no trouble in winning the
game.
Chapter 5

Main Rules and Ethics of the Game

There’s several chess codes. The international code, generally used, is based mainly on the revised edition
of the British code. Those who wish to know the rules used in International and Championship contests
should obtain the code from any bookseller. For general purposes, however, the following rules should
prove sufficient.

1. Any piece that is touched must be moved. If it cannot be moved there’s no penalty.
2. Moves must not be taken back. If a gross mistake is made and the game’s lost thereby, there’s only
one thing to do — to resign gracefully and begin a new game.
3. Do not hover over the pieces too much. It’s unethical and it leads to errors. The celebrated German
Master, Dr. Tarrasch, used to sit with his hands under his thighs to avoid hesitation and to keep from
moving hastily. It’s not bad to move quickly, but it’s bad to move hastily.
4. When playing a match to decide a wager or to find out who’s the better player, a time limit should
be set for a number of moves. Between twenty and thirty moves per hour is a fairly slow speed.
The World’s Championship is played at the rate of forty moves in two and a half hours. The leading
players, on the other hand, when playing for amusement, take about ten or fifteen minutes per game.
The average player will naturally take longer, probably between thirty and fifty minutes per game.
5. No warning need be given when attacking an opponent’s piece, but a check to the King must be
respected. It’s therefore convenient to announce check when it takes place.
6. No move is completed until the piece is put on a square and the hand leaves the piece. If, after putting
a piece on a square and before taking your hand off it you find that the move is a mistake, you are
entitled to another move with the same piece, but the piece must be moved. If the move involves the
capture of an opponent’s piece, and you have already touched the opponent’s piece, either with your
hand or with the moving piece, then the piece must be taken with the piece you have in your hand.
The only condition under which you can be released from that obligation will be that the move you
intended to make is illegal. In that case you will still be compelled to move the piece you touched if
it’s possible at all.
7. J’adoube is a French term that literally translated means ‘I adjust’. However, it’s an acceptable way
of informing your opponent that you are not making a move, and are merely adjusting the pieces in
an Over-The-Board game.

5.1 Chess Maxims

1. Do not hover over the pieces. It prevents clear thinking.

37
38 CHAPTER 5. MAIN RULES AND ETHICS OF THE GAME

2. In the openings, bring your pieces out quickly, and castle early in the game, generally on the King’s
side. Castling usually makes the position of your King safer.

3. In the endings, when the Queens have been exchanged, and only one or two minor pieces are left with
the Pawns, bring your King out toward the centre of the board. Also, advance your Pawns quickly.
Pawn endings are won, as a rule, only by Queening a Pawn. Often victory goes to the swift.

4. Coordinate the action of your pieces. Sporadic raids with single pieces are usually fatal against an alert
opponent. Also, it’s generally advisable, especially early in the game, to keep your Pawns together.

5. Train yourself to move quickly but deliberately, never hastily.

6. Play an aggressive game, unless you find from experience that your temperament makes you totally
unfit for it. Take the initiative at every opportunity. To have the initiative is an advantage.

7. In the openings bring out one Knight at least before bringing out the Bishops.

8. Put your Rooks on the open files.

9. Play combinations at every opportunity in order to develop your imagination.

10. Never hesitate to make a move for fear of losing. Whenever you think a move is good go ahead and
make it. Experience is the best teacher. Bear in mind that you may learn much more from a game you
lose than from a game you win. You will have to lose hundreds of games before becoming a good
player.

11. In the openings avoid moving the same piece twice. It retards your development. Also, move pieces
in preference to Pawns.

12. Take every Pawn or piece that may be offered to you unless you see immediate danger.

Note: The reader should bear in mind that these maxims are not absolutely certain rules, infallible in
every case, but rather a sort of general guide. In the main, however, they’re correct. Good players follow
them and it takes an expert to know when to deviate from them.
Chapter 6

Part II

6.1 Introduction
The varied and intricate combinations which often keep the beginner from plunging into the mysteries of
the game are the very things that charm the average chess player most. An attack involving the sacrifice of
one or more pieces, if successfully carried out, appeals strongly to their imagination and urges them on in
quest of its mysteries. In following their natural bent for the unknown, however, the player often neglects
the plain facts and fundamental principles which they must observe if they’re to obtain their results through
brilliant combinations. In considering all these things, it should be borne in mind that, while the tactics may
change according to the circumstances, the fundamental strategical principles are always the same.
As already stated in the first part of the book, the game of chess, for the purpose of study and theory, has
been divided in three parts: the opening, the middle game, and the end game. The opening deals with the
process of bringing into action the different pieces. The middle game deals with that of using these pieces
to obtain a definite result, and the end game is the final stage where the combined efforts of the opening and
the middle game may bring about a satisfactory decision. We are speaking here, of course, of a well-fought
game where no gross error has been made nor any fundamental principle violated by either side.
When either side commits a gross error or violates a fundamental principle, the game is likely to end
quickly. Among experts, some games have ended right in the opening, because a gross error made by one
side gave the opponent such an advantage that it was thought useless to continue. A good many contests
have ended in the middle game because, through some fault committed by one side, the other player has
been able to work up a devastating attack which has produced either a mate or such an advantage of material
as to make it futile to continue. In obtaining these results the masters have, at times, evolved many very
beautiful combinations, which have been the delight of generations of chess players. The normal thing,
however, among experts, is for the contest to be decided in the end game after a hard struggle.
Most textbooks deal with the openings, and in a highly technical way that is more or less useful to the
expert but not of much value to the average player. The same might be said of most of the books on the
end game. Hardly anything has been written on the middle game. The middle game does not lend itself
to purely technical discussion. Only the very best players could write interestingly on the subject, and the
leading players have seldom shown an inclination to discuss their methods. A discussion of these methods
would be most interesting to those in quest of supremacy.

6.2 What to Do — What to Avoid

For the purpose of study There’s very few books to be recommended to the average players. Those few
books are written along general lines; the proper method, in my opinion, of approaching the subject. That
method is the one followed in this book. The plan to follow for those who wish to improve their game is
to take such a book as a guide, learn the general principles and follow the general lines of the text; then

39
40 CHAPTER 6. PART II

practice, practice, and more practice. Play with better players whenever possible, and when playing against
inferior players give them a small handicap so that you may be compelled to exert yourself in order to win.
As a handicap you may give the odds of a draw (i.e. any drawn game to count as a win for your opponent),
alternating the move, or you may give the odds of a draw and the move.
You may also give the odds of Pawn and move, and in that case the ‘e’ Pawn is the Pawn to be given,
because any other Pawn would give a compensation in development which might easily upset the given
advantage. When you give odds of Pawn and move, your opponent always takes the White pieces and
moves first. White’s best move under such conditions is P–e4. You may also give the odds of a Knight. In
that case you always have the White pieces and move first. You may give either Knight, but it’s the general
custom to give the Queen’s Knight. Do not attempt to give bigger odds. It unbalances your forces too much
and cannot be good for your game. When playing against experts take any odds that may be offered to you,
and remember never to lose courage because you do not win. Remember that the greatest of players have
lost hundreds of games in their time.
In trying to improve your game there is, to be sure, no better way than to take lessons from an expert, but
those lessons should seldom be of a purely technical character. Never be content simply to learn a series of
moves by heart, in the openings or elsewhere, but strive to find the reasons for each move in the series. As
you improve, I recommend the method of study and practice I have followed in this book and in my ‘Chess
Fundamentals’ — for in these two volumes I have done my best to guide the player according to the wisest
principles.

6.3 The way to improve

Once you have become a proficient player, it will be time to study or go over some of the many books on
the openings in order to become familiar with the very large number of variations in every opening. I refer
to books of purely technical character. But once more I must insist on the fact that such knowledge is only
useful to the expert. You can play a very pretty game without any such knowledge, and the fact is that the
author themselves never studied such books in their life and only when they were already one of the leading
players did they occasionally take a look at them; and then more out of curiosity than anything else. With
regard to this There’s two anecdotes that may be interesting to the reader.
At San Sebastian International Masters Tournament of 1911, which I won, I was playing one day against
the celebrated Dr. Tarrasch, a master who had always made a very thorough study of the openings. He
was supposed to have an excellent technical knowledge of any opening he played. He had the White pieces
and played a variation of the Giuoco Piano that I had never seen before. I played according to my ideas of
general development and after some ten or twelve moves the Doctor began to think. He took a very long
time to make his next move. It seems that up to this point I had been making the best moves of the opening
according to the recognized authorities, but that then I had made a move not in the books, with the result that
instead of getting the best of the game the Doctor was getting the worst of it. This prompted the comment
from him after the game that not only did I know the books thoroughly but that I had improved on them. The
fact was that I did not know a single book on the openings at the time but I had merely played on general
lines according to the same principles I am expounding in this book.
On another occasion, while in Havana I received an invitation to play in a big International Tournament
and I replied accepting the offer. I had not played at all for over a year and felt a little out of touch with the
game. I thought that probably some new ideas had come up with regard to the technical side of the openings,
and that it would be a good thing for me to know something about them. I inquired and obtained a recent
book which contained most of the main lines of play of the openings most in vogue at the time, together
with the latest developments. I went through the book only to find to my great disappointment that it was of
no use to me. I found not only what I considered tactical errors but what was far more important, I found
also what to me seemed very serious strategical errors which might prove fatal in a game when facing a first
6.4. THE END GAME 41

class master.
There’s besides some interesting books of various kinds that are very useful to the expert or near-expert.
One of the most interesting is Reti’s ‘Masters of the Chess Board’. I refer only to the part written by Reti
himself. He died before the book was finished and someone else wrote the last part of the book, which
cannot be compared with the first part.
There’s also books and publications dealing with problems and endings. Solving problems is good exer-
cise for the imagination, and as such to be recommended. But problem positions that are mostly positions
of an artificial nature, and not to be encountered in a real game, are therefore not so useful as they would be
if the positions were natural ones likely to occur in a game. Solving endings is about the most useful form
of exercise, because the positions used are likely to occur in actual play; and the imagination has to be used
as much in solving an end game as in solving a problem. Furthermore, there’s the question of accuracy. To
solve an end-game problem or composition, accuracy is required, and accuracy is a valuable quality in a
chess player. End-game compositions are often only reproductions of similar occurrences in actual games,
and ability to solve such problems is a very valuable asset. Too much stress cannot be put on this point.
Let’s now return to the study of certain endings and the principles involved therein.

6.4 The End Game

6.4.1 Classical Endings
6.4.1.1 Example 1

In the position in Diagram 6.1 the forces are even. There’s very little
left: three Pawns and the King on each side. White’s King is nearer
the centre of the board, an advantage according to the principles ex-
8
zzzz1kzzz plained previously in the text.
7
z6pzzzzzz White’s Pawns are on a line with themselves and with their King.
6
zzzzzzz6p That makes their position sound, other things being equal. The Pawns
5
6pzzzzzzz are on the second line, an advantage defensively but a disadvantage
4
zzzzzzzz offensively. All in all, White’s position is perfectly solid.
3
zzzzzzzz Now let’s look at the Black side. Black’s King is behind their
2
6Pzzz1Kz6P6P Pawns and farther away from the centre than White’s King. This is
1
zzzzzzzz a disadvantage. Black’s Pawns are not in line, also a disadvantage.
a b c d e f g h Black’s Pawns are forward as compared to White’s, a disadvantage
defensively but an advantage offensively. All in all, Black’s position
Diagram 6.1 lacks the balance of White’s position and therefore cannot be as good,
all other things being equal.
All this is from a theoretical point of view. From the practical side the fact is that if it were Black’s move
they could defend themselves successfully by advancing their King towards the centre, towards the side
where they have the superior force, namely the Queen’s side; and by following with the advance of their
backward ‘b’ Pawn to b5 in line with their ‘a’ Pawn. Thus, by acting quickly on the side where they have
the preponderance of material and by taking advantage of the better offensive position of their Pawns, Black
could offset the advantage of White’s better balanced position. It’s White’s move, however, and they obtain
a winning position by their first move:

P–a4 1

This move makes it impossible for Black to align their Pawns at the same time that it prevents their ‘b’
advancing. This move involves one of the most valuable principles in chess, a unit that holds two opponents.
42 CHAPTER 6. PART II

In other words, with a force of one you are holding a force of two. After the first move the procedure is
comparatively simple, thus:

... 1 K–d7
K–d3 2 K–c6
K–c4 3 P–h5

Black finds their advance blocked on the Queen’s side and therefore tries to create a similar situation on
the other side.

P–g3 4

This is the second key move in this ending, and in making it White follows once more one of the principles
previously laid down for such situations — namely, to advance the Pawn that is free from Opposition. If
White played instead 4. P–h4, Black could draw by playing P–b6, and if White played 4. P–h3 Black would
actually win by playing P–h4. The student would do well to work all this out by themselves. The ending is
very simple, and yet there’s much variety to it and many fundamental principles are involved. The element
of time is seen here also in one of its many aspects. Let’s continue:
... 4 P–b6 List 1
Black can do nothing but mark time.

P–h3 5 K–d6
K–b5 6 K–c7
P–g4 7

and while the Black King is held to their Pawns, White will go on to Queen. If Black attempts to move
their King to the King’s side to stop the Pawn, White will then take both of Black’s Queen-side Pawns and
then Queen their own Pawn.

6.4.1.1.1 Variation 1 Now suppose that on their fourth move in

List 1 Black had played P–b5+, instead of P–b6, leading to the posi-
tion in Diagram 6.2 and we should have then:
8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz ... 4 P–b5+
6
zz1kzzzzz Pxb5 5 K–b6
5
6p6pzzzzz6p P–h3 6 P–a4
4
6Pz1Kzzzzz P–g4 7 Pxg4
3
zzzzzz6Pz Pxg4 8 P–a3
2
zzzzzzz6P K–b3 9 Kxb5
1
zzzzzzzz P–g5 10
a b c d e f g h
and the White Pawn cannot be stopped from Queening.
Diagram 6.2 Variation P–b5+ If we dwell so long on this kind of ending and insist so much on its
discussion, it’s because of its importance and the importance of the
principles involved.
This ‘type’ of ending occurs frequently.
6.4. THE END GAME 43

6.4.1.2 Example 2
Not long ago one of the youngest masters, Eliskasses of Austria, had
the ending in Diagram 6.3. Again, the forces are even, and in fact
if it were Black’s move they would have a very satisfactory position
8
zzzzzzzz after P–b5, straightening up their Pawn line on the Queen’s side. It’s
7
zzzzzzz6p White’s move, however, and they proceed immediately to apply the
6
z6pz1kzz6pz principles laid down in this book as follows:
5
6pz6pzz6pzz
4
zzzzzzzz P–a4 1
3
z6Pzz6Pzz6P
2
6Pzzz1K6P6Pz to hold back the backward ‘b’ Pawn of Black. Observe how closely
1
zzzzzzzz this procedure is similar to that of the previous example. The whole
a b c d e f g h thing hinges on the fact that White is able to prevent or check the ad-
vance of Black’s Queen-side Pawns, while Black will not be able later
Diagram 6.3 on to prevent a similar advance of White’s King-side Pawns. Victory
will go to the player who will be able to act with more freedom where
they hold the preponderance of force.
Let’s go back to Diagram 6.3.

... 1 K–c6
K–d3 2 P–b5

White can win by playing Pxb5+ followed by K–c3 or by playing first K–c3. The reader should work all
this out for themselves. They will find it both useful and entertaining.
They should bear in mind that, if Black at any time plays P–g5, White can answer with P–g4. The general
procedure in any case will be to play first P–f3 to be followed by P–e4 and so on. The point is that in order
to capture the one Pawn, Black will have to leave the Queen’s side and White will then be able to take both
of Black’s Queen-side Pawns and then Queen their own Pawn on that side.
But suppose now that, instead, Black had played

... 1 P–c4

Leading to the position in Diagram 6.4.

The procedure would then be:

Pxc4 2 K–c5
8
zzzzzzzz K–d3 3 K–b4
7
zzzzzzz6p P–f3
K–c3
4
5
Kxa4
6
z6pz1kzz6pz
5
6pzzzz6pzz This move prevents the Black King from coming out immediately
4
6Pz6pzzzzz in order to advance their free ‘e’ Pawn.
3
z6Pzz6Pzz6P
2
zzzz1K6P6Pz ...
P–e4
5
6
P–b5
P–b4+
1
zzzzzzzz K–b2 7 P–b3
a b c d e f g h
P–e5 8
Diagram 6.4 After P–c4
and there’s no way to stop the ‘e’ Pawn from Queening.
44 CHAPTER 6. PART II

The endings given above are of a ‘type’ which occurs rather frequently. There’s one point to be considered
at once, and that is the Pawn formation. The reader will have noticed that most of the trouble came from the
backward position of one of the Pawns. The Pawn formation is very important at times. The Pawns are best
generally when in line with each other.
When advancing them, a diagonal form should be kept as much as possible but never, if possible, a ‘V-
shaped’ formation. A V-shaped formation always leaves a backward Pawn, making it possible for one Pawn
to stop two. Also, during the early and middle-game stages a ‘Λ-shaped’ formation permits a piece to be
placed in between the Pawns to be absolutely safe from the attack of a Pawn. We shall return to the matter
of Pawn formation on page 61.

6.4.1.3 Example 3

In the position shown in Diagram 6.5, White can draw by playing

P–b4 according to the general rule that governs such cases, i.e. to
advance the Pawn that is free from Opposition. But suppose that
8
zzzzzzzz White, either because they do not know this principle or because they
7
6pzzzzz6pz do not, in this case, sufficiently appreciate the value of its application;
6
zzzzzzz6p suppose, we say, that they play 1. P–a4. Then Black can win by
5
zzzzzz1kz playing
4
zzzzzzzz
3
zzzzzzz1K P–a4 1 P–Pa5
2
6P6Pzzzzz6P
1
zzzzzzzz applying one of the cardinal principles of the high strategy of chess
a b c d e f g h
A unit that holds two of the Opposition
Diagram 6.5
In this case one Pawn would hold two of the opponent’s Pawns.
The student cannot lay too much stress on this principle. It can be applied in many ways, and it constitutes
one of the principal weapons in the hands of a master.
The example given should be sufficient proof. We give a few moves of the main variation:

K–g2 2 K–f4 (Best; see why)

P–b4 3 Pxb4 (Best)
P–a5 4 P–b3
P–a6 5 P–b2
P–a7 6 P-b8(Q)
P–a8(Q) 7 Q–e4+
Qxe4+ 8 Kxe4

This brings the game to the position in Diagram 6.6, which is won by Black, and which constitutes one
of the classical endings of King and Pawns. I shall try to explain the guiding idea of it to those not familiar
with it.
6.4. THE END GAME 45

6.4.2 A Classical Ending

In the position shown in Diagram 6.6 White’s best line of defence
consists in keeping their Pawn where it stands at h2. As soon as the
Pawn is advanced it becomes easier for Black to win. On the other
8
zzzzzzzz hand, Black’s plan to win (supposing that White does not advance
7
zzzzzz6pz their Pawn) may be divided into three parts. The first part will be to
6
zzzzzzz6p get their King to g3, at the same time keeping intact the position of
5
zzzzzzzz their Pawns. (This is all important, since, in order to win the game,
4
zzzz1kzzz it is essential at the end that Black may be able to advance their rear-
3
zzzzzzzz most Pawn one or two squares according to the position of the White
2
zzzzzz1K6P King).
1
zzzzzzzz
a b c d e f g h K–g3 1 K–e3
K–g2 2
Diagram 6.6
If

K–g4 2 K–f2
P–h4 3 P–g6

will win. The play continued

... 2 K–f4
K–f2 3 K–g4
K–g2 4 K–h4
K–g1 5 K–h3

leading to the position in Diagram 6.7. The first part has been completed.

8
zzzzzzzz 8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzz6pz 7
zzzzzz6pz
6
zzzzzzz6p 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz 5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz 4
zzzzzzz6p
3
zzzzzzz1k 3
zzzzzzz1k
2
zzzzzzz6P 2
zzzzzzz6P
1
zzzzzz1Kz 1
zzzzzz1Kz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.7 After Black’s 5th Diagram 6.8 After Black’s 7th

The second part will be short and will consist in advancing the ‘h’ Pawn up to the King.

K–h1 6 P–h5
K–g1 7 P–h4
46 CHAPTER 6. PART II

Leading to the Position in Diagram 6.8. This ends the second part.
The third part will consist in timing the advance of the ‘g’ Pawn so as to play P–g3 when the White King
is at h1. It now becomes evident how necessary it’s to be able to move the ‘g’ Pawn either one or two squares
according to the position of the White King, as indicated previously. In this case, as it’s White’s move, the
Pawn will be advanced two squares since the White King will be in the corner, but if it were now Black’s
move the ‘g’ Pawn should only be advanced one square since the White King is at g1.
K–h1 8 P–g5
K–g1 9 P–g4
K–h1 10 P–g3
Pxg3 11
If K–g1, P–g2.
... 11 Pxg3
K–g1 12 P–g2
K–f2 13 K–h2
and win.
It’s in this analytical way that the student should try to learn. They will thus train their mind to follow a
logical sequence in reasoning out any position, This example is excellent training, since it’s easy to divide it
into three stages and to explain the main point of each part.
The next subject we shall study is the simple Opposition, but before we devote our time to it I wish to call
attention to two things.

6.4.3 Obtaining a Passed Pawn

When three or more Pawns are opposed to each other in a position
such as the one in Diagram 6.9, there’s always a chance for one side
or the other of obtaining a passed Pawn.
8
zzzzzzzz In this position the way of obtaining a passed Pawn is to advance
7
6p6p6pzzzz1k the centre Pawn.
6
zzzzzzzz
5
6P6P6Pzzzzz P–b6 1 Pa7xb6
4
zzzzzzzz If 1. . . . Pc7xb6; 2. P–a6 .
3
zzzzzzzz P–c6 2 Pxc6
2
zzzzzzzz P–a6 3
1
zzzzzzz1K
a b c d e f g h and as in this case the White Pawn is nearer to Queen than any of
the Black Pawns, White will win.
Diagram 6.9
6.4.3.1 Variation 1
Now, if it had been Black’s move from the position in Diagram 6.9, Black could play
... 1 P–b6
Pc5xb6 2 Pc7xb6
It would not be advisable to try to obtain a passed Pawn because the White Pawns would be nearer to
Queen than the single Black Pawn.
Pxb6 3 Pxb6
and the game properly played would be a draw. The student should work this out for themselves.
6.4. THE END GAME 47

6.4.4 How to Find Out Which Pawn Will Be First to Queen

When two Pawns are free, or will be free, to advance to Queen, you
can find out, by counting, which Pawn will be the first to succeed.
The first thing is to find out, by counting, whether the opposing
8
zzzzzzzz King can be in time to stop the passed Pawn from Queening. When,
7
6pzzzzz1k6p as in case in Diagram 6.10, it cannot be done, the point is to count
6
zzzzzzzz which Pawn comes in first. In this case the time is the same, but the
5
z6Pzzzzzz Pawn that reaches the eighth square first and becomes a Queen is in a
4
zzzzzzzz position to capture the adversary’s Queen when they make one. Thus:
3
z1Kzzzzzz
2
6Pzzzzzzz P–a4 1 P–h5
1
zzzzzzzz P–a5
P–b6
2
3
P–h4
Pxb6
a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.10 Now comes a little calculation. White can capture the Pawn, but if
they do so, they will not, when Queening, command the square where
Black will also Queen their Pawn. Therefore, instead of taking, they play:

P–a6 4 P–h3
P–a7 5 p–h2
P–a8(Q) 6

and win.
The student would do well to acquaint themselves with various simple endings of this sort, so as to acquire
the habit of counting, and thus be able to know with ease when they can or cannot get there first. Once again
I must call attention to the fact that a book cannot by itself teach how to play. It can only serve as a guide,
and the rest must be learned by experience, and if a teacher can be had at the same time, so much the faster
will the student be able to learn.

6.4.5 The Opposition

When Kings have to be moved, and one player can, by force,

8
zzzzzzzz bring their King into a position similar to the one shown in Di-
7
zzzzzzzz agram 6.11, so that their adversary is forced to move and make
6
zzzz1kzzz way for them, the player obtaining that advantage is said to have
5
zzzzzzz6p the Oppositiona .
4
z6pzz1Kzz6P Suppose in the position in Diagram 6.11 White plays
3
zzzzzzzz K–d4 1
2
zzzzzzzz
1
zzzzzzzz a
a b c d e f g h Opposition is a situation in which two Kings have only one square between
them. Since Kings cannot move adjacent to each other, each King interferes
Diagram 6.11 with the other’s advance, creating a mutual blockade.

Now Black has the option of either opposing the passage of the White King by playing K–d6 or, if they
prefer, they can pass with their own King by replying K–f5. Notice that the Kings are directly opposed to
each other, and the number of intervening squares between them is odd — one in this case.
48 CHAPTER 6. PART II

8
zzzzzzzz 8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzzzzzzz
6
zz1kzzzzz 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz 5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzz1Kzzz 4
zz1kz1Kzzz
3
zzzzzzzz 3
zzzzzzzz
2
zzzzzzzz 2
zzzzzzzz
1
zzzzzzzz 1
zzzzzzzz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.12 Diagram 6.13

The Opposition can take the form of Diagram 6.12, which can be called actual or close frontal Opposition;
or the form of Diagram 6.13, which can be called actual or close diagonal Opposition, or, again, the form as
in Diagram 6.14 which can be called actual or close lateral Opposition.
In practice they’re all one and the same. The Kings are always on squares of the same colour, there’s only
one intervening square between the Kings, and the player who has moved last ‘has the Opposition’.
Now, if the student will take the trouble of moving each King backwards as in a game in the same frontal,
diagonal or lateral line respectively shown in the diagrams, we shall have what may be called distant frontal,
diagonal and lateral Opposition respectively.
The matter of the Opposition is highly important, and takes at times somewhat complicated forms, all
of which can be solved mathematically; but, for the present, the student should only consider the simplest
forms (an examination of some of the examples of King and Pawns endings already given will show several
cases of close Opposition).
In all simple forms of Opposition,

when the Kings are on the same line and the number of intervening squares between them is
even, the player who has the move has the Opposition.

The position in Diagram 6.14 shows to advantage the enormous

value of the Opposition. The position is very simple. Very little is
left on the board, and the position, to a beginner, probably looks ab-
8
zzzz1kzzz solutely even. It’s not the case, however. Whoever has the move wins.
7
zzzzzzzz Notice that the Kings are directly in front of one another, and that the
6
zzzzzzzz number of intervening squares is even.
5
z6pzzzzz6p Now as to the procedure to win such a position. The proper way to
4
z6Pzzzzz6P begin is to move straight up. Thus:
3
zzzzzzzz
2
zzzzzzzz K–e2 1 K–e7
1
zzzz1Kzzz K–e3
K–e4
2
3
K–e6
K–f6
a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.14 Now White can exercise the option of either playing K–d5 and thus
passing with their King, or of playing K–f4 and prevent the Black King from passing, thereby keeping the
Opposition. Mere counting will show that the former course will only lead to a draw, therefore White takes
the latter course and plays:

K–f4 4 K–g6
K–e5 5 K–g7
6.4. THE END GAME 49

(If 4. ...K–e6; 5. K–g5 will win). Now by counting it will be seen that White wins by capturing Black’s
‘b’ Pawn.
The process has been comparatively simple in the variation given above, but Black has other lines of
defence more difficult to overcome.

6.4.5.1 Variation 1

Let’s begin anew from the position in Diagram 6.14.

K–e2 1 K–d8

Now if

K–d3 2 K–d7

(or 2. K–e3, K–e7) and Black obtains the Opposition in both cases.

When the Kings are directly in front of one another, and the number of intervening squares
between the Kings is odd, the player who has moved last has the Opposition.

Now in order to win, the White King must advance. There’s only one other square where they can go,
f3, and that is the right place. Therefore it’s seen that in such cases when the opponent makes a so-called
waiting move, you must advance, leaving a rank or file free between the Kings. Therefore we have

K–f3 2 K–e7

Now, it would be bad to advance, because then Black, by bringing up their King in front of your King,
would obtain the Opposition. It’s White’s turn to play a similar move to Black’s first move, viz.:

K–e3 3

which brings the position back to the first variation shown. The student would do well to familiarize
themselves with the handling of the King in all examples of Opposition. It often means the winning or
losing of a game.

6.4.6 The Relative Value of Knight and Bishop

Before turning our attention to this matter it’s well to state now that

two Knights alone cannot mate

but, under certain conditions of course, they can do so if the opponent has one or more Pawns.
50 CHAPTER 6. PART II

8
1kzzzzzzz 8
1kzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzzzzzzz
6
z1Kz2N2Nzzz 6
z1Kz2Nzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz 5
zzzzzzz6p
4
zzzzzzzz 4
zzzzzzz2N
3
zzzzzzzz 3
zzzzzzzz
2
zzzzzzzz 2
zzzzzzzz
1
zzzzzzzz 1
zzzzzzzz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.15 Diagram 6.16

In the position of Diagram 6.15, White cannot win, although the Black King is cornered. But, in the
position in Diagram 6.16, in which Black has a Pawn, White wins with or without the move. Thus:

N–g6 1 P–h4

White cannot take the Pawn because the game will be drawn, as explained before.

N–e5 2 P–h3
N–c6 3 P–h2
N–b5 4 P–h1(Q)
N–c7# 5

The reason for this peculiarity in chess is evident.

White with the two Knights can only stalemate the King, unless Black has a Pawn which can be
moved.

Although they’re a Bishop and a Pawn ahead, the position in Diagram 6.17 cannot be won by White.

8
zzzzzzz1k 8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzzz2N6pz
5
zzzzzz1Kz 5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz 4
zzzzzzzz
3
zzz4Bzzzz 3
zzzzzzz6p
2
zzzzzzz6P 2
zzzzz1Kzz
1
zzzzzzzz 1
zzzzzzz1k
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.17 Diagram 6.18

It’s the greatest weakness of the Bishop, that when the ‘h’ Pawn Queens on a square of opposite colour
and the opposing King is in front of the Pawn, the Bishop is absolutely worthless. All that Black has to do
is to keep moving their King close to the corner square.
In the position in Diagram 6.18, White can win with or without the move. Take the most difficult variation:
6.4. THE END GAME 51

... 1 K–h2
N–g4+ 2 K–h1
K–f1 3 P–g5
K–f2 4 P–h2
N–e3 5 P–g4
N–f1 6 P–g3+
Nxg3# 7
Now that we have seen these exceptional cases, we can analyse the different merits and the relative value
of the Knight and the Bishop.
It’s generally thought by amateurs that the Knight is the more valuable piece of the two, the chief reason
being that, unlike the Bishop, the Knight can command both Black and White squares. However, this
generally overlooks the fact that the Knight, at any one time, has the choice of one colour only. It takes
much longer to bring a Knight from one wing to the other. Also, as shown in Diagram 6.19, a Bishop can
stalemate a Knight; a compliment which the Knight is unable to return.

8
zzzzzzzz 8
zzzz1kzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzz2nzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zz6pzzzzz
5
2Nzz4bzzzz 5
z6p6P6pzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz 4
6p6Pz6Pzzzz
3
zzzzzzzz 3
6Pzzzzzzz
2
zzzzzzzz 2
zzzzzzzz
1
zzzzzzzz 1
zz4Bz1Kzzz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.19 Diagram 6.20

The weaker the player, the more terrible the Knight is to them, but as a player increases in strength the
value of the Bishop becomes more evident to them, and of course there is, or should be, a corresponding
decrease in their estimation of the value of the Knight as compared to the Bishop. In this respect, as in many
others, the masters of today are far ahead of the masters of former generations. While not so long ago some
of the very best amongst them, like Pillsbury and Tchigorin, preferred Knights to Bishops, there’s hardly a
master of today who would not completely agree with the statements made above.
The position in Diagram 6.20 is about the only case when the Knight is more valuable than the Bishop.
It’s what is called a ‘block position’, and all the Pawns are on one side of the board. If there were Pawns
on both sides of the board there would be no advantage in having a Knight. In such a position Black has
excellent chances of winning. Of course, there’s an extra source of weakness for White in having their
Pawns on the same colour squares as their Bishop. This is a mistake often made by players. The proper way,
generally, in an ending, is to have your Pawns on squares of opposite colour to that of your own Bishop.
When you have your Pawns on squares of the same colour the action of your own Bishop is limited by them,
and consequently the value of the Bishop is diminished, since the value of a piece can often be measured
by the number of squares it commands. While on this subject, I shall also call attention to the fact that
it’s generally preferable to keep your Pawns on squares of the same colour as that of the opposing Bishop,
particularly if they’re passed Pawns supported by the King. The principles might be stated thus:

When the opponent has a Bishop, keep your Pawns on squares of the same colour as your
opponent’s Bishop.
52 CHAPTER 6. PART II

Whenever you have a Bishop, whether the opponent has also one or not, keep your Pawns on
squares of the opposite colour to that of your own Bishop.

Naturally, these principles have sometimes to be modified to suit the exigencies of the position.

8
zzzz1kzzz 8
zzzz1kzzz
7
zzz2nz6p6p6p 7
6p6p6p2nz6p6p6p
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz 5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz 4
zzzzzzzz
3
zzzzzzzz 3
zzzzzzzz
2
zzzzz6P6P6P 2
6P6P6Pzz6P6P6P
1
zz4Bz1Kzzz 1
zz4Bz1Kzzz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.21 Diagram 6.22

In the position in Diagram 6.21 the Pawns are all on one side of the board, and there’s no advantage in
having either a Knight or a Bishop. The game should surely end in a draw.
Now let’s add three Pawns on each side to the above position, so that There’s Pawns on both sides of the
board, as in Diagram 6.22.
It’s now preferable to have the Bishop, though the position; if properly played out, should end in a draw.

8
zzzz1kzzz 8
zzzz1kzzz
7
6p6p6p2nz6p6pz 7
6p6p6p2nz6pzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz 5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz 4
zzzzzzzz
3
zzzzzzzz 3
zzzzzzzz
2
z6P6Pzz6P6P6P 2
zz6Pzz6P6P6P
1
zz4Bz1Kzzz 1
zz4Bz1Kzzz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.23 Diagram 6.24

The advantage of having the Bishop lies as much in its ability to command, at long range, both sides of
the board from a central position as in its ability to move quickly from one side of the board to the other.
In the position of Diagram 6.23 it’s unquestionably an advantage to have the Bishop, because, although
each player has the same number of Pawns, they’re not balanced on each side of the board. Thus, on the
King’s side, White has three to two, while on the Queen’s side it is Black that has three to two. Still, with
proper play, the game should end in a draw, though White has somewhat better chances.
Diagram 6.24 is a position in which to have the Bishop is a decided advantage, since not only are there
Pawns on both sides of the board, but There’s passed Pawns (’h’ for White, ‘a’ for Black). Black should
have extreme difficulty in drawing this position, if they can do it at all.
6.4. THE END GAME 53

Again, Black would have great difficulty in drawing the position in

Diagram 6.25.
8
zzzz1kzzz
7
6pz6p2nz6pzz 6.4.7 Discussion
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz The student should carefully consider these positions. I hope that the
4
zzzzzzzz many examples will help them to understand, in their true value, the
3
zzzzzzzz relative merits of the Knight and Bishop. As to the general method
2
zz6Pzz6Pz6P of procedure, a teacher, or practical experience, will be best. I might
say generally, however, that the proper course in these endings, as in
1
zz4Bz1Kzzz all similar endings, is to:
a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.25 Advance the King to the centre of the board or towards
the passed Pawns, or Pawns that are susceptible of being
attacked, and rapidly advance the passed Pawn or Pawns as far as is consistent with their safety.

To give a fixed line of play would be folly. Each ending is different, and requires different handling,
according to what the adversary proposes to do. Calculation by visualizing the future positions is what will
count.

6.4.8 How to Mate With A Knight and A Bishop

Now, before going back again to the middle game and the openings,
let us see how to mate with Knight and Bishop, and, then, how to win
with a Queen against a Rook.
8
zzzz1kzzz
7
zzzzzzzz With a Knight and a Bishop the mate can only be given
6
zzzzzzzz in the corners of the same colour as the Bishop.
5
zzzzzzzz In the example in Diagram 6.26 we must mate either at a1 or h8.
4
zzzzzzzz The ending can be divided into two parts. Part one consists in driving
3
zzzzzzzz the Black King to the last line. We might begin, as is generally done
2
zzzzzzzz in all such cases, by advancing the King to the centre of the board:
1
zz4Bz1Kz2Nz
a b c d e f g h
K–d2 1 K–d7
Diagram 6.26
Black, in order to make it more difficult, goes towards the white-
squared corner:

K–d3 2 K–c6
B–f4 3 K–d5
N–e2 4 K–c5
N–c3 5 K–b4
K–d4 6 K–a5
K–c5 7 K–a6
K–c6 8 K–a7
N–d5 9 K–a8

The first part is now over; the Black King is in the white-squared corner as in Diagram 6.27.
54 CHAPTER 6. PART II

The second and last part will consist in driving the Black King now
from a8 to a1 or h8 in order to mate them. a1 will be the quickest in
8
1kzzzzzzz this position.
7
zzzzzzzz
6
zz1Kzzzzz N–b6+ 10 Ka7
5
zzz2Nzzzz B–c7 11 K–a6
4
zzzzz4Bzz Bb8 12 K–a5
3
zzzzzzzz N–d5 13 K–a4
2
zzzzzzzz
1
zzzzzzzz Black tries to make for h8 with their King. White has two ways to
a b c d e f g h prevent that, one by

Diagram 6.27
B–e5 14 K–b3
N–e3 15

and the other which I give as the text, and which I consider better for the student to learn, because it’s more
methodical and more in accord with the spirit of all these endings, by using the King as much as possible.

K–c5 14 K–b3
N–b4 15 K–c3
B–f4 16 K–b3
B–e5 17 K–a4
K–c4 18 K–a5
B–c7+ 19 K–a4
N–d3 20 K–a3
B–b6 21 K–a4
N–b2+ 22 K–a3
K–c3 23 K–a2
K–c2 24 K–a3
B–c5 25 K–a2
N–d3 26 K–a1
B–b4 27 K–a2
N–c1+ 28 K–a1
B–c3# 29

It’s seen that the ending is rather laborious. There’s two outstanding features: the close following by the
King, and the controlling of the squares of opposite colour to the Bishop by the combined action of the
Knight and King. The student would do well to exercise themselves methodically in this ending, as it gives
a very good idea of the actual power of the pieces, and it requires foresight in order to accomplish the mate
within the fifty moves which are granted by the rules.
6.4. THE END GAME 55

6.4.9 Queen Against Rook

This is one of the most difficult endings without Pawns. The re-
sources of the defence are many, and when used skilfully only a very
good player will prevail within the limit of fifty moves allowed by
8
z1kzzzzzz the rules. (The rule is that at any moment you may demand that your
7
z3rzzzzzz opponent mate you within fifty moves. However, every time a piece
6
zz1Kzzzzz is exchanged or a Pawn advances the counting must begin anew).
5
5Qzzzzzzz Diagram 6.28 shows one of the standard positions which Black can
4
zzzzzzzz often bring about. Now, it’s White’s move. If it were Black’s move it
3
zzzzzzzz would be simple, as they would have to move their Rook away from
2
zzzzzzzz the King (find out why), and then the Rook would be comparatively
1
zzzzzzzz easy to win. We deduce from the above that the main object is to
a b c d e f g h force the Black Rook away from the defending King, and that, in
order to compel Black to do so, we must bring about the position in
Diagram 6.28 the diagram with Black to move. Once we know what is required, the
way to proceed becomes easier to find. Thus:

Q–e5+ 1

Not

Q–a6 1

because

... 1 R–c7+
K–b6 2 R–c6+
Kxc6 3

Stalemate. The beginner will invariably fall into this trap. Instead

... 1 K–(a8 or a7)

Q–a1+ 2 K–b8
Q–a5 3

In a few moves we have accomplished our object: the position in Diagram 6.29 but with Black to move.
The first part is concluded. Now we come to the second part. The Rook can only go to a White square,
otherwise the first check with the Queen will win it. Therefore

... 3 R–b3
Q–e5+ 4 K–a8 (best)
Q–h8+ 5 K–a7
Q–g7+ 6 K–a8
Q–g8+ 7 R–b8
Q–a2# 8

6.4.9.1 Variation 1
Now let’s go back to Diagram 6.28 and suppose that after

Q–e5+ 1 K–(a7 or a8)

56 CHAPTER 6. PART II

Q–a1+ 2 K–b8
Q–a5 3 R–b1 (instead of R–b3)

Then we have

Q–e5+ 4 K–a7

Shown in Diagram 6.29.

Now it will be all over in two moves, thus:

Q–d4+ 5 K–a8
8
zzzzzzzz Q–h8+ 6
7
1kzzzzzzz
6
zz1Kzzzzz and the Rook cannot interpose because of Q–a1 checkmate; and
5
zzzz5Qzzz when Black plays
4
zzzzzzzz
3
zzzzzzzz ... 6 K–a7
2
zzzzzzzz Q–h7+ 7
1
zz3rzzzzz wins the Rook.
a b c d e f g h
We have seen the main positions of this kind of ending or rather
Diagram 6.29 After Black’s 4 th the positions that must be finally arrived at before obtaining a definite
result; but to drive the opposing pieces to such ‘Type Positions’ is at
times extremely difficult. In fact There’s some positions where even most of the experts would fail against a
faultless defence, but it should always be borne in mind that it’s just as difficult to put up a first-class defence
as it’s to make a first-class attack, and that all other things being equal the player with the better knowledge
of these fundamentals and ‘Type Positions’ will have the better chance to succeed. It’s outside the scope of
this book to go into such things as only the expert can handle.
The object of the book is to put the reader in such a position that they may by themselves arrive at a point
where they may be expert enough to tackle such problems. Besides, in actual practice, positions of that kind
very rarely occur. Personally I do not remember to have ever had such positions when facing a first-class
opponent.
We leave now the endings for the rest of the book.

6.5 The Middle Game

Very little has been written on this subject. There’s a book by Znosko-Borovsky called ‘The Middle Game
in Chess’. It’s about the only book on the subject that I consider worth reading. Unfortunately the way
the matter is approached in the book makes it difficult for the average player. Furthermore, there is, in my
opinion, a fundamental error at the very beginning of the book that makes more obscure the rest of the
treatise.
At the very beginning of the book the author says:

The elements of chess are:

1. Force, which is displayed in the Chessmen, or pieces, and acts in

2. Space, represented by the chess board, and
3. Time, developing with the moves.
6.5. THE MIDDLE GAME 57

From the above it should follow as the only logical conclusion, and chess is an essentially logical game,
that if a player is ahead in all of the three elements they should have, at least, the better game. Yet, as
the author himself shows later, you may be ahead in all of the three elements and, nevertheless, have a
completely lost game. Why? Because they have left out the element of Position.
It’s true that later they speak of valuation of the position, and of superior and inferior positions, but this
does not correct the original statement. The fact is that chess consists of those three elements plus the
inherent element of Position, and that Position is first, last, and foremost. Position, as the word indicates,
has reference to the location of the pieces on the board; and it’s generally valued by the greater or lesser
mobility of the pieces, plus the pressure that these pieces may exert against different points of the chessboard,
or against certain pieces of the opponent. In appraising the value of a given position the elements of Time,
Space, and Force or Material should be considered. To the average player it will be simple to consider
and appraise at its proper value the element of Force by simply taking the Pawn as a unit and applying the
valuation of the pieces previously explained in the first part of this book.
The element of Space will be easy to value at times. At other times it will be rather difficult. And the
element of Time will be far more elusive, with but few exceptions. In the end game the Time element is of
more importance and also easier to value correctly.
Let’s come back to the middle game and to the elements involved. It might be said that the thing for the
reader to bear in mind is this: You may be behind in Force or Material and yet have a winning Position.
You may be behind in Time and yet have a winning Position. You may be behind in Space and yet have a
winning Position. And finally you may be behind in all three of the other elements, Material, Space, and
Time, and yet have a winning Position.
This does not mean that you should neglect any of the other three elements, but that you should give
preeminence to the element of Position. Examples are given below illustrating each of the points mentioned
above.

6.5.1 Example 1
The position in Diagram 6.30 is from a game between two players of
average strength. It was arrived at as follows:
8
3r2nz5qz3r1kz P–d4 1 P–d5
7
6p4bzz2n6p6p6p P–c4 2 P–e6
6
z6pz4b6pzzz P–e3 3 P–b6
5
zz6pzzzzz N–f3 4 B–d6
4
zzz6P6Pzzz B–d3 5 Pxc4
3
zz2N4Bz2Nzz Bxc4 6 B–b7
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P N–c3 7 N–e7
1
3Rz4B5Q1Kzz3R B–d3 8 O–O
a b c d e f g h P–e4 9 P–c5

Diagram 6.30 An analysis of the opening moves will show that Black has gained
in Time. Yet, White can win the game now as follows:

P–e5 10 B–c7
Bxh7+ 11 Kxh7
N–g5+ 12 K–g6

(Best, since against K–g8 White would play Q–h5.)

Q–g4 13 Qxd4
58 CHAPTER 6. PART II

(Best. White threatened Nxd5+ .)

B–f4 14 P–f5
Q–g3 15

and Black has no defence against White’s multiple threats.

6.5.2 Example 2
The position in Diagram 6.31 is taken from a game Capablanca-Dus-
Chotimirsky played at St. Petersburg on 1913. (See ‘My Chess Ca-
reer’ by J. R. Capablanca). Black has gained in space and at first
8
zz3rzzz1kz glance would seem to have the best of the game. But White, through
7
zzzz4b6p6p6p a series of very pretty combinations, can win the game. The play
6
z5qz6pzzzz continued as follows:
5
z6pz6Pzzzz
4
2n6Pz6p6Pzzz P–e5 25 P–g6
3
zzz4Bz5Qz6P
2
zzzzz6P6Pz To prevent White’s threat of Q–f5 and to block the action of the
1
3Rzzzz2N1Kz Bishop against the ‘h’ Pawn.
a b c d e f g h
P–e6 26 R–f8
Diagram 6.31 N–g3 27 Q–b7

If Pe6xf7, Q–b5, threatening both Bxg6, and also Qxg7+ . Black probably wanted to have their Queen on
the second line for the possible defence of their King.
(It’s easy to see, by removing the Bishop, that Black’s Queen would be defending the whole of the King’s
side.)
Also, they wanted to exchange Queens after Pxe6. The reader
should notice the enormous force exerted by the entrance of the White
Knight into the fray,
8
zzzzz3r1kz
7
z5qzz4b6pz6p N–f5 28 Pxe6
6
zzz6p6Pz6pz
5
z6pz6Pz2Nzz shown in Diagram 6.32. This Knight will be the deciding factor.
4
2n6Pz6pzzzz K–h8 was best, but then Q–e4 would have followed, with a sure
3
zzz4Bz5Qz6P win for White with proper play. Black had been wanting to take this
2
zzzzz6P6Pz Pawn for some time, and had made their previous move with that
1
3Rzzzzz1Kz intention. They did not want to wait any longer and thereby hastened
a b c d e f g h the end. However, they had no valid defence in the position.

Diagram 6.32 After White’s 28th Pxe6 29 Q–c7

Of course they couldn’t take the Queen because of Nxe7 winning a piece.

Q–c6 30
6.5. THE MIDDLE GAME 59

Leading to the position in Diagram 6.33. The Queen of course

cannot be taken because of Nxe7+ . Notice how the Knight exerts
8
zzzzz3r1kz an enormous pressure (f5 is one of the strongest places for a Knight
7
zz5qz4bzz6p when attacking the King castled on that side). White’s Queen’s move
6
zz5Q6p6Pz6pz accomplishes three things: it unpins the Knight, it gains time by forc-
5
z6pzzz2Nzz ing the Black Queen to move, and it brings the Queen in line with
4
2n6Pz6pzzzz the White Bishop (after the Bishop takes the b5 Pawn), controlling
3
zzz4Bzzz6P the diagonal a4–e8. Later on, as a result of this manoeuvre, when
2
zzzzz6P6Pz the Queens are exchanged at d7, the White Bishop will remain there,
1
3Rzzzzz1Kz controlling the square e8, thus protecting the advance of the passed
a b c d e f g h White ‘e’ Pawn which will Queen at e8.
If the reader will carefully consider all these moves and combina-
Diagram 6.33 After White’s 30th tions they will find not only the beauty of the whole thing but, what
is far more important for their progress, the underlying principle of
the middle game: ‘Coordinating the action of the pieces’.
... 30 Q–d8
Nxe7 31 Qxe7
Bxb5 32 N–c3
Q–d7 33 Qxd7
Bxd7 34 R–b8
Black might just as well give up. Had they played 34. . . . , N–d5 instead then
R–d1 35 R–f4
P–g3 36 R–e4
B–c6 37 R–e5
Rxd4 38 N–d7
Rxd6 39 (etc.)
but
P–e7 35
and after some moves Black resigned.

6.5.3 Example 3
In Diagram 6.34 Black is ahead in Force, and yet White wins easily
as follows:
8
3rzz3rzz1kz Nxd6 1 Qxd6
7
zz6pzz6p6p6p (Black’s best move was P–h5, but then with a Pawn more and a
6
6pzz2nz5q4bz good Position. White should have no trouble winning the game.)
5
6Pzz6pz2Nzz
4
z6Pz6Pzz6Pz R–e8 2 Rxe8
3
zz6Pz3Rzz6P Rxe8 3 Rxe8
2
zzzz3R6Pzz Qxe8 4 Q–f8
1
zzzz5Qz1Kz Qxf8+
P–b5
5
6
Kxf8
a b c d e f g h

and Black cannot stop White from getting a Queen and thereby
Diagram 6.34
winning the game.
60 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.5.4 Example 4

8
3rzzzzzz1k
7
6pz5Qzzzz6p
6
zz6pz4bz3r5q
5
zzzz6pzzz The position in Diagram 6.35 is taken from Znosko-Borovsky’s
4
4Bzzz6Pzzz own book. Here White is ahead in all three items, Force, Time,
3
zzzz6Pzzz and Space; and yet Black wins easily by
2
6P6P6Pzzz6Pz
1
zzzz3R3R1Kz 1 Rxg2+
a b c d e f g h Kxg2 2 R–g8+

Diagram 6.35 The reason is simple: Position.

6.5.5 Example 5

8
zzz3r3rz1kz
7
6p6p6pzz6p6p6p
6
z2nz5qz2nzz
5
zzz6Pzzzz Diagram 6.36 presents another position taken from Znosko’s
4
zzz5Qz6Pzz book. Here again White is ahead in all three of the elements of
3
zz2Nzz2Nz6P Force, Time, and Space, and yet they cannot win the game sim-
2
6P6P6Pzzz6Pz ply because Black’s Position compensates these disadvantages.
The examples given should be sufficient for the reader to realize
1
zz1K3Rzzz3R the true value of Position. Let’s now leave this matter for the time
a b c d e f g h
being and consider other points of importance with regard to the
Diagram 6.36 middle game.

6.5.6 Centre Squares

The squares d4, d5, e4 and e5 marked in Diagram 6.37 for both
White and Black are the centre squares. They are the most valu-
8
zzzzzzzz able squares both in the opening and in the middle game, and
7
zzzzzzzz often also in the end game. They deserve therefore special atten-
6
zzzzzzzz tion. A single glance will show that a Bishop or a Queen placed
5
zzzzzzzz on any of these four squares will command more squares than
4
zzzzzzzz anywhere else. Also, a Knight placed on any of the four centre
3
zzzzzzzz squares will be able to move over to either side faster than from
2
zzzzzzzz any other place. Also, in the end game the King placed on any
of those four squares will be able to go faster to either side than
1
zzzzzzzz from any other place. All this is simply a mathematical fact and
a b c d e f g h
in itself sufficient to show the importance of those squares. But
Diagram 6.37 Center Squares There’s other factors to show their importance.
It has been stated already that the best first two opening moves, theoretically, are either P–d4 or P–e4. That
means that the four centre squares are the squares where the battle takes place immediately. Furthermore,
6.5. THE MIDDLE GAME 61

as development takes place the pieces are brought out towards the centre of the board, thus perforce making
the four centre squares of paramount importance. So far as the middle game is concerned, there’s a general
fundamental principle which says

Control of the centre is an essential prerequisite to a successful direct attack against the King.

By control of the centre is meant control of the four centre squares. Later it will be seen how this works in
practice.

6.5.7 Pawn Formations

8
zzzzzzzz 8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzz6pzzz
5
zzzzzzzz 5
zzz6pzzzz
4
zzz6P6Pzzz 4
zzz6P6Pzzz
3
zzzzzzzz 3
zzzzzzzz
2
zzzzzzzz 2
zzzzzzzz
1
zzzzzzzz 1
zzzzzzzz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.38 Early Stages Diagram 6.39 French Defence

Very seldom will an expert permit their opponent to hold such a central formation of Pawns as in Dia-
gram 6.38 for any length of time. They will quickly challenge it by advancing their own centre Pawns or
either of the ‘c’ or ‘f’ Pawns in order to break it up as shown in Diagram 6.39.
The formation of White’s centre Pawns is immediately challenged.

8
zzzzzzzz 8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zz6pzzzzz 5
zzzz6pzzz
4
zzzz6Pzzz 4
zzzz6Pzzz
3
zzzzzzzz 3
zzzzzzzz
2
zzzzzzzz 2
zzzzzzzz
1
zzzzzzzz 1
zzzzzzzz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.40 Sicilian Defence Diagram 6.41 Several Defences

62 CHAPTER 6. PART II

8
zzzzzzzz 8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzz6pzz 5
zzz6pzzzz
4
zzz6Pzzzz 4
zzz6Pzzzz
3
zzzzzzzz 3
zzzzzzzz
2
zzzzzzzz 2
zzzzzzzz
1
zzzzzzzz 1
zzzzzzzz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.42 Dutch Defence Diagram 6.43 Queen’s Pawn Defence

In the Sicilian defence in Diagram 6.40, the ‘d’ Pawn is not permitted to come up level with the ‘e’ Pawn
without the possibility of being captured.
Diagram 6.41 shows Pawn position from a Ruy Lopez, Giuoco Piano, Four Knights, Three Knights and
other openings. Again, as in the previous case, the ‘e’ Pawn is not permitted to come up level with the ‘d’
Pawn, as shown in Diagram 6.42.
And again, for the ‘e’ Pawn in the Queen’s Pawn openings shown in Diagram 6.43, the Pawn is not
permitted to come up level with the ‘d’ Pawn.
We have seen now what takes place in all of the leading openings, according to the best expert opinion.
No better proof is needed of the importance of the four centre squares shown in Diagram 6.37 and of the
centre Pawn formation.

6.5.8 Castled Pawn Formation

8
zzzzzzzz 8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz 5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz 4
zzzzzzzz
3
zzzzzzzz 3
zzzzzzz6P
2
zzzzz6P6P6P 2
zzzzz6P6Pz
1
zzzzzz1Kz 1
zzzzzz1Kz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.44 Defence against Frontal Attack Diagram 6.45 Excellent Formation

It has already been stated that castling on the King’s side is generally safer. In all the following illustrations
it’s assumed that castling has taken place on the King’s side.
The position in Diagram 6.44 is the best defensive Pawn position against frontal attacks1 . The one thing
to guard against in such a position is a possible check by either the Rook or Queen on the first rank. Since
during the middle game such danger very seldom exists, it’s advisable after castling to hold such a formation
of Pawns until circumstances force you to change it.
1
Circles have been added to highlight the squares controlled by the castle Pawns.
6.5. THE MIDDLE GAME 63

An excellent position is shown in Diagram 6.45. Not so strong defensively against a frontal attack as the
previous position, but nearly as good, and it provides an outlet for the King against a check on the first rank.
In practice, in most games, this will be found to be an excellent Pawn position. There’s some good reasons
why the previous position is better than this one, but such reasons only experience can demonstrate. Against
an average player the position of Diagram 6.45 will prove just as good as that of Diagram 6.44, if not better.
It’s only when facing an expert that things may change.

8
zzzzzzzz 8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz 5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz 4
zzzzzzzz
3
zzzzz6Pzz 3
zzzzz6Pz6P
2
zzzzzz6P6P 2
zzzzzz6Pz
1
zzzzzz1Kz 1
zzzzzz1Kz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.46 Deficient Diagram 6.47 Bad ‘V’

The position shown in Diagram 6.46 is not so good, but not yet bad. The disadvantage of this position
is that it exposes the King to check along the diagonal and that, in order to avoid it, White would have to
play K–h1, thus losing time. Furthermore, the King at h1 would be in the worst possible position for an
ending of King and Pawns, since the King would be farthest away from the centre of the board and from the
Queen-side Pawns.

8
zzzzzzzz 8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz 7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz 6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz 5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzzzzzzz 4
zzzzzzzz
3
zzzzzz6Pz 3
zzzzz6Pzz
2
zzzzz6Pz6P 2
zzzzz6Pz6P
1
zzzzzz1Kz 1
zzzzzz1Kz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.48 Bad Inverted ‘V’ Diagram 6.49 Very Bad

64 CHAPTER 6. PART II

8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzzzzz
6
zzzzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz Diagrams 6.47 and 6.48 show bad defensive formations. Be-
4
zzzzzzzz sides, the V and inverted V formations of Pawns create so-called
3
zzzzzzz6P ‘holes’, or places between the Pawns where an enemy piece may
2
zzzzz6Pz6P be posted. A piece posted in such ‘holes’ can be attacked only by
another piece.
1
zzzzzz1Kz Diagrams 6.49 and 6.50 show very bad Pawn formations, The
a b c d e f g h
Pawns are broken up and can only be defended by pieces. Fur-
Diagram 6.50 Very bad thermore, the King is wide open to all kinds of attacks.

6.5.9 Type Positions and Combinations

It’s now time for the reader to familiarize themselves with a number of ‘type positions’ and ‘type combina-
tions’ that are apt to present themselves during the middle game.

6.5.9.1 Example 1

Let’s consider the position of Diagram 6.51. It’s from a game Lasker-
Bauer at Amsterdam in 1889. The forces are even. All White would
have to do is to to play Qxh5. The centre Pawn formation is in favour
8
3rzzzz3r1kz of White, since they control three out of the four centre squares. Fur-
7
z4bzz4b6p6p6p thermore, the two White Bishops are in an ideal attacking position,
6
6p6p5qz6pzzz the best attacking position in fact, for two Bishops against a King cas-
5
zz6p6pzzz2n tled on the King’s side. If White plays the natural move Qxh5, Black
4
zzzzz6Pzz will answer with P–f5, blocking the action of the Bishop at d3, and
3
z6Pz4B6Pzzz will follow that move with B–f6, blocking the action of the Bishop at
2
6P4B6P6P5Qz6P6P b2.
1
3Rzzzz3R1Kz White would in any case have a satisfactory game, but they want to
a b c d e f g h gain something, if they can, from the advantageous position of their
Bishop, and their command of the centre. From those factors they
Diagram 6.51 Lasker-Bauer
now evolve a very pretty combination, winning the game in a few
moves thus:

Bxh7+ 1 Kxh7
Qxh5+ 2 K–g8
Bxg7 3 Kxg7
Q–g4+ 4 K–h7
R–f3 5 P–e5
R–h3+ 6 Q–h6
Rxh6+ 7 Kxh6
Q–d7 8

and White has an easily won game.

6.5. THE MIDDLE GAME 65

6.5.9.2 Example 2
The position in Diagram 6.52 is from a game Nimzovitsch-
Tarrasch at the St. Petersburg International Masters Tournament,
8
zzz3rz3r1kz 1914.
7
6pzzz5q6p6p6p Black’s last move was Pawn from d5 to d4, uncovering the Bishop
6
zz4b4bzzzz at c6. Notice the position of the two Bishops: ‘the strongest at-
5
zz6pzzzzz tacking position for the two Bishops against a King castled on the
King’s side’.
4
zzz6pzzzz White continued
3
z6Pzz6Pzzz
2
6P4B5Q2Nz6P6P6P Pxd4 1 Bxh2+
1
zz3Rzz3R1Kz Kxh2 2 Q–h4+
a b c d e f g h K–g1 3 Bxg2

Diagram 6.52 St. Petersburg 1914 and Black won in a few moves.
In this position White played P–f3. Had they played

Kxg2 4 Q–g4+

followed by

(any) 5 R–d6
(any) 6 R–h6#

Compare this example with the previous one and see how exactly alike are both combinations. This
should be ample proof to the reader of the value of such ‘Type positions’ and ‘Type combinations’. It’s
evident that in similar positions to those shown above there will be similar combinations to those of the text.

6.5.9.3 Example 3

8
zzzz3rz1kz
7
z4bzzz6pz6p There’s other ‘Types’ of positions which are apt to occur more
6
6p6p5qzzz6pz frequently. Take for instance the configuration in Diagram 6.53.
5
zz6pzzzzz Black threatens mate, and if White had to defend it, Black would
4
zzzzzzzz get an excellent game. White, however, mates in three moves as
3
z6Pz6Pz3Rz5Q follows:
2
6P4B6Pzzz6P6P Qxh7+ 1 Kxb7
1
zzzzzzz1K R–h3+ 2 K–g8
a b c d e f g h
R–h8# 3
Diagram 6.53
66 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.5.9.4 Example 4
This same type of combination may come as the result of a somewhat
more complicated position, as shown in Diagram 6.54.
White is a piece behind, and unless they can win it back quickly
8
zzzzz3r1kz they will lose; they therefore play:
7
z4b5qz4b6pz6p
6
6pz2nzzz6pz Nxc6 1 B–g5
5
z6pzzzzzz
4
zzz2Nzzzz They cannot take the Knight because White threatens mate by
3
z6Pz6P3Rzz5Q Qxh7+ followed by R–h3+.
2
6P4B6Pzzz6P6P
1
zzzzzzz1K N–e7+ 2 Qxe7
a b c d e f g h
Again if
Diagram 6.54
... 2 Bxe7
Qxg7 3 Kxg7
R–h2 4 (King moves)
R–h8# 5

Instead

Rxe7 3 Bxe7
Q–d7 4

and White wins one of the two Bishops, remains with a Queen and a Bishop against a Rook and Bishop, and
should therefore win easily. These two examples show the danger of advancing the ‘g’ Pawn one square,
after having castled on that side.

6.5.9.5 Example 5

8
zz5qzz3r1kz Diagram 6.55 presents another very interesting type of combina-
tion. Black has a Rook for a Knight and should therefore win,
7
z4bzzz6p6p6p unless White is able to obtain some compensation immediately.
6
6p6pzzzzzz White, in fact, mates in a few moves thus:
5
zz6pzzzzz
4
zz6Pz2Nzzz N–f6+ 1 Pxf6
3
6P6Pz5Qzzzz
2
z4Bzzz6P6P6P Forced, otherwise Qxh7 mates.
1
zzzzzz1Kz Q–g3+ 2 K–h8
a b c d e f g h
Bxe6# 3
Diagram 6.55
6.5. THE MIDDLE GAME 67

6.5.9.6 Example 6

8
zz5qz3r3r1kz The same type of combination occurs in a more complicated form
in the position shown in Diagram 6.56.
7
z4b6p2nz6p6p6p
6
6p6pz6pzzzz Bxd7 1 Qxd7
5
z4Bzzzzzz
4
zzzz2Nzzz If 1. . . . Bxe4; 2. Q–c3 threatens mate, and therefore wins the
3
z6Pz5Q3Rzzz Queen, which is already attacked.
2
6P4B6Pzz6P6P6P N–f6+ 2 Pxf6
1
zzzzzz1Kz R–g3+ 3 K–h8
a b c d e f g h
Bxf6# 4
Diagram 6.56

6.5.9.7 Example 7

A very frequent type of combination is shown in Diagram 6.57.

Here, White is the exchange and a Pawn behind, but they can win
8
3rzzz5q3r1kz quickly thus:
7
z6p6pzz6p6p6p
6
6pz2n6pzzzz Bxh7+ 1 Kxh7
5
zzz5Qzzzz (If
4
zzzzzzzz
3
6Pzz4Bz2Nzz ... 1 K–h8
2
z6P6Pzz6P6P6P Q–h5 2 P–g6
1
zzz3Rzz1Kz Q–h6 3
a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.57 and wins.)

Q–h5+ 2 K–g8
N–g5 3

and Black cannot stop mate at h7 except by sacrificing the Queen by Q–e4, which would leave White
with a Queen for a Rook.
68 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.5.9.8 Example 8
This same type of combination is seen in a more complicated form in
Diagram 6.58.
White proceeds as follows:
8
zz2n4bz3r1kz
7
z6p5q3r2n6p6p6p Nxe7+ 1
6
6pzz6pzzzz
5
zz6p5Qz2Nzz (this clears the line for the Bishop);
4
zzzzzz6Pz ... 1 Bxe7
3
z6Pz4Bz2Nz6P
2
6Pzzz3R6Pzz (to stop the Knight from moving to g5 after the sacrifice of the
1
zzz3Rzz1Kz Bishop);
a b c d e f g h

Rxe7 2 Nxe7 (best)

Diagram 6.58
Bxh7+ 3 Kxh7

if

... 3 K–h8
Q–h5 4 P–g6
Bxg6+ 5 K–g2
Q–h7+ 6 K–f6
P–g5 7 K–e6
Bxf7 8 Rxf7
Q–e4# 9

Continuing,

Q–h5+ 4 K–g8
N–g5 5 R–c8
Q–h7+ 6 K–f8
Q–h8+ 7 N–g8
N–h7+ 8 K–e7
R–e1+ 9 K–d8
Qxg8# 10

This combination is rather long with many variations, and therefore a beginner will hardly be able to
fathom it. But, knowing the type of combination, they might under similar circumstances undertake and
carry out a brilliant attack which they would otherwise never think of. It will be seen that all the combinations
shown have for a foundation the proper coordination of the pieces, which have all been brought to bear
against a weak point.

6.5.10 Valuation of Position in The Middle Game

To judge accurately the value of an involved position is one of the most difficult things in chess. Certain
positions are easy to judge, others are extremely difficult. Very often the main difference between two
experts is the superior ability of one over the other in judging accurately the value of the different positions
during the course of a game. From their conclusions regarding any given position the chess master decides
on the procedure to follow. It’s evident that a profound discussion of this aspect of the game would be
beyond the scope of this book.
6.5. THE MIDDLE GAME 69

Certain general lines, however, may be given that will help the average player to decide which side has
the better position. The first thing to look at is Material. If one side is one Pawn ahead that constitutes an
advantage, and very often a decisive advantage among players of equal strength. To upset such an advantage
there must be for the other player a much greater freedom of action for their pieces (that would generally be
a gain in Space), or they would need to have the possibility of a strong attack against some weak point which
would result in their recovering at least the lost Pawn. As a compensation they might also have an attack
against the King involving the possibility of mate. This latter alternative would be much more common
among average players, as they’re generally more apt to see a chance for an attack against the King than for
an attack against weak points.

The second thing to consider would be the greater or lesser freedom of the pieces together with the greater
or lesser chances of coordinating their action. A cramped position is a bad position. An open position with
freedom for the pieces, but with the pieces so placed that their action cannot be coordinated for some time,
is a bad position. In general the things to consider are: Force, Freedom of manoeuvre, and Coordination
of the action of the pieces. Let’s look at some examples from actual play.

6.5.10.1 Example 1

Position in Diagram 6.59 is from a game Rubinstein-Vidmar, In-

8
zzzzz3r1kz ternational Masters Tournament, London, 1922
7
6pz6pzz6p6p6p In Diagram 6.59 White is a Pawn ahead. The King’s side Pawns
6
4B2nzzzzzz of both sides are united and in good formation. Black’s Queen-
5
zzz4bzzzz side Pawns are isolated and cannot advance. White’s lonesome
4
zzz6Pzzz5q Pawn on the Queen’s side is very much in the same situation. The
Black Bishop at d5 is in a commanding position, better posted
3
5Qzzz6Pzzz than White’s Bishop, and the Black Queen is ready to cooperate
2
6Pzz2Nz6P6P6P with the Bishop in a possible attack against White’s King. But a
1
zzzzz3R1Kz Queen and Bishop alone are not enough for such an attack against
a b c d e f g h
a solid defensive position such as White has on their King’s side.
Diagram 6.59 Rubinstein vs. Vid- It does not take much time to arrive at the conclusion that White
mer has a winning position.

In the actual game White played P–e4. (The Pawn cannot be taken because of P–g3 winning the Bishop.)
This was done in order to drive away the Bishop from the commanding position at d5.

It was a very energetic way to continue the game, but if White did not have such a move at their disposal
they could play R–c1 attacking the ‘c’ Pawn and making room for their Bishop at f1, in case it should be
found convenient to bring it back to the defence of their King.

In fact, even if it were Black’s move and they made their strongest threat Q–g5, White could answer with
either P–f3 or P–g3 and still have a winning game because of the great preponderance of Pawns on the
King’s side.
70 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.5.10.2 Example 2
The position in Diagram 6.60 is from a game in the International
Masters Tournament, London, 1922
Again one of the players, Black in this case, is a Pawn ahead, and
8
zz3r3rzz1kz they has a solid Pawn formation. They may have trouble from
7
z6pzzz6p6p6p the fact that one of their Knights is pinned by the White Bishop.
6
6pz2n5qz2nzz White has a broken Pawn formation and if it comes to an ending
5
zzzz6pzzz they must lose. Their only chance is to attack the Black King.
4
zzzzzzz4B White threatens to play N–e4 followed by either Bxf6 or Nxf6 and
3
6Pz2Nz5Q6Pzz then R–g1, etc. All this is possible because the Bishop is pinning
2
6Pz6Pzzzz6P the Black Knight and because of the greater power of the Bishop
over the Knight in an open board.
1
3Rzzz3Rzz1K Yet, so large is the advantage of Black in material, because of the
a b c d e f g h
extra Pawn combined with the broken Pawn formation of White,
Diagram 6.60 Znosko-Borovsky that I am inclined to believe Black would have a very good game
vs. Euwe even if it were White’s move.
This belief is based on the fact that, if it were White’s move and they played N–e4, Black could reply
Nxe4 and obtain an excellent game.
However, as it’s Black’s move they can avoid all trouble by attacking at once, thus taking the initiative
away from their opponent. Their best move is N–d5, threatening both the ‘c’ Pawn and N–b5, and also
making room for their Queen at c6. White would not be able to parry all these threats. In the actual game
Black made a very bad move:

... 23 R–e8

The game continued:

R–g1 24

(White threatens many things now, among them a very pretty combination beginning with Rxg7+) The
position is most interesting. Black made another bad move

... 24 N–e7

and lost because of

R–d1 25 Q–c6
Bxf6 26 Qxf6
N–e4 27 Q–c6
N–d6 28

winning the exchange.

6.5.10.2.1 Variation 1 The fact is that Black had only one satisfactory option at move 24 above, a very
difficult move to find, and yet a very logical move; that move was

... 24 N–h5

Then might follow:

6.5. THE MIDDLE GAME 71

N–e4 25 Q–e6
Q–g5 26 P–f6

(The saving move; Black gives back the extra Pawn but is now able to coordinate the action of their pieces
for the defence of their King, and then, because of the superiority of their Pawn formation, should be able to
obtain a winning game). The position after Black’s initial error, R–e8, is full of possibilities and will repay
a close study.

6.5.10.3 Example 3

8
zz4bzz5q1kz
7
6pz6pzz6pz6p
6
zz6p4b2nz6pz
5
zzzz6pzzz
4
z3r6Pz6Pzz2N The position in Diagram 6.61 is from a game Capablanca –
Janowski, Havana International Tournament, 1913.
3
zzzzzzzz White has the advantage for the game ahead. The Pawn forma-
2
6P6Pz3R5Q6P6P6P tion is good and There’s no immediate mate-threatening attacks
1
3Rzz2Nzz1Kz by Black; therefore White with proper play should win the game.
a b c d e f g h
In the actual game White did not adopt the best defensive course,
Diagram 6.61 Capablanca– and consequently had trouble; but nevertheless because of their
Janowski material advantage they were finally able to win.

6.5.10.4 Example 4

The position of Diagram 6.62 is very difficult to judge accurately.

Black has three Pawns for a Knight, and apparently a very strong at-
tack against White’s King. In material White is actually a little ahead.
8
zz3rzzz1kz During the opening and early middle game a Knight or Bishop is
7
z4bzz4b6p6pz worth more than three Pawns. If the three Pawns were on the Queen’s
6
zzzzzzz6p side where they could be advanced quickly, then Black would be bet-
5
6p6p3rzzzzz ter off in material. But the three Pawns are on the King’s side and
4
zzz5Q6pzzz cannot be freely advanced because they’re needed for the protection
3
z4Bzz4B5qzz of the King.
2
6P6Pzzz6P2Nz If Black had no attack there would not be any question about White
1
zzz3Rz3R1Kz having the best of the game, but there is an attack, and that factor must
a b c d e f g h be considered in appraising the value of the position.
If the attack can be beaten off without suffering any additional loss
Diagram 6.62 Reti vs. Yates either in Time, Space, or Material, the position of White must per-
force be improved, and in that case it would be White for choice. In this position almost every expert would
take Black for choice. The average player should take Black for choice. In such positions the defence is far
more difficult than the attack. Besides, the average player should always try to play an attacking game, and
when such an opportunity presents itself they should not hesitate.
My personal opinion is that by playing R–d2, White could stand off all of Black’s threats, and if that is the
case it would be White for choice. In the actual game White played Q–d7, a bad move which would have
lost had Black countered with R–c5 –f7, driving the Queen away from the diagonal h3 – c8, and followed
with R–f6 threatening R–g6. Black, however, failed to make the right move and lost.
72 CHAPTER 6. PART II

It’s not the purpose of this chapter to play out these positions, but merely to consider them in a general
way in order to ascertain the true value of the position. Let’s go back to the position in Diagram 6.62 and
study it further. Black’s immediate threat is R–h5 to be followed by Q–h3 and mate at h8. White’s move
Q–d7 was made to prevent such a thing, but it was wrong because the Queen could be driven off and another
threat made that couldn’t be stopped.
The move that I propose, R–d2, stops all those threats. It makes room for the Bishop at d8, where it would
attack the Queen at f3 and at the same time control the diagonal d8 – h4. The move R–d2 also keeps latent
the threat of Q–d7, which this time would be very effective if permitted to materialize. The move R–d2 also
liberates the Bishop at e3 which now cannot be moved because of P–e3, threatening Qxg2 mate. But after
R–d2, P–e3 would be met by Pxe3, the Rook at d2 defending the Knight at g2. Once the Bishop at e3 can be
moved to some place, for instance f4, there would be room for the Knight at g2 to go to e3 and thus slowly
the White pieces would be worked into better positions. At the same time White’s position would become
freer. And if all this could be accomplished without loss of Material, Space, or Time, then there should not
be any doubt as to which side had the better of it.

6.5.10.5 Example 5

The position in Diagram 6.63 is from the London International Tour-

nament, 1922
8
zzzz3r3r1kz This is a different type of position. In this case it’s easy to see who
has the advantage. White’s position is solid, with no weakness, good
7
z4bzzz6pzz Pawn formation and good coordination of the pieces. Black on the
6
6pz6p5qzz6p6p other side has some holes in their position: their pieces cannot work
5
z6pz6p2Nzz2n all together; the Pawn formation is bad on both sides, especially on
4
zzz6Pzzzz the Queen’s side, and the Black squares on the Queen’s side are fully
3
z5Qz2N6Pzzz controlled by White. From the above it’s evident that White must
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P have a won position, since Black has no compensation for their many
1
zz3Rz3Rz1Kz weak points. In the game White won as follows:
a b c d e f g h

N–c5 23 B–c8
Diagram 6.63 Capablanca–
Nxa6 24 B–b7
Znosko-Borovsky Wiite
N–c5 25 B–c8
Nc5–d3 26 B–b7
R–c2 27 R–c8
Re1–c1 28 Rf8–e8
P–a4 29

and White won easily. This example is interesting only because it shows the weaknesses of such position
as Black had.
6.5. THE MIDDLE GAME 73

6.5.10.6 Example 6

The position in Diagram 6.64 is a difficult one to judge. The Pawn

formation is bad both for White and for Black, but Black has an ad-
vanced passed ‘a’ Pawn which threatens to go on to Queen. Black’s
8
zzzz3rz1kz Queen, Rook, and Knight are placed offensively and have more free-
7
zzzzzz6p4b dom than White’s pieces. White on the other hand has all their pieces
6
6pzz6pz6pz6p placed defensively and both their ‘e’ Pawn and ‘d’ Pawn are sub-
5
zz2n6Pz6Pzz jected to attack. The only way to defend them both would be to play
4
6pz6Pz6Pz6Pz N–d2, but then Black would answer with Q–b4 and the ‘a’ Pawn of
3
z5qzz5Q2N2N6P Black would be free to advance. On these counts it’s all in Black’s
2
zzzz3Rz1Kz favour, and if there were no other important considerations it would
1
zzzzzzzz be all over with White.
a b c d e f g h There is, however, a very important item in White’s favour and that
is the position of Black’s Bishop at h7. That Bishop is not only cut
Diagram 6.64 Capablanca vs. Bo-
off completely from the action of the game but, what is worse, it has
goljuboff
no way to come into play. White is therefore playing as though Black
were a piece ahead. On that assumption, White must take the initiative, if at all possible, in order to make
their extra force tilt the balance in their favour. Actually the game continued:

N–d4 36 Qxe3

(Black couldn’t play Qxd4 because of R–c2 followed by N–e4, leaving them in a helpless situation);

Rxe3 37 R–b8
R–c3 38 K–f7
K–f3 39 R–b2
Ng3–e2 40

6.5.10.7 Example 7

8
zzzzzzzz
7
zzzzz1k6p4b
6
6pzz6pz6pz6p
5
zz2n6Pz6Pzz
4
6pz6P2N6Pz6Pz
3
zz3Rzz1Kz6P There cannot be any question now as to which side has the better
2
z3rzz2Nzzz game in Diagram 6.65. Black’s Bishop is still out of the game
1
zzzzzzzz while the White Knights are getting together preparatory to the
final assault. In the actual game Black resigned on their 52nd
a b c d e f g h
move. This example shows how valuable is the knowledge of the
Diagram 6.65 Capablanca - Bo- Fundamental Principles, and how well rewarded their application
goljuboff can be.
74 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.5.10.8 Example 8

8
zzzzzzz1k
7
z5qzz4bz6pz Diagram 6.66 shows a position from the London International
6
zzzz6pzz6p Tournament, 1922.
5
zzz4b6P6pzz The valuation here’s rather simple. Black’s single Pawn at a4
4
6pzz2N6p6Pzz holds the two of White’s Pawns on the Queen’s side while Black’s
3
6Pzzz4Bzz6P extra Pawn on the King’s side is free and can be stopped from
2
z6Pzzzz6Pz advancing only by one of White’s pieces. Black furthermore has
1
zz5Qzzzz1K two Bishops. For the rest the positions are very much the same,
and therefore Black must have the best of the game.
a b c d e f g h
Actually the game was drawn, but several errors were made on
Diagram 6.66 Borovsky–Maroczy both sides.

6.5.10.9 Example 9

The valuation is simple for the position in Diagram 6.67 from the
London International Tournament in 1922.
8
3r3rzz4bz2nz The forces are equal, but Black has three weak Pawns: the ‘e’,
‘c’, and ‘a’. The ‘a’ Pawn would be strong and a source of worry
7
6pzzz5qz1k6p to White if it were far advanced and properly protected, but in its
6
zzzz6pz6pz backward position it can only be a weakness. Black’s one good point
5
zzzz6P6pzz is the possession of an open file by one of their Rooks. If the Bishop
4
zz6p6Pz6Pzz at e8 could be placed at d5 via c6, thus protecting one of the weak
3
zz6Pzz2Nzz Pawns and at the same time exerting pressure along the long diagonal,
2
zz4B5Qzz6P6P Black’s game would not be bad; but such is not the case, because
1
3Rzzz3Rz1Kz White’s first move will be B–a4.
a b c d e f g h White on their side has no weak point at all. Their wedge-like for-
mation of Pawns is very strong aggressively. They also has enough
Diagram 6.67 Bogojuboff–
freedom of manoeuvre for their pieces. From the above, the advan-
Wahltuch
tage must rest with White.
White’s first move in this position was B–a4 in order to exchange the Bishop, thus stopping it from going
to d5 and also taking away a possible defender of the weak ‘d’ Pawn and the weak ‘e’ Pawn. The move also
frees the Queen, which now may enter Black’s territory via a2.
In the actual game White very soon won a couple of Pawns, the weak ‘c’ Pawn and ‘e’ Pawn, and shortly
afterwards Black resigned. The different examples shown should give the reader a good idea of the way
to judge the value of a given position. We now leave this part of the game to go into the chapter on the
openings.

6.6 The Openings

Probably the books on the openings outnumber all the other chess books put together. Almost all of these
books are purely technical and therefore of very little value to the average player. There’s thousands of
variations in a single opening. Take the Ruy Lopez for instance: it would be easy to write a whole book on
this opening alone. Such a book would be very valuable to the expert, but of very little use to the average
player. The expert, with their thorough knowledge of the game, would derive great benefit from a book
6.6. THE OPENINGS 75

which would exhaust or nearly exhaust the possibilities of a single opening. The expert could go through
such a book in a very short time and master everything in it. The average player could not do such a thing.
Besides, after going through the opening stages, the expert would know how to handle the middle game
and the end game in such a way as to derive all possible advantage from their knowledge of the opening.
The average player cannot do this. For them the study of such a book requires a great deal of patience and
time, more than most people are willing to devote to the study of the game of chess. A book of this type is a
dry book, and all things considered does not pay, except as a sort of encyclopedia or reference book. Being
purely technical, such books do not teach the general laws and principles which govern a game of chess.
It’s for these reasons that I have always considered purely technical books on the openings as fit only for
experts or near experts. For the average player it’s better to have a book dealing with the openings in a more
general way. To the expert every little detail counts, but the average player cannot concern themselves with
such minute analysis, and must limit themselves to broad lines of a general character, with the assurance
that if the principles are sound they’re bound to come out in good shape. Method and care are needed in the
opening. The whole structure of the game may be the result of the first few moves.
For the sake of experience and practice it may be well to vary the openings, but for the sake of efficiency
it might be better to stick to one single opening for the attack, and one single opening or method of devel-
opment for the defence. This system may be followed until the one opening in question has been mastered.
Then the player may take up a new opening, and thus gradually reach the point where they feels familiar
with half a dozen different openings. Half a dozen different openings, well learned, are about all the average
player needs to obtain good results. Later on, if they find it convenient and to their liking, they may try still
others. They should consider the opening simply as the early part of the game, where their object should be
to bring out their pieces with method and care in order to build a solid Position from which later they will
be able to evolve their plans and combinations for the middle game.
Let’s now see the practical application of the ideas expounded above.

6.6.1 General Opening Challenges

Diagram 6.68 is a double problem confronting the player before the
first move is made: to bring their pieces into action as quickly as
possible, but to do so in such a way as to control as much as possible
8
3r2n4b5q1k4b2n3r the four centre squares. If White could evolve a plan whereby they
7
6p6p6p6p6p6p6p6p might within a few moves get their pieces out and at the same time
6
zzzzzzzz obtain undoubted control of the centre, White would theoretically
5
zzzzzzzz have a winning position. It therefore follows that White should strive
4
zzzzzzzz for such a thing while Black must try to block the attempt. White,
3
zzzzzzzz having the first move, has the initiative. The initiative means time
2
6P6P6P6P6P6P6P6P and action, and is therefore an advantage.
1
3R2N4B5Q1K4B2N3R With these facts in mind it’s easier to see what is to be done. There
a b c d e f g h are four Pawn moves, namely P–f4, P–e4, P–d4, and P–c4, which
would immediately begin the attempt to control the centre.
Diagram 6.68 Of these four moves P–f4 is the only one which does not open the
way for the action of one of the pieces and should therefore be the weakest of the four moves. Next in line
comes P–c4 which opens the way for the Queen only. And finally There’s the other two moves, P–e4 and
P–d4, which open the way for the Queen and a Bishop, and should therefore be the two best opening moves.
There’s yet two other opening moves, N–f3 and N–c3, which would seem to fill the bill. They are both
good moves, especially N–f3, but for the purpose of this book it’s better not to take them up at the present
time. It might indeed be well to state at once that White can make almost any move for a first move without
getting a bad game. The only exceptions would be P–g4, P–f3 and possibly N–h3 and N–a3. P–h4 would be
a poor opening move, and to a lesser extent P–a4. Black’s choice, on the other hand, is far more restricted,
76 CHAPTER 6. PART II

and against certain moves of White the choice is very limited indeed. Let’s now go back to Diagram 6.68
and examine one of White’s two best opening moves:

P–e4 1

Black has the choice of four moves recognized as the best answers to White’s opening move. These four
moves are P–e5 (probably the best), P–d6 (the so-called French defence), P–c6 (the CaroKann defence), and
P–d5 (the Sicilian defence). By choosing one of the last three moves and playing it all the time, a player
will soon become familiar with this type of game and probably obtain good results. They will however lose
a great deal of the fun of the game through lack of variety. They will also work less with their imagination
and not be so keen when faced with a new problem. According to their own temperament and inclination,
the player should decide whether to use regularly one single opening or play any of several openings.

... 1 P–e5

It’s now White who has the choice. They may play

N–c3 2

(the best move) or

N–c4 2

or

B–c4 2

all standard moves, and they could also play a Centre Gambit with P–d4 or a King’s Gambit with P–e4.
The gambit moves on the King’s side are inferior. They have for object to draw away Black’s centre Pawn
in order to obtain a better control of the centre. Experience has shown, however, that in either case Black
may safely take the Pawn and quickly equalize the game or get the better of it. Formerly, before the study of
the game had advanced as in late years, the masters indulged in all kinds of gambits. Nowadays, with one or
two exceptions, no good player would use such gambits in a serious contest. Later on we will give the main
variations of these gambits to show why they’re not played by the experts.

N–f3 2 N–c6

Black could have also played either N–f6, the Petroff or Russian defence, or P–d6, the Philidor defence.
Both those moves are considered by the majority of the experts as slightly inferior to the text move. Any
other move would be vastly inferior. Thus, B–c5 is bad because of Nxe5, White winning a Pawn without
sufficient compensation from Black. 2. . . . P–f6 would be fatal because of Nxe5 threatening check at h5,
and 2. . . . Q–f3 would not be good because of either N–c3 or P–d4 giving White a great advantage in
development. In general it’s bad play to bring the Queen out so early in the game, before a couple of minor
pieces are out. The Queen needs the help of the minor pieces either for protection or for attack.

B–b5 3

Probably the best move in this position. This constitutes the Ruy Lopez, one of the oldest and best of the
openings. With the exception of the Queen’s Gambit, it’s probably the strongest opening for White. So far
every move of White has been both of a developing and of an attacking nature.

... 3 P–d6
6.6. THE OPENINGS 77

The original Steinitz defence. A purely defensive move which by itself justifies White’s choice of moves.
There’s other defences such as 3. . . . P–a6 followed, after 4. B–a4, by either 4. . . . N–f6 or 4. . . . P–d6. It’s
also followed by 4 B–f4, but I consider that move inferior to the other two. Personally I favour, now, the
defence 3. . . . P–f4; 4. B–h4, P–d6. I believe it gives Black a better chance to make a counter demonstration
and assume the initiative at the slightest error on White’s part.
Other defences, such as 3. . . . N–e2 or B–c5 or Q–c6, are vastly inferior, as would be also 3. . . . B–e7
which would be met by P–d4. 3. . . . N–e7 would be met by P–d4. 3. . . . Q–c6 would be met by N–c3, and
3. . . . B–c5 would be met by P–c3 followed by P–d4.
Careful consideration will show how quickly White would gain in
development after any weak defensive move by Black. That is the
point for the student to bear in mind,
8
3rzz5q1kzz3r
7
6p6p6p4b4b6p6p6p P–d4 4 B–d7
6
zz2n6pz2nzz
5
z4Bzz6pzzz Black does not want to give up the centre and therefore defends
4
zzz6P6Pzzz their ‘e’ Pawn indirectly. The student should thoroughly analyse
3
zz2Nzz2Nzz these situations. In this variation all of White’s opening moves are
2
6P6P6Pzz6P6P6P very forceful, while Black’s parries are full of finesse.
1
3Rz4B5Q3Rz1Kz N–c3 5 N–f6
a b c d e f g h
O–O 6 B–e7 List 2
Diagram 6.69 After White’s 7th R–e1 7
Leading to the position in Diagram 6.69.
White’s last move is Dr. Tarrasch’s combination to force Black to exchange their centre Pawn and give
up the centre. It’s a deep-laid trap. Apparently nothing has been changed by the last move, and yet if Black
should now castle, they will either lose a Pawn or the quality. Thus:

... 7 O–O
Bxc6 8 Bxc6
Pxe5 9 Pxe5
Qxd8 10 Ra8xd8
Nxe5 11 Bxe4
Nxe4 12 Nxe4
N–d3 13 P–f5
P–f3 14 B–c5+
Nxc5 15 Nxc5
B–g5 16 R–d5
B–e7 17 R–d8
P–c4 18

and Black must either lose the Knight or give up the Rook for the Bishop.
78 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.6.1.1 Variation 1
Since Black needs to castle in order to continue their development
from the position in Diagram 6.69, they must play as follows2 after
the moves in List 2
8
3rzz5qzz1kz
7
6pz6p4b3r6p6p2n ... 7 Pxd4
6
zz6p6pzzz6p Nxd4 8 O–O
5
zzzzzzzz
4
zzz2N6Pzzz White has gained the control of the centre, but Black’s position is
3
zz2N5Qzzzz very solid. Experience has shown that a good defensive player can
hold their own in such a position. Many games have continued:
2
6P6P6Pzz6P6P6P
1
3Rzzz3Rz1Kz Bxc6 9 Pxc6
a b c d e f g h
B–g5 10 R–e8
Diagram 6.70 After Black’s 13th Q–d3 11 P–h6
B–h4 12 N–h7
Bxe7 13 Rxe7

This position, shown in Diagram 6.70, is worth study. White has no apparent weak point, and has freedom
for their pieces, but they have nothing to attack. Black’s position is solid and the Bishop at d7 becomes a
tower of strength. At times, Black in this position has played their Queen to b8, attacking White’s ‘b’ Pawn,
and then brought it forward to b6, defending the whole Queen’s side and making room for their ‘a’ Rook
which will go to e8. The Knight at h7 is worked around via f8 and e6, or via g5 and e6, to exchange one
of the White Knights, or to get either to c5 or f4. At other times it’s worked via f8 to g6 where it’s kept in
reserve to go to e5 or g4 as the occasion demands.
If the Queens are exchanged, Black has a good ending because of the superiority of the Bishop over the
Knight in endings with Pawns on both sides of the board, and also because the combination of Rook and
Bishop is generally stronger than the combination of Rook and Knight. Black’s only real weakness is their
isolated ‘a’ Pawn, but it’s evident that it will be rather difficult to attack this Pawn.

6.6.1.2 Variation 2
Because the position in Diagram 6.70 has not been found so satisfac-
tory for White as it appears at first glance, the experts have tried to
improve White’s play after move 6 in List 2, the position shown in
8
3rzz5q1kzz3r Diagram 6.71.
7
6p6p6p4b4b6p6p6p Instead of playing now R–e1 to force exchanging Pawns, some
6
zz2n6pz2nzz have tried
5
z4Bzz6pzzz
4
zzz6P6Pzzz Bxc6 7 Bxc6
3
zz2Nzz2Nzz Q–d3 8
2
6P6P6Pzz6P6P6P threatening to win a Pawn and forcing
1
3Rz4B5Qz3R1Kz
a b c d e f g h
... 8 Pxd4
Diagram 6.71 After Black’s 6th Nxd4 9 B–d7

(the Bishop is too valuable to allow the exchange at c6);

2
The pair of unspecified moves 7. . . . , (White); 8. (Black) appear to have been missed in the original counting, and are ignored
here.
6.6. THE OPENINGS 79

B–g5 10

with a very solid position and a freer game than Black. Black on the other hand has a solid position and
no weak isolated Pawn, but they have much less freedom of movement than before. Yet, it cannot be said
that White has a winning position. Good defensive play will probably get Black out of trouble.
We have now gone over one of the main variations of this most important opening. Because of its impor-
tance we are giving below some of the main variations used by the experts, with very light comments of a
general nature.

6.6.2 Ruy Lopez and Variations

The Ruy Lopez is named after the 16th -century Spanish priest Ruy
López de Segura and begins
P–e4 1 P–e5
8
3rz4b5q1k4b2n3r N–f3 2 N–c6
7
z6p6pzz6p6p6p B–b5 3 P–a6
List 3
6
6pz2n6pzzzz B–a4 4 P–d6
5
zzzz6pzzz Black’s third move P–a6 constitutes the so-called Morphy defence,
4
4Bzzz6Pzzz since that great player always made this move against the Ruy Lopez.
3
zzzzz2Nzz By combining this move with P–d6, the Steinitz defence, shown in
2
6P6P6P6Pz6P6P6P Diagram 6.72, we have what might very well be called a Morphy-
1
3R2N4B5Q1Kzz3R Steinitz defence. Why it has not been called that is hard to say. It
a b c d e f g h would link two of the greatest names in all the history of Chess.
The advantage of this combination of moves are mainly twofold:
Diagram 6.72 After Black’s 4th
it threatens P–f5, which would be a threat to White’s centre and also
a threat to take the initiative away from White; and it also prevents
White from playing P–d4 at once because of

P–d4 5 P–b5
B–b3 6 Nxd4
Nxd4 7 Pxd4

and White cannot play

Qxd4 8

because of

... 8 P–c5
... 9 P–c6
... 10 P–c4

winning a piece.
White would therefore have to continue with

B–d5 8 R–b8
Qxd4 9 N–f6

and Black has a very good game because of the time gained in developing their pieces.
80 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.6.2.1 Variation 1
Let’s go back to the position in Diagram 6.72. After the moves in List 3, White may play

Bxc6+ 5 Pxc6
P–d4 6

Black may now play P–f6, holding the centre. It’s true that Black’s position will be somewhat cramped,
but in exchange they have a very compact game with two Bishops, always an advantage. And, the absence
of a White Bishop on the White diagonals makes Black’s King much safer.

6.6.2.2 Variation 2
Following Black’s 3rd move in List 3
..
8
3rz4bz1kz2n3r Bxc6 4
.
Pd7xc6
7
z6p6pzz6p6p6p P–d4 5 Pxd4
6
6pz6p4bzzzz Qxd4 6 Qxd4
5
zzzzzzzz Nxd4 7 B–d6
4
zzz2N6Pzzz
3
zzzzzzzz As shown in Diagram 6.73, White has four Pawns to three on the
2
6P6P6Pzz6P6P6P King’s side, while Black’s double Pawn on the Queen’s side makes
1
3R2N4Bz1Kzz3R their preponderance of Pawns on that side of less consequence. If
all the pieces were taken away from the board at this moment, White
a b c d e f g h
would have a winning King and Pawn ending. It’s on that assump-
Diagram 6.73 After Black’s 7 th tion that White plays this variation. It follows that it’s to White’s
advantage to exchange from now on. Black on the other hand has
two Bishops and a very free game, and should derive some benefit from it.
It’s my personal opinion that the Black King in this variation should be kept on the King’s side, so that as
pieces are exchanged and fewer are left on the board the Black King may be ready to meet the advance of
White’s Pawns on the King’s side where White has the preponderance of force. In Pawn endings, whenever
possible, the King must become a fighting piece.

6.6.2.3 Variation 2
Following Black’s 3rd move in List 3
..
.
8
3rz4b5qz3r1kz B–a4 4 N–f6
7
zz6pz4b6p6p6p O–O 5 B–e7
List 4
6
6pz2n6pz2nzz R–e1 6 P–b5
5
z6pzzzzzz B–b3 7 P–d6
P–c3 8 O–O
4
zzz6p6Pzzz P–d4 9 Pxd4
3
z4B6Pzz2Nzz Leading to the position in Diagram 6.74. This move in conjunction
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P with the previous one is Bogoljuboff’s idea. They disrupt the balance
1
3R2N4B5Q3Rz1Kz or equilibrium of the position. Apparently they give up the centre,
a b c d e f g h
but that is only for a moment. As soon as White plays Pxd4, they
play
Diagram 6.74 After Black’s 9th
Pxd4 10 B–g4 List 5
threatening Bxf3, and if White answers with
6.6. THE OPENINGS 81

B–e3 11

they continue with

... 11 N–a5

threatening to exchange one of the Bishops and ready to play P–c5 when convenient, breaking up White’s
centre and obtaining a preponderance of Pawns on the Queen’s side against White’s preponderance of Pawns
on the King’s side. Since the Black Pawns are not only advanced but are free to continue their advance, while
the White Pawns on the King’s side are handicapped by the presence of the King behind them, the resulting
position from that point of view would be all in Black’s favour.

6.6.2.4 Variation 3
White, however, has compensation elsewhere. Besides, White can stop the whole scheme by following the
moves in List 5 by playing on their 11th move N–c3 instead of B–e3. Should Black then play

N–c3 11 Bxf3
Pxf3 12

would give White an excellent game. All these variations should prove to the student that if the develop-
ment is made along sound lines there will always be a way to meet any scheme that the adversary may try
to concoct.

6.6.2.5 Variation 4
Starting from the position after the 7th moves in List 4,

P–c3 8 N–a5
8
3rz4bzz3r1kz B–c2 9 P–c5
7
zz5qz4b6p6p6p P–d4 10 Q–c7
6
6pzz6pz2nzz
5
2n6p6pz6pzzz Leading to the position in Diagram 6.75, showing a very old form
4
zzz6P6Pzzz of defence. As usual, development has taken place in a battle for
3
zz6Pzz2Nzz the control of the centre. Both positions are solid, but Black has a
2
6P6P4Bzz6P6P6P weaker Pawn formation. Black generally plays back their Knight to
1
3R2N4B5Q3Rz1Kz f6 in order to induce White to declare their intentions in the centre.
Should White play Pxe5, Black would be rid of their backward ‘d‘
a b c d e f g h
Pawn, and the Bishop at e7 would be a little freer to move.
Diagram 6.75 After Black’s 10 th White will of course avoid the exchange unless they obtain com-
pensation elsewhere. White generally keeps their centre Pawns where
they’re now as long as they can, meanwhile working their ‘b’ Knight around via d2 and f1 to e3, to post it
later at d5, the hole in Black’s position. Or they may advance their Pawn to d5 to block the Queen’s side
after they have worked their b1 Knight around to f1 via d2.
Then they will play P–h3 and P–g4 followed by N–g3, and thus start an attack against Black’s King.
From the above it’s evident that, as usual, White has the initiative. Black’s role will be to prevent White
from carrying out these schemes, or to be ready to meet the onslaught. Black’s chances, as in all similar
positions, will be to take the initiative at the first opportunity, and through the advance on the Queen’s wing
to obtain the decision. Black’s Queen-side Pawns, according to the theories expounded in the text, are weak
defensively but strong offensively.
82 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.6.2.6 Variation 5
P–e4 1 P–e5
N–f3 2 N–c6
B–b5 3 P–a6
B–a4 4 N–f6
O–O 5 Nxe4
P–d4 6 P–b5
B–b3 7 P–d5
Pxe5 8 B–e6
P–c3 9 B–c5 or B–e7

Leading to the positions in Diagrams 6.76 or 6.77.

8
3rzz5q1kzz3r 8
3rzz5q1kzz3r
7
zz6pzz6p6p6p 7
zz6pz4b6p6p6p
6
6pz2nz4bzzz 6
6pz2nz4bzzz
5
z6p4b6p6Pzzz 5
z6pz6p6Pzzz
4
zzzz2nzzz 4
zzzz2nzzz
3
z4B6Pzz2Nzz 3
z4B6Pzz2Nzz
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P 2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P
1
1K2N4B5Qz3R1Kz 1
3R2N4B5Qz3R1Kz
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.76 After Black’s B–c5 Diagram 6.77 After Black’s B–d7

Black has gained in development but at the expense of a very bad Pawn formation on the Queen’s wing.
Black’s ‘c’ Pawn is very backward and experience has shown that with good play White can generally
prevent that Pawn from coming up level with their ‘b’ Pawn and ‘d’ Pawn. If the ‘c’ Pawn cannot come up
level with the others then the three White Pawns on the Queen’s side will hold the four of Black, and the
practical result will be that White will be playing as though they were a Pawn to the good, because of their
four Pawns to three on the King’s side.
In this variation White’s Pawn at e5 acts as a wedge against Black’s position. Should Black try to get rid
of it by P–f6, Black’s King’s side will be weakened, a rather dangerous situation arising because of the fact
that, on account of the nature of the position, Black is practically forced to castle on the King’s side.

6.6.2.7 Variation 6

From the position of Diagram 6.76 the game might continue as follows:

Q–e2 10 O–O
B–e3 11 P–f5
Pxf6 e.p. 12 Qxf6
Nb1–d2 14 Bxe3
Qxe3 15

and White has the better position.

6.6. THE OPENINGS 83

6.6.2.8 Variation 7
From the position in Diagram 6.77 the game might continue as follows:

Nb1–d2 10 N–c5
B–c2 11 P–d4
N–e4 12 Pxc3
Nxc5 13 Bxc5
B–e4 14 Q–d7
Pxc3 15 R–d8
Qxd7 16 Bxd7
R–d1 17 N–e7

(Probably best. Black cannot castle because of

... 17 O–O
B–e3 18 Bxe3
Rxd7 19 Rxd7
Bxc6 20

Continuing,

N–d4 18

and White has the advantage. The White Pawn at e5 restricts the action of Black’s pieces, while White has
freedom of action. I have had the good fortune of obtaining this position on several occasions in tournament
play, and have proved beyond doubt the superiority of White’s position.

6.6.2.9 Discussion
There’s a good many more variations to the Ruy Lopez, but those shown in the text are the ones most in use
by the experts today. The thing for the student to think about is the general form of development, aiming
from the beginning at the control of the centre. The pieces are generally placed on commanding squares, as
safe as possible from attack. Care is taken not to move the same piece twice before full development, unless
a second move is necessary for some essential purpose. The Pawn formation as well as the resulting greater
or lesser mobility of the pieces arising from the opening moves are factors to be borne in mind always. The
gain of a single Pawn in the opening will generally produce positive results. For the average player any
further discussion of these matters might prove futile.
For the sake of information a single variation is given below of a couple of the gambits arising from
White’s second move in List 3:

P–f4 or P–d4 2
84 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.6.3 King’s Gambit

The King’s Gambit begins

P–e4 1 P–e5
8
3rz4b5q1kz2n3r P–f4 2 Pxf4
7
6p6pzzz6p4bz N–f3 3 P–g5
6
zz2n6pzzz6p B–c4 4 B–g7
5
zzzzzz6pz
4
zz4B6P6P6pzz Alternatively, 4. . . . P–g4, bringing about the Muzio gambit, but
3
zz6Pzz2Nzz it’s unsafe and unnecessary.
The next move gives Black an excellent game.
2
6P6Pzzzz6P6P
1
3R2N4B5Qz3R1Kz O–O 5 P–d6
a b c d e f g h
P–d4 6 N–c6
P–c3 7 P–h6
Diagram 6.78 After Black’s 7th
leading to the position shown in Diagram 6.78. This allows Black to play the g8 Knight to e7 or f6 and
then castle on the King’s side, leaving Black a Pawn ahead with a good game3 .

6.6.4 King’s Bishop Gambit

P–e4 1 P–e5
8
3rz4b5q1kzz3r P–f4 2 Pxf4
7
6p6p6p6pz6p6p6p B–c4 3
6
zz2nzz2nzz The position in Diagram 6.79 is the most difficult gambit to han-
5
zzzzzzzz dle. Black may check at h4 and prevent White from castling, but
4
z4b4Bz6P6pzz in so doing they bring their Queen out before any of their mi-
3
zz2N6Pzzzz nor pieces are in play. There’s innumerable complications arising
2
6P6P6Pzzz6P6P from such play, with the final result always in doubt.
1
3Rz4B5Q1Kz2N3R Black, however, can avoid all those complications by playing now
a b c d e f g h
... 3 N–f6
Diagram 6.79 After Black’s 5th
If now White plays 4. P–e5, P–d5 would give Black a very good open game.

N–c3 4 N–c6

Black must be very careful as to the order in which they make the different moves. The slightest error
will bring disaster.
The text move prevents P–e5 at the same time that it brings out a piece into the fray.

P–d3 5

Any other move would give Black a decided advantage. Thus if

P–d4 5 B–b4

and White has no good defence against the double threat of Kxe4 and P–d5. If
3
This Gambit is rarely seen at higher levels now, due to improvements in defensive strategies.
6.6. THE OPENINGS 85

N–f3 5 B–c4
O–O 6 O–O
P–d4 7 P–d6

with advantage.

... 5 B–b4

And White has no good move against the threatened advance of the Q–d4. In other words, whether White
plays either

N–e2 6 B–d5

or

N–f7 6 B–d5

and, either way, Black gets a free open game with a very solid position.

6.6.5 Centre Game

The Center Game begins

P–e4 1 P–e5
8
3rz4bzzz1kz P–d4 2 Pxd4
7
6p6p6p6pz6p6p6p Qxd4 3 N–c6
6
zz2nzz5qzz Q–e3 4 N–f6
5
zzzzzzzz N–c3 5 B–b4
4
z4bzz3r4Bzz B–d2 6 O–O
3
zzzzzz5Qz O–O–O 7 R–e8
2
6P6P6Pzz6P6P6P Q–g3 8 Nxe4
1
zz1K3Rz4B2N3R Nxe4 9 Rxe4
a b c d e f g h B–f4 10 Q–f6

Diagram 6.80 After Black’s 10th In this position, shown in Diagram 6.80, Black gives back the Pawn
to free their game and take the initiative in accordance with the principles laid down in the text. If White
plays Bxc7, then P–d6, shutting off the Bishop and bringing the rest of Black’s pieces out into play.

N–h3 11 P–d6
B–d3 12 N–d4

Black could also play R–e8. White’s attack could probably be stopped without loss of material. In that
case, with a Pawn more, Black’s game would have a decided advantage. The text move is more aggressive
and therefore more in accord with the theories expounded in this book.
86 CHAPTER 6. PART II

B–e3 13 R–g4
8
3rz4bzzz1kz Bxd4 14 Rxd4
7
6p6p6pzz6p6p6p P–c3 15 Bxc3
6
zzz6pzzzz Pxc3 16 R–g4
5
zzzzzzzz Q–e3 17 Qxc3+
4
zzzzzzzz B–c2
Pxe3
18
19
Qxe3
Rxg2
3
zzzz6Pzz2N
2
6Pz4Bzzz3r6P Black has an excellent chance to win the position in Diagram 6.81
1
zz1K3Rzzz3R with four Pawns for a Knight. Besides, all the remaining White
a b c d e f g h
Pawns are isolated. A very lively variationa .
Diagram 6.81 After Black’s 19th a
This Gambit is rarely used anymore.

6.6.6 Centre Gambit

The Centre Gambit begins

P–e4 1 P–e5
8
zz1k3rzz2n3r P–d4 2 Pxd4
7
6pz6pzz6p6p6p P–c3 3 P–d5
6
zz6pzzzzz
5
zzzzzzzz Black could have taken the Pawn and played one of the several
4
z4bz6Pzzzz gambits arising from that move, but it’s simpler and easier to play
3
zz2Nzzzzz according to the text.
2
6P6Pzz1K6P6P6P Pe4xd5 4 Qxd5
1
3Rz4Bzzzz3R Pxd4 5 N–c6
a b c d e f g h
N–f3 6 B–g4
Diagram 6.82 After Black’s 12th B–e2 7 B–b4+
N–c3 8 Bxf3
Bxf3 9 Q–c4
Bxc6 10 Pxc6
Q–e2+ 11 Qxe2+
Kxe2 12 O–O–O

And Black, as shown in Diagram 6.82, although with a broken Queen-side Pawn formation, has an ex-
cellent game because White will have trouble in defending their ‘d’ Pawn. Black not only has one of their
Rooks on the open file, but by playing N–e7 and R–e8 they will exert great pressure on the White King and
the White ‘d’ Pawn, on account of the threat of the Knight via f5.

6.6.7 Discussion
There’s a good many other gambits but it’s not within the scope of this book to study them. The gambits
given are those which arise directly from the move P–e4 followed by either P–f4 or P–d4. The reader should
compare the positions arising from these gambits and those arising from the Ruy Lopez. Probably they will
see why it’s that the leading experts prefer, with the White pieces, to play the Ruy Lopez rather than any of
these gambits.
Let’s now take up the openings arising from 1. P–d4. The type of game arising from P–d4 is generally a
so-called close game. The play involved is generally position play only. Position play is the most difficult
6.6. THE OPENINGS 87

thing in chess. It’s hard to explain and it’s hard to understand. Sometimes the choice of move is only a
matter of opinion, difficult to prove one way or another. It’s for that reason that this opening has been left
towards the end of the book, hoping that by the time the reader gets to it, their game will have improved
enough to warrant their going into the complicated variations arising from P–d4.

6.6.8 Queen’s Gambit and Variations

P–d4 1 P–d5

Black could also play N–f6 or P–e6 or P–f5 or P–c6 or P–c5 or P–d6. All other moves would be inferior,
giving Black a practically hopeless game from the outset.

P–c4 2

Already there’s a dilemma. Should Black take the Pawn or not? It’s not at all certain that the Pawn cannot
be taken, and this may even be Black’s best way out of the dilemma; though at present most of the experts
believe that if Black takes the Pawn, White’s development is made easier4 . Let’s therefore not take the Pawn
and look at the two main moves left for Black, namely P–e6 or P–c6.

6.6.8.1 Variation 1
... 2 P–e6
N–c3 3 N–f6
B–g5 4 B–e7
P–e3 5 O–O
N–f3 6 N–d7

Other possible defences are 6. . . . P–c6 and P–b6, also N–e4; but they’re probably inferior to the variation
of the text. In any case it’s our purpose to show one good defence for Black, so that the student may be
on safe ground. Later on by themselves, if they so desire, they may indulge in playing the innumerable
variations of this opening. Any pamphlet or chapter from a book on the Queen’s opening will have hundreds
of them.

R–c1 7 P–c6

Black has been developing and preparing to play Pxc4 as soon as the White ‘f’ Bishop comes out. In
this way they gain a tempo5 because the White Bishop will have to move twice in succession. White, on
the other hand, does not want to play Pxd5 because it would help the development of Black’s ‘c’ Bishop.
It might be well to state now that the greatest difficulty for Black in the Queen’s Gambit is the successful
development of their ‘c’ Bishop.

B–d3 8

4
Declined is still the recommended route.
5
A tempo is a turn or single move.
88 CHAPTER 6. PART II

A look at the position in Diagram 6.83 will show that White has
better control of the centre and more freedom for their pieces. On the
8
3rz4b5qz3r1kz other hand they have not castled yet. Black must now try to free their
7
6p6pz2n4b6p6p6p position before White castles; otherwise their position will gradually
6
zz6pz6p2nzz get worse. Furthermore, Black wants to get their ‘c’ Bishop into play.
5
zzz6pzz4Bz To be sure, they can play P–b6 followed by B–b7, but then their 7th
4
zz6P6Pzzzz move P–c6 was a lost move. The problem is therefore how to free
3
zz2N4B6P2Nzz Black’s position without loss of time. The way to do it’s as follows:
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P
1
zz3R5Q1Kzz3R ... 8 Pxc4
a b c d e f g h Bxc4 9 N–d5
Bxe7 10 Qxe7
Diagram 6.83 After White’s 8th O–O 11 Nxc3
Rxc3 12 P–e5

For years I had played Black P–c6 with success. I followed it by placing the Bishop at b7, the ‘a’ Rook at
c8, the ‘f’ Rook at d8, and then, according to the circumstances, the Pawn was advanced to c4 or the Knight
was first placed either at c3 or c1 and then the Pawn advanced to c4. Once the Pawn was at c4, Black’s
position was excellent. Unfortunately at Budapest, in 1929, I had to play against my own system, and by
playing with White 13. Q–c2 the Black position soon became untenable. Instead

Pxe5 13 Nxe5
Nxe5 14 Qxe5
P–f4 15 Q–e4

Leading to the position in Diagram 6.84.

Bogoljuboff’s move to prevent the bottling up of Black’s ‘c’
8
3rz4bzz3r1kz Bishop. White’s idea was to play either P–e4 or P–f5, according
to Black’s move, and thus prevent the Bishop from coming out into
7
6p6pzzz6p6p6p play. The text move aims to prevent both those moves of White.
6
zz6pzzzzz If White plays
5
zzzzzzzz
4
zz4Bz5q6Pzz Q–e2 16 R–d8
3
zz3Rz6Pzzz B–d3 17 B–g4 !
2
6P6Pzzzz6P6P
1
zzz5Qz3R1Kz with a good game for Black. If
a b c d e f g h

B–b3 16 B–f5
Diagram 6.84 After Black’s 15th
White’s best move is 16. R–e1, against which Black’s best answer
is probably Q–e7. It’s evident that Black will have some difficulty to come out safely with their Bishop.
What else can be done?
6.6. THE OPENINGS 89

6.6.8.2 Variation 2
Let’s go back to the position in Diagram 6.83. In that position Black
can play
8
3rz4b5qz3r1kz ... 8 P–h6
7
6p6pz2n4b6p6pz B–h4 9 Pxc4
6
zz6pz6pzz6p Bxc4 10 N–d5
5
zzz2nzzzz
4
zz4B6Pzzz4B Leading to the position in Diagram 6.85.
3
zz2Nz6P2Nzz Now if
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P Bxe7 11 Qxe7
1
zz3R5Q1Kzz3R O–O 12 Nxc3
a b c d e f g h
Rxc3 13 P–b6
Diagram 6.85 After Black’s 10th and my old system of defence works perfectly because with the
Pawn at h6 the move

Q–c2 14

is answered by

... 14 B–b7

and White cannot gain the all-important tempo with

B–d3 15

This move, in the old position, with the Pawn at h2, attacked the ‘h’ Pawn and gained time for the attack
of the ‘d’ Pawn with the Bishop via e4 or with the Knight via e5, according to whatever move Black made.

6.6.8.3 Variation 3
If from the position of Diagram 6.85 White plays B–g3 we have
again:
8
3rzz5qz3r1kz B–g3 11 Nxc3
7
6p4bzz4b6p6pz Pxc3 12 P–b6
6
z6p6pz6p2nz6p O–O 13 B–b7
5
zzzzzzzz Q–e2 14 N–f6
4
zz4B6Pzzzz
3
zz6Pz6P2N4Bz Leading to the Position in Diagram 6.86.
A hard game for Black. White has better control of the centre
2
6Pzzz5Q6P6P6P and a freer game. The student will realize by this time that the great
1
zz3Rzz3R1Kz problem in chess is how to play with the Black pieces against accurate
a b c d e f g h
development on the part of White. The fact is that White, having the
Diagram 6.86 After Black’s 14th first move, has the initiative, and the initiative is an advantage. The
first move also is a tempo, which means time, and time is an element
that has to be considered.
In the position of Diagram 6.86 There’s two things that Black must bear in mind in order to get out of
their troubles. One is to time the advance of their ‘c’ Pawn, and the other is to get rid of White’s Bishop at
90 CHAPTER 6. PART II

e4 at the first good opportunity. Of course if they can get rid of White’s Bishop at c4, then Black will be
well off, but this latter chance is very remote. The advance of the ‘c’ Pawn must be made when the move
Rc1–d1 on White’s part can be safely met. The White ‘c’ Bishop may be exchanged by either the Black
‘e’ Bishop or the Black Knight, according to the circumstances. The advance of Black’s ‘c’ Pawn must be
timed with care so as not to lose too much time or strengthen White’s position too much,
This type of game, however, offers many chances for error, and should White overreach themselves in
pressing their advantage they may suddenly find that their position has taken a turn for the worse, and instead
of having the best of it they may confront a situation where they may have to fight for their own life.
There’s a good many variations arising from Black’s second move P–e3, but, as stated before, it’s not the
purpose of this book to go into all of them. With the variations already shown the student should be able to
give a good account of themselves. At any rate it’s rather doubtful if any of the other variations would prove
easier to handle than those shown above. Let’s now look at some of those arising from

... 2 P–c6

6.6.8.4 Variation 4
P–d4 1 P–d5
P–c4 2 P–c6

This move has the advantage over P–e6 of keeping open the line of the Bishop. From that point of view
it may prove to be a better defence for the reader to follow than those arising from 2. . . . P–e6.

N–f3 3 N–f6

Black already threatens to take the Pawn, which they will be able to defend by P–b5. It’s true that White
can always find some way to regain the Pawn, but in order to do so they must lose a lot of time which Black
will utilize to develop their game.

N–c3 4 Pxc4
P–a4 5

White could also play 5. P–e3 and then would follow P–b4; 6. P–a4, P–b4; 7. N–b1 regaining their Pawn.
In this variation Black will place their ‘c’ Bishop at b7, their Knight at d7, and finally advance their Pawn to
c4; all this after having played first P–e4. Sometimes, according to White’s play, it’s essential to play P–a4
and Q–b3 also before advancing the Pawn to c4. In this way Black obtains a good development. In fact the
experts have given up that line of play for White because they think that Black obtains too good a game.
Whether that is exact or not it’s hard to say. The resulting position is extremely complicated and in any case
it will be easier for the student to follow the general trend of the experts, except on the few occasions which
it can be proved erroneous. The text move 5. P–a4 is now considered by the experts as the most satisfactory
way to develop White’s game

... 5 B–f5

Leading to the position in Diagram 6.87.

6.6. THE OPENINGS 91

8
3r2nz5q1k4bz3r 8
3r2nz5q1k4bz3r
7
6p6pzz6p6p6p6p 7
6p6pzz6p6p6p6p
6
zz6pzz2nzz 6
zz6pzz2nzz
5
zzzzz4bzz 5
zzzz2N4bzz
4
6Pz6p6Pzzzz 4
6Pz6p6Pzzzz
3
zz2Nzz2Nzz 3
zz2Nzzzzz
2
z6Pzz6P6P6P6P 2
z6Pzz6P6P6P6P
1
3Rz4B5Q1K4Bz3R 1
3Rz4B5Q1K4Bz3R
a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.87 After Black’s 5th Diagram 6.88 After White’s 6th

The ‘c’ Bishop is out, and not only is it out, but it controls the important central square e4. Theoretically,
this should be Black’s best form of development. It certainly is for the average player, and I strongly advise
the reader to use this form of defence of the Queen’s Gambit. Only when facing experts will they have any
trouble, and that trouble they will have always, no matter what form of defence they may adopt. Here they
will have all the pieces out, and will not have to struggle as in the other defences to get the ‘c’ Bishop into
play.

N–e5 6

As shown in Diagram 6.88. White could also play as follows:

P–e3 6 P–e6
Bxc4 7 B–b4
O–O 8 O–O
Q–b3 9
with a good game.
Black has two distinctly different lines of defence from the position in Diagram 6.88. They may play
P–e6, whereupon will follow 7. P–f3 for White, with the idea of playing P–e5, blocking the action of the
Bishop. In this variation White will retake the Pawn at c4 either with the Knight or the Bishop according
to the circumstances, and will post their ‘c’ Bishop at e3 or g5, then castle and keep as long as they can the
e4–f3–g2 formation of Pawns in order to keep Black’s ‘c’ Bishop from taking an active part in the game. If
White is able to do that for long enough they will have a good chance to win the game since for all practical
purposes they will be playing with a Bishop more than Black.

6.6.8.5 Variation 5
In order to avoid such a thing Black may adopt a different line of development beginning with 6.. . . Nb8–d7.
Again this is more in accord with the general theory which states that in the openings ‘Pieces should be
moved in preference to Pawns’. This means, of course, when there is no special reason to do otherwise. It
might be well to state here that in close openings this principle does not apply so regularly as it does in the
open game. Also, in close openings the element of time is of less consequence than in the open game. In
the close openings there is one very predominant factor: Position, with Material a close second.
Let’s look at the variation beginning with the position in Diagram 6.88.
... 6 Nb6–d7
Nxc4 7 Q–c7
92 CHAPTER 6. PART II

Black could also play N–b8 but they would gain nothing thereby
since the White Knight could go back to e5. The text move is made
8
3rzzz1kzz3r with the idea of playing P–e5 immediately and obtaining full devel-
7
6p6p5q2nzz6p6p opment for Black. All this is in accord with the general principles of
6
zz6pz4bzzz development.
5
zz4bz6pzzz
4
6Pzzzzzzz P–g3 8 P–e5
3
zz2Nz4Bz6Pz Pxe5 9 Nxe5
2
z6Pzz6P6P4B6P B–f4 10 Nf6–d7
B–g2 11 P–f6
1
3Rzz5Qz3R1Kz O–O 12 B–e6
a b c d e f g h
Nxe5 13 Pxe5
Diagram 6.89 After Black’s 14th B–e3 14 B–c5

Leading to the position shown in Diagram 6.89. White has gained

a little in development, since Black has not yet castled. White has also the more solid position, but Black is
almost fully developed and if they can castle without losing too much ground they should be able to come
out of all their troubles. We have now seen some of the best defences at Black’s disposal against the Queen’s
Gambit. For the sake of information two more variations of those mostly in use will be given.

6.6.8.6 Variation 6
This begins

P–d4 1 P–d5
8
zz3r5qz3r1Kz P–c4 2 P–e6
7
z4b6p2n4b6p6p6p N–c3 3 N–f6
6
6p6pzzz2nzz B–g5 4 B–e7
5
zzz6pzz4Bz N–f3 5 O–O
4
zzz6Pzzzz P–e3 6 Nb8–d7
3
z4B2Nz6P2Nzz R–c1 7 P–b6
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P With the idea of developing Black’s ‘d’ Bishop via b7 and then
1
zz3R5Qz3R1Kz advancing the ‘c’ Pawn to c5
a b c d e f g h

Diagram 6.90 After White’s 12th Pxd5 8 Pxd5

B–b5 9

My own invention to obtain full development and at the same time to prevent the advance of Black’s ‘c’
Pawn. Other standard moves are B–d3 and Q–e4. The text move is probably the strongest of the three.

... 9 B–b7
O–O 10 P–a6
B–a4 11 R–c8

It would not be safe for Black to advance the ‘c’ Pawn because of

... 11 P–b5
Bxd7 12 Nxd7
Bxe7 13 Qxe7
Pxc5 14 Qxc5
6.6. THE OPENINGS 93

with a decided advantage for White.

B–b3 12

Leading to the position in Diagram 6.90, and,‘ if Black advances the ‘c’ Pawn, White takes it and Black
is compelled to retake with the Knight in order to avoid the loss of a Pawn. By retaking with the Knight,
Black will be left with an isolated ‘d’ Pawn, difficult to defend, and will have no compensation for it.

6.6.8.7 Variation 7
P–d4 1 P–d5
P–c4 2 P–e6
N–c3 3 P–c5

Recommended by Dr. Tarrasch. It gives Black a rapid and free

development, but it leaves them with a weak isolated ‘d’ Pawn,
which becomes very difficult to defend against accurate play on
8
3rz4b5qz3r1kz White’s part.
7
6p6pzz4b6p6p6p
6
zz2nzz2nzz Pxd5 4 Pxd5
5
zzz6pzzzz N–f3 5 N–f6
4
2Nzzzzzzz P–g3 6 N–c6
3
zzzz4B2N6Pz B–g2 7 B–e7
2
6P6Pzz6P6P4B6P O–O 8 O–O
1
3Rzz5Qz3R1Kz Pxc5
N–a4
9
10
Bxc5
B–e7
a b c d e f g h
B–e3 11
Diagram 6.91 After White’s 11th
Leading to the position in Diagram 6.91. The Black’s Queen’s Pawn is fixed. White controls the squares
d4 and c5, and Black will have difficulty in defending the ‘d’ Pawn. The bad feature of this variation for
Black is that besides having a very difficult game to play, there are not many chances for White to make a
serious mistake, because the whole play will centre about the ‘d’ Pawn which White will try to win while
Black will try to defend it. The type of game involved is very dry, hardly the game that most players would
enjoy.

6.6.8.8 Discussion
We have now seen some of the leading variations of the Queen’s Gambit. Again the thing for the average
player to consider is the general form of development. It should be stated at this time that the order in which
the moves are made in the opening is very important. A change in the order of the moves is apt to bring
about a change of the variation to be played, and this change may prove fatal. Great care must therefore
be exercised not only in developing the pieces, but in bringing them out in the proper order. The expert
sometimes plans from the very first move the type of opening they wish to play. At other times they’re more
indifferent about it and is satisfied to obtain one of several types.
The leading players, once they’ve passed the opening stage, will always plan the general form of battle.
In making this plan they always consider the type of game they’re called upon to play. The plan should, of
course, be solid and yet elastic enough to be adaptable according to the way the battle develops. The average
player cannot be expected to do such a thing, because they have not sufficient vision or knowledge for it;
but they can always approach the subject in the same vein. Through care and method and the application of
the general principles of the game, they may make up in part at least for their deficiencies.
94 CHAPTER 6. PART II

Let’s now look at some of the variations arising from some of the irregular forms of defence against
White’s first move P–d4.

6.6.8.9 Variation 8
P–d4 1 N–f6
P–c4 2 P–e6 List 6
N–c3 3 B–b4
There’s now a large choice of moves for White, but the two generally in use are Q–b3 and Q–c2. The
last move aims at converting the opening into a sort of Queen’s Gambit, the first move forces the game into
entirely different channels.
Let’s look first at Q–b3.

8
3rz4bzz3r1kz Q–b3 4 P–c5
7
z6pz6p5q6p6p6p Pxc5
N–f3
5
6
N–c6
N–e4
6
zz2nzzzzz B–d2 7 Nxc5
5
zz2nz6pzzz
4
6pz6Pzzzzz This Knight has been moved three times before full development
3
6Pz4Bzz2N6Pz has taken place. This is wrong in principle, but then it should be
2
z6P5Qz6P6P4B6P remembered that this is a close game where the element of time is
1
3Rzzzz3R1Kz not of such vital importance. Also, Black regains time by the fact
a b c d e f g h that the last move attacks the Queen which has to move away.

Diagram 6.92 After Black’s 13th

Q–c2 8 O–O
P–a3 9 Bxc3
Bxc3 10 P–a5
P–g3 11 Q–e2
B–g2 12 P–e5
O–O 13 P–a4

Leading to the position in Diagram 6.92 from a game by Stahlberg-Nimzovitsch.

White has two Bishops and a solid position. Black in compensation has a strongly-posted Knight at c5.
All things considered, the position seems to be slightly favourable to White, though probably not favourable
enough to win. This variation is taken from a recent game Stahlberg-Nimzovitsch, won by White. Since
Nimzovitsch has specialized on this kind of defence, it must be assumed that there’s nothing better for Black
in this variation.
6.6. THE OPENINGS 95

6.6.8.10 Variation 9

8
3r2n4b5q1kzz3r
7
6p6p6pzz6p6p6p
6
zzzz6p2nzz
5
zzz6pzzzz
4
z4b6P6Pzzzz Let’s now look at the other variation beginning with White’s Q–c2
3
zz2Nzzzzz continuing from the moves in List 6.
2
6P6P5Qz6P6P6P6P Q–c2 4 P–d5 List 7
1
3Rz4Bz1K4B2N3R
a b c d e f g h Leading to the position in Diagram 6.93.
White has now the choice of several moves. Let’s examine four of
Diagram 6.93 After Black’s 4th them: P–e3, B–d2, N–c3, and Pxd5.

6.6.8.11 Variation 10
Beginning from the position in Diagram 6.93,
8
3rz4b5qz3r1kz P–e3 5 P–c5
7
6p6pzzz6p6p6p Pxd5 6 Pxd5
6
zz2nzz2nzz Pxc5 7 N–c6
5
zz6P6pzzzz N–f3 8 O–O
4
z4bzzzzzz
3
zz2Nz6P2Nzz Leading to the position in Diagram 6.94. A very satisfactory game
2
6P6P5Qzz6P6P6P for Black. They have an isolated Pawn, but is ahead in develop-
1
3Rz4Bz1K4Bz3R ment.
White’s fifth move P–e3 shuts off the Bishop at c1. A move of that
a b c d e f g h
type cannot be a good move unless there’s a very strong reason for
Diagram 6.94 After Black’s 8th it. That not being the case here, P–e3 must be considered inferior.

6.6.8.12 Variation 11

Beginning again
P–d4 1 N–f6
P–c4 2 P–e6
N–c3 3 B–b4
List 8
Q–c2 4 P–d5
N–f3 5 Pxc4
B–d2 6 P–c6
This is the best move if Black wishes to hold the Pawn. White can now obtain a good game in two
different ways. They may play P–g3 followed by B–g2 and Black will have difficulty in holding their extra
Pawn because of the fact that they must advance their ‘b’ Pawn to g2 in order to protect their Pawn at c4
and then the White Bishop at g2 will exert great pressure along the long diagonal. White may also play as
follows:

P–e4 7 P–b5
B–e2 8
96 CHAPTER 6. PART II

followed by castling on the King’s side, and White will have a very strong game in exchange for a Pawn.
Black may, however, avoid all these complications by not trying to hold the Pawn.

6.6.8.13 Variation 12

8
3r2n4b5qz3r5qz From White’s 6th move in List 8 Black may play P–c5 instead of
7
z6pzzz6p6p6p P–c6, and then we may have:
6
6pzzz6p2nzz B–d2 6 P–c5
5
zz4bzzzzz P–e3 7 P–a6
4
zz4Bzzzzz Pxc5 8 Bxc5
3
zz2Nz6P2Nzz Bxc4 9 O–O
2
6P6P5Q4Bz6P6P6P
1
3Rzzz1Kzz3R Leading to the position in Diagram 6.95. White is slightly ahead
in development, but Black should be able to bring out their
a b c d e f g h
pieces gradually until full development is obtained, without los-
Diagram 6.95 After Black’s 9th ing ground.

6.6.8.14 Variation 13
Let’s go back to move 5 after the moves in List 7 and suppose that White played 5. B–d2 and that Black took
the Pawn. White could then play N–f3 and we should have exactly one of the positions already examined.
If instead of N–f3 White continued with P–d3 Black would have the choice of trying to hold the Pawn or of
playing for development with P–c5. In this case we should arrive to the same position as in Diagram 6.94.
If Black chose to defend their extra Pawn they might get into a hard game. However, the fact that in one
way or another Black is able to obtain a rather satisfactory game is proof enough that the moves played for
White were not the best.

6.6.8.15 Variation 14
There remains therefore the one move from the position in Diagram 6.93 we have not examined, namely
5. Pxd5. This move is more in accord with the general theory of development. It has the drawback of freeing
at once Black’s ‘c’ Bishop, but the fact that Black has their Bishop at b4 in what comes out to be a variation
of the Queen’s Gambit should be a compensation for the freeing of their ‘c’ Bishop.

6.6.8.16 Variation 15
In order to understand better this last variation, which is probably the
best system for White against this form of defence, it might be well
to make a halt and take a look at one of the many variations of the
8
3rz4b5qz3r1kz Queen’s Gambit that results in a very similar position to the one we
7
z6p6p2n4b6p6p6p shall have to study.
6
6pzzz6p2nzz
5
zzz6pzz4Bz P–d4 1 P–d5
4
zz6P6Pzzzz P–c4 2 P–e6
3
zz2Nz6P2Nzz N–c3
B–g5
3
4
N–f6
B–e7
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P P–e3 5 Nb8–d7
1
zz3R5Q1K4Bz3R N–f3 6 O–O
a b c d e f g h
R–c1 7 P–a6
Diagram 6.96 After Black’s 7th
6.6. THE OPENINGS 97

Leading to the position in Diagram 6.96.

This Black move was introduced by Henneberger of Switzerland. It involves a very good plan to gain
time for development. Instead of P–c6, which is purely defensive, this move is made aiming for a sudden
change in tactics in order to assume the initiative.
The idea is to play Pxc4 followed by P–b5 and B–b7 and finally P–e5, making a demonstration against
White’s centre and at the same time putting all of the Black pieces in play. It’s an excellent idea and it
proved successful for some time.
Experience showed that White couldn’t play P–c5 with success,
and against the normal lines of development the manoeuvre Pxc4, P–
b5 etc., worked to perfection. This variation was played against the
8
zzzzzz1kz present author a couple of times until I evolved a very simple plan
7
z6pzzz6p6p6p which practically finished the whole system. This plan consisted of
6
6pz6pzzzzz playing now, at once, 8. Pxd5. Black retook with the Pawn, of course,
5
zzz6pzzzz and later on had to play P–c6; thus instead of winning a tempo, Black
4
zzz6Pzzzz lost one, since they played both P–c6 and P–a6. This, however, in
3
zzzz6Pzzz a close opening is not, as already stated, so very important; but as
2
6P6Pzzz6P6P6P a result of the manoeuvre, the Pawn position in Diagram 6.97 was
1
zzzzzz1Kz arrived at.
a b c d e f g h This Pawn formation is very interesting and worth a great deal of
study to the average player as well as to the expert (bear in mind that
Diagram 6.97 both Kings are castled on the King’s side.) Generally one should act
on the side where one has a preponderance of force, but here it’s different. Because of the Kings, the advance
on the King’s side would be extremely dangerous. It is, therefore, on the Queen’s side where the advance
takes place, and it’s White that does the advancing. If Black attempted an advance it would only debilitate
their Pawn position. P–c5 would leave them with an isolated ‘c’ Pawn, and any other advance would be
worse. White on the other hand will advance their two Pawns to a4 and b4. The one thing White must watch
for is the control of their own c4 square, so that Black may not post a Knight there.
After White has advanced their Pawns to a4 and b4 they will wait for the proper time, and then advance
their Pawn to b5. What takes place then? If the Pawns are exchanged at b5, Black will have an isolated
backward ‘b’ Pawn and an isolated ‘d’ Pawn. It certainly would be bad to have two such Pawns to defend,
so that will have to be ruled out. What generally takes place is: first an exchange at b5 through Pxb4 by
Black, White retaking, of course; then Black will wait for White to exchange at c3. The result will be a
backward weak Pawn for Black at c6, which will be somewhat difficult to defend.
Another very important point in these positions is the fact that in the resultant ending, White remains with
their ‘e’ Bishop against Black’s ‘d’ Bishop, and under those conditions the position of the Black Pawns at
d5 and c6 is strategically wrong, because of the fact that Black has these Pawns in the same colour square
as their B, while practically all of White’s Pawns are on opposite colour squares from that of their own
Bishop. The latter is as it should be. The result will be that in the ending the White Bishop will be able
to attack the Black Pawns while the Black Bishop will be unable to return the compliment. Because of all
these considerations White has theoretically an advantage. Add to this the fact that in such openings White
generally wins a little time, because of the solidity of their position, and it will follow, logically, that White
must have an advantage.
On the King’s side the position is of course reversed, but the fact that the Kings are there and need to be
guarded makes it impossible for Black to adopt a similar policy to that of White on the Queen’s side.
We have purposely tarried on the position above, because of the many principles involved and also to give
the reader an insight into the high strategy of chess.
98 CHAPTER 6. PART II

6.6.8.17 Variation 16
Let’s now go back to Diagram 6.93 and examine what takes place
after 5. Pxd5 .
8
3r2n4b5q1kzz3r Pxd5 5 Pxd5
7
6p6p6pzz6p6p6p B–g5 6
6
zzzz2nzzz Leading to the position in Diagram 6.98.
5
zzz6pzz4Bz Already the possibility of a similar Pawn formation to that pre-
4
z4bz6Pzzzz viously studied is evident. If Black castles, White will play P–e3
3
zz2Nzzzzz followed by B–d3 and N–f3 (or e2) and O–O. Then, sooner or later,
2
6P6P5Qz6P6P6P6P Black will have to play P–c6, and we will have a very similar situa-
1
3Rzzz1K4B2N3R tion to that previously examined. Black may play 6. . . . Q–d6 trying
to free their Knight and turn the game into different channels, but
a b c d e f g h
White will reply with P–e3 and it will be rather difficult for Black to
Diagram 6.98 After White’s 6 th
avoid playing P–c6 at some time or other.
Of course, this does not mean that P–c6 for Black will bring about
a losing position for Black under all circumstances, but the point that we wish to emphasize is that by this
system of development White is able to force a type of position generally favourable to the first player.
There’s no reason to tarry any longer on these different variations. The main point is the general aspect of
the matter. General lines are more important than individual aspects and technicalities.
From this variation, however, the reader should arrive at a good understanding of the close relation be-
tween the opening, the middle game and the end game. Time after time the expert will decide on a move
in the opening because of its resultant effect in a possible ending arising from the game in question. As we
close this chapter we hope that the reader has obtained all the information necessary to play a really strong
game.

6.7 A Synthesis of General Theory

Considering that the game of chess as a whole is divided into three parts, Opening, Middle Game and End
Game, the thing to bear in mind is the close interrelation between the component parts of the whole. The
End Game being the last part may, to be sure, be considered by itself; but no middle game position should be
considered without regard to the possible endings arising from it. In the same manner the Opening should
never be considered by itself, but always in connection with the Middle Game and End Game that may arise
from it.
If chess were to be considered as a purely scientific study, the endings would have to be thoroughly studied
and understood before taking up the middle game. In the same way a complete study and knowledge of the
middle game would have to precede the study of the openings. Considered as an intellectual pastime of
either an artistic or scientific nature, the matter changes. The majority of those playing the game are mostly
interested in combinations and direct attacks against the King. As imagination is needed for that kind of
play, such interest should be encouraged. As the player improves other things begin to interest them and the
other aspects of the game become more important. A little method, however, from the very beginning will
not be amiss and the application of general principles at any time can only help and never detract from the
interest of the game.
For the benefit and convenience of our readers a short summary is given below of some of the general
principles involved in the different stages of the game.
In the openings we should emphasize:
1. Rapid and solid development, avoiding the creation of any permanent weakness. It follows that if
through your development you induce your opponent into creating any such weakness, so much the
6.7. A SYNTHESIS OF GENERAL THEORY 99

better. The development should aim at the control of the centre, either through immediate possession
of it by the Pawns, or by the long-range action of the pieces.

2. Do not move the same piece twice before full development has taken place.

3. Avoid loss of material without full compensation.

In the middle game:

1. Coordinate the action of your pieces.

2. Control of the centre is essential to a successful attack against the King.

3. Direct and violent attacks against the King must be made en masse, with full force, to ensure their
success. The Opposition must be overcome at all cost; the attack cannot be broken off, because that
generally means defeat.

4. Other things being equal, any material gain, no matter how small, means success.

5. Position comes first; Material next. Space and Time are complementary factors of Position.

6. If the game will go to an ending for a decision, consider the type of ending to come before exchanging
pieces.

In the endings:

1. Time increases in importance in the endings.

2. Two Bishops are better than two Knights.

3. A Bishop’s generally better than a Knight, but not always.

4. Rook and Bishop are generally better than Rook and Knight.

5. Queen and Knight are generally better than Queen and Bishop.

6. Pawns are strongest when in line with each other.

7. When the opponent has a Bishop it’s generally better to have your Pawns on squares of the same
colour as your opponent’s Bishop. Whenever you have a Bishop, whether the opponent has also one
or not, keep your Pawns on squares of opposite colour to that of your own Bishop.

8. The King, a purely defensive piece during the opening and middle game, very often becomes an
offensive piece in the endings. In many endings the King’s the deciding factor.

9. In endings of one or two minor pieces the King should generally be marched forward towards the
centre of the board. In King and Pawns endings almost invariably so.

Note. Those general principles not in this book will be found in ‘Chess Fundamentals’, where all the
general principles of chess are expounded in a clear and concise manner.