GROUP NUMBER 3 MEMBERS.

FACULTY: SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT.

DEPARTMENT:PSYCHOLOGY.

COURSE NAME:RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION.

COURSE CODE: EPSC 224.

DATE: 07/3/2023

TASK: CAT2

GROUP MEMBERS

NAME REG NO PHONE NO SIGN

1 MARCYLINE MATOKE ED12/00111/20 0700183325
2 SUNDAY OUMA ACHIENG ED13/00284/20 0794045329
3 METHUSELAH MAIRURA ED12/00185/20 0714483210
4 ONYANGO EPHY NERRY ED13/00435/20 0758819790
5 SHARON MUTISYA ED12/00266/20 0718269828
6 JAMES MBURUGA ED11/00469/20 0706846965
7 ELIAB WEKESA WAFULA ED11/00733/20 0721678199
8 BRANDON BUNDI ED13/00292/20 0706171859
9 ROY KIPRONO ED13/00024/20 0703677620
10 BOLICUS BOLTRU ED11/00498/20 0742958626

Research questions

Research questions are the key inquiries that guide a research study or project. They help focus the
research and provide direction for collecting and analyzing data. Research questions are typically open-
ended and exploratory in nature, seeking to address a specific issue, problem, or gap in knowledge.
Research questions should be clear, concise, and specific, and should4 be formulated in a way that
allows for investigation and analysis. They should also be meaningful and relevant to the research topic,
as well as feasible in terms of data collection and practicality.Research questions are important because
they help researchers to clearly define the purpose and scope of their study, and to stay focused on the
issue at hand. They also help to ensure that the research is systematic, well-structured, and logically
organized. By answering the research questions, researchers can contribute to the existing body of
knowledge, address real-world problems, and generate new insights and discoveries.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement that proposes a possible explanation for a phenomenon or a relationship

between two or more variables. It is essentially a testable prediction that can be verified or refuted
through empirical research and data analysis. Hypotheses are typically formulated based on existing
theories, previous research findings, or observations. They are used to guide the research process by
providing a specific focus and direction for the study.

There are two main types of hypotheses:

1. Null hypothesis (H0): This hypothesis states that there is no relationship or difference between the
variables being studied. It is typically the default assumption in hypothesis testing. Researchers aim to
reject the null hypothesis in order to support the alternative hypothesis.

2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha): This hypothesis proposes that there is a relationship or difference
between the variables being studied. It is the main focus of the research and what the researcher hopes
to find evidence for.

Hypotheses are important in the research process because they help to provide a specific and testable
statement to guide the study. They also help to ensure that the research is conducted in a systematic
and methodical manner. By testing hypotheses, researchers can determine whether their predictions
are supported by the data and draw meaningful conclusions about the phenomena under investigation.

Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency, stability, and repeatability of research findings or measurement
outcomes. In other words, reliability is about the extent to which a research study or measurement
yields consistent and dependable results when it is repeated or replicated.

There are several types of reliability that researchers consider:

1. Test-retest reliability: This type of reliability assesses the consistency of a measurement over time. It
involves administering the same test or instrument to the same group of participants at two different
time points and then comparing the results.

2. Interrater reliability: This type of reliability measures the degree of agreement between two or more
raters or observers who are evaluating the same phenomenon or data. It is commonly used in
observational studies or content analysis.

3. Internal consistency reliability: This type of reliability examines the extent to which the items or
questions in a measurement instrument are consistent or homogeneous in measuring the same
construct. Common methods for assessing internal consistency include Cronbach's alpha and split-half
reliability.

4. Parallel-forms reliability: This type of reliability assesses the consistency of two different versions of a
measurement instrument that are designed to measure the same construct. It involves administering
both versions to the same group of participants and comparing the results.

5. Alternate forms reliability: This type of reliability is similar to parallel-forms reliability but involves
administering two different forms of a test or measurement instrument that are not equivalent but are
intended to measure the same construct.

Reliability is important in research because it ensures that the results of a study are accurate,
trustworthy, and consistent. Researchers strive to maximize reliability by using standardized protocols,
clear measurement procedures, and rigorous data collection methods. High reliability indicates that
results are likely to be replicable and generalizable, which enhances the credibility and validity of the
research findings.

Validity

Validity refers to the extent to which a research study or measurement accurately measures what it is
intended to measure. It is about the degree to which a study is well-founded and meaningful, and
whether it truly captures the construct or concept of interest.

There are several types of validity that researchers consider:

1. Content validity: This type of validity examines whether a measurement instrument adequately
covers all aspects of the construct being measured. It involves ensuring that the items or questions in
the instrument are relevant and representative of the construct.

2. Construct validity: This type of validity examines whether a measurement instrument is accurately
capturing the underlying theoretical construct or concept it is intended to measure. It involves assessing
the relationship between the measurement instrument and other constructs or variables that are
theoretically related.

3. Criterion-related validity: This type of validity assesses the extent to which a measurement
instrument aligns with an external criterion, such as another established measurement or real-world
outcome. There are two subtypes of criterion-related validity:

- Concurrent validity: The extent to which the measurement instrument corresponds with a criterion
that is measured at the same time.

- Predictive validity: The extent to which the measurement instrument predicts future performance or
behavior.

4. Face validity: This type of validity refers to the superficial appearance or relevance of a measurement
instrument. It is not a formal measure of validity but rather an initial subjective assessment of whether
the instrument appears to measure what it is intended to measure.
5. Internal validity: This type of validity refers to the extent to which a study accurately establishes a
cause-and-effect relationship between variables. Internal validity is important for ensuring that the
results of a research study are valid and credible.

Validity is crucial in research because it determines the accuracy and credibility of the findings.
Researchers strive to maximize validity by using appropriate measurement instruments, conducting
rigorous study designs, and addressing potential sources of bias or confounding variables. High validity
indicates that the results of a study are meaningful, reliable, and can be generalized to the broader
population.

Qualitative research.

Aanalysis involves the process of systematically examining and interpreting qualitative data to identify
themes, patterns, and insights. Qualitative research is focused on exploring complex phenomena in-
depth, understanding the perspectives and experiences of participants, and generating rich, detailed
descriptions of social phenomena. Qualitative data can include interviews, focus groups, observations,
documents, and other sources that provide textual, visual, or auditory information

The following are key steps in qualitative research analysis:

1. Data transcription: If the qualitative data exists in audio or video format, it needs to be transcribed
into text for analysis. This involves converting spoken language into written text, including verbatim
quotes, non-verbal cues, and other relevant details.

2. Data organization: The researcher organizes the data into manageable units, such as individual
responses, paragraphs, or sections. This step helps in systematically organizing and categorizing the data
for analysis.

3. Data coding: Coding involves assigning labels or codes to segments of data to capture key themes,
concepts, or patterns. There are different coding techniques, including inductive coding (emerging from
the data) and deductive coding (based on existing theories or concepts).

4. Theme development: The coded segments of data are analyzed to identify overarching themes or
patterns that emerge across the dataset. Themes are recurring ideas, concepts, or perspectives that
provide insights into the research questions or objectives.

5. Data interpretation: Researchers interpret the coded data and themes to generate meaning and
understanding. This involves making connections between the data, identifying relationships, and
drawing conclusions based on the analysis.

6. Reflexivity: Researchers engage in reflexivity, acknowledging their own biases, perspectives, and
assumptions that may influence the analysis. Reflexivity involves critically reflecting on how the
researcher's background, experiences, and beliefs shape the interpretation of the data.

7. Triangulation: Triangulation involves using multiple sources of data, methods, or perspectives to

enhance the credibility and validity of the analysis. Researchers may triangulate data from different
sources, involve multiple analysts in the analysis process, or compare findings with existing literature.
8. Reporting findings: The final step in qualitative research analysis is reporting the findings in a
coherent and meaningful way. This typically involves writing a narrative that highlights key themes,
provides illustrative examples, and supports conclusions with evidence from the data analysis.

Quantitative research analysis

It involves the process of analyzing numerical data to evaluate relationships, patterns, trends, and
associations between variables. Quantitative research is focused on measurement, statistical analysis,
and the generation of numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical methods. Quantitative data
can include survey responses, experimental results, sensor data, and other sources that provide
numerical information.

The following are key steps in quantitative research analysis:

1. Data cleaning: Before analysis, data must be cleaned to identify and correct errors, inconsistencies,
missing values, outliers, and other issues that could affect the quality of the analysis. This step ensures
that the data is valid, reliable, and accurate for analysis.

2. Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe the basic features of
the data, such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and frequency distributions. Descriptive
statistics provide a snapshot of the data and help researchers understand its distribution and variability.

3. Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics are used to make inferences, predictions, or generalizations
about a population based on a sample of data. Inferential statistics include hypothesis testing,
correlation analysis, regression analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and other statistical techniques
that test relationships between variables and assess the significance of findings.

4. Data visualization: Data visualization involves creating visual representations of data, such as graphs,
charts, tables, and diagrams, to communicate findings effectively. Data visualization helps researchers
identify patterns, trends, outliers, and relationships in the data and present results in a clear and
intuitive manner.

5. Statistical analysis: Statistical analysis involves using statistical software to conduct quantitative
analysis and test hypotheses based on the research objectives. Researchers use statistical tests to
examine relationships between variables, assess the strength of associations, and determine the
significance of findings.

6. Data interpretation: Researchers interpret the results of the statistical analysis to draw conclusions,
make recommendations, and answer research questions. Data interpretation involves explaining the
significance of findings, discussing implications for theory or practice, and identifying areas for further
research.

7. Reliability and validity: Researchers assess the reliability (consistency) and validity (accuracy) of the
data and analysis to ensure the quality and credibility of the findings. Reliability and validity checks help
researchers evaluate the robustness of their results and draw meaningful conclusions from the data.

8. Reporting findings: The final step in quantitative research analysis is reporting the findings in a
structured and organized manner. This typically involves writing a research paper, report, or
presentation that presents the research objectives, methods, results, and conclusions in a clear and
coherent format.