APA GUIDE 1

APA
Style Manual
2023

Prepared by English Faculty

Algonquin College Pembroke Waterfront Campus
Updated June 2023

Summarized from

American Psychological Association. (2019). Publication manual of

the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

APA GUIDE 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents
Table of contents ................................................................................................................................. 2
section 1: Formatting YOUR Paper Using APA Style ........................................................................... 3
SECTION 2: Avoiding Plagiarism......................................................................................................... 4
Paraphrasing ..............................................................................................................................4
Quoting .......................................................................................................................................5
SECTION 3: citing YOUR sources ....................................................................................................... 6
General rules for CITING: ...........................................................................................................6
Example Citations .......................................................................................................................7
SECTION 4: Preparing YOUR references list (documenting)............................................................. 10
GENERAL RULES FOR DOCUMENTING ...............................................................................10
SECTION 5: Example references ...................................................................................................... 12
SECTION 6: including figures in a document ..................................................................................... 28
SECTION 7: Sample PowerPoint Presentation .................................................................................. 30
SECTION 8: Sample Research Essay ................................................................................................. 1
Appendix A: FORMATTING Titles of books and articles in sentences ............................................... 34
APA GUIDE 3

SECTION 1: FORMATTING YOUR PAPER USING APA STYLE

Follow these guidelines when you prepare your paper to be handed in.

1. Title page:
APA provides two title page guidelines: one for student papers and one for professional
papers. These instructions follow the student title page guideline. If your professor requires
you to use the professional title page guideline, you can find it at the APA Style website.
• Include a page number on your title page, in the top right corner.
• Place the paper title in the top half of the page, centred, in bold font.
• Leave three or four spaces after the title (main words capitalized) and then include the
following information, centred and double spaced: your name, your program, course
number, course instructor’s name, due date. (see Sample APA-style paper).

2. Font: Use one of the following fonts: 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, 12-point Times New
Roman, or 11-point Georgia (unless your professor specifies otherwise).

3. Page setup:
• Set one-inch margins all around (in MS Word Page Layout-Margins).
• Indent the first line of each paragraph five-seven spaces (hit Enter then Tab).
• Double-space (In MSWord: )

4. Titles and sub-titles:

• Repeat your paper’s title, centred, at the top of the first page of your paper.
• To use headings, follow the rules below:

Level One (only main sections, no subsections):

Centre, Bold, Capitalize Main Words

Level Two (main sections and subsections):

Align left, Bold, Capitalize Main Words

Level Three (main sections, subsections, and another tier of subsections):

Indent, bold, no capitals, follow with a period.

5. References:
Place your list of references at the end of your paper, on a separate page. See General
rules for documenting for details.

6. Visuals:
• Number, title, and acknowledge the source for all visuals as per the example in the
Sample APA-style paper.
• Cite all visuals, including photos and online images.
• See Section 6 of this Guide for further details on including figures.
APA GUIDE 4

SECTION 2: AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

There are three important steps to avoiding plagiarism:

Cite all sources

Quote or paraphrase throughout your paper, Create a reference list
sources correctly. whether quoted or entry for all sources.
paraphrased.

PARAPHRASING
Paraphrasing means putting someone else’s ideas into your own words. A proper paraphrase
must be substantially different from the original text, both in wording and in structure.
Paraphrases must be cited. Citations for paraphrases include the author and year. It is not
necessary to include a page or paragraph number in a citation for a paraphrase, but a page or
paragraph number should be included when you paraphrase from long or complex sources.

Simply changing a few words is not paraphrasing. A paraphrase

should be substantially different from its original and should sound
like your own writing voice. Paraphrases must be cited.

Original: “Researchers at the University of Oxford’s Jenner Lab are developing a vaccine that
targets the common proteins found in all flu viruses instead of tailoring to seasonal flu”
(Haggarty, 2011, para. 3).
 A new vaccine is being developed at Oxford University that targets proteins that
appear in all flus rather than having to tailor a flu shot to each year’s seasonal flu
(Haggarty, 2011). WORDS TOO SIMILAR
 Researchers at Oxford University’s Jenner lab are creating a universal vaccine that will
attack proteins common to all flus rather than creating a new vaccine specifically for
each seasonal flu (Haggarty, 2011). STRUCTURE TOO SIMILAR
 A universal flu vaccine under development at Oxford University’s Jenner Lab will
eliminate the need to create specialized seasonal flu vaccines by attacking proteins
that exist in all strains of the flu (Haggarty, 2011).
APA GUIDE 5
QUOTING

Quoting means reporting what an author has said using their exact words.

Quotations must be stated in the author’s exact words and placed in

quotation marks or indented (indent if more than 40 words).

Short quotations: For short quotations (40 or fewer words), place the text in quotation marks
and embed it in a sentence.
e.g. Haggarty (2011) states that Canada’s yearly flu vaccines may soon be a thing of the
past, as researchers are creating “a vaccine that targets the common proteins found in
all flu viruses instead of tailoring to seasonal flu” (para. 3).

Long quotations: For quotations of 40 words or more, indent the entire block 0.5 inches from the
left margin and do not use quotation marks. Place the period before the citation.
e.g. The example below illustrates the latest developments in flu-prevention efforts:
Researchers at the University of Oxford’s Jenner Lab are developing a
vaccine that targets the common proteins found in all flu viruses
instead of tailoring to seasonal flu. The result: instead of having to
have a newly concocted flu shot developed each year, the same can
be used again and again. (Haggarty, 2011, para. 3)

Changing quotations:
When quoting, it is critical that the quotation be exactly the same as the original – any changes
that you make must be clearly indicated.
You must also not make any changes that alter the meaning or intention of the original.
Original: “The result: instead of having to have a newly concocted flu shot developed each
year, the same can be used again and again” (Haggarty, 2011, para. 3).
To take out part of a quotation (i.e. to shorten it), use ellipses.
Words taken out: Replace the missing words with three points, e.g. “The result: instead of
having to have a [new]. . .flu shot developed each year, the same can be
used again and again” (Haggarty, 2011, para. 3).
Sentence(s) taken out: Replace the missing sentence(s) with four points. (….)

To add or change text, place the added or changed parts in [brackets].

Added: “The result: instead of having to have a newly concocted flu shot developed each
year, the same [universal vaccine] can be used again and again” (Haggarty,
2011, para. 3).
Changed: “The result [is that] instead of having to have a newly [created] flu shot developed
each year, the same can be used again and again” (Haggarty, 2011, para. 3).

Source: Haggarty, E. (2011, February 9). Say ‘goodbye’ to the seasonal flu shot. Toronto
Star. www.thestar.com
APA GUIDE 6

SECTION 3: CITING YOUR SOURCES

Why cite? A citation allows the reader to match a specific quotation or paraphrase in your paper
with the correct entry in your references list. This allows the reader to find any piece of
information in its original source, using the information in your references list.
What to cite? Cite all information that you have taken from a source, regardless of the type of
source or how you present the information (in your own words, in a quotation, in a table).

You must cite any statement, fact, statistic, idea and conclusion
which is not your own thinking,
even if you have used your own words.

The only exception to the above rule is “common knowledge”—facts or statistics that are
either a. commonly known and generally accepted as true, or
b. easily checked in an encyclopedia.
Items of common knowledge do not have to be cited or included in your references list.

You must also cite any images (such as photos or graphs) which you
have not created yourself.

Note: If you have taken a photo or drawn a picture yourself, you may cite yourself as
photographer/illustrator. This avoids any confusion for your reader, who might think you’ve just
forgotten to cite. See personal communications.

GENERAL RULES FOR CITING:

1. Place the citation as close as possible to the source material.

For a quotation (author’s words), place the citation at the end of the sentence before the
period. Include a page number if there is one, or a paragraph number if your source doesn’t
have page numbers.
e.g. "The prevalence of listeriosis is about 20 cases in one million people”
(McGeer, 2009, p. 10).
For a paraphrase (your own words), place the citation at the end of paraphrased material, at
a natural pause in the sentence.
e.g. Because approximately 20 cases of listeriosis per 100 million people are reported
annually (McGeer, 2009), Canadians should take steps to lower their risk of
contracting it (p. 10).

2. Cite every use of a source.

If you quote or paraphrase the same author four times, you will make four citations.
Each citation will be the same, except that the page/paragraph numbers may differ.
APA GUIDE 7
3. Include a page or section name or paragraph number for all quotations.
• Use page numbers when provided (Use p. for a single page, pp. for multiple pages)
• When page numbers are not provided, use one of the following methods:
a) Provide a heading or section name (Brown & Paige, 2020, Threats section)
b) Provide an abbreviated heading or section name in quotation marks to indicate the
heading has been abbreviated (Milow, 2019, “Regulating Water”)
c) Provide a paragraph number (count the paragraphs if they are not numbered (Jarz,
2011, para. 4)
d) Provide a heading or section name in combination with a paragraph number (Milow,
2019, “Regulating Water,” para. 4)

4. If you include the author’s name in a sentence, place the date in brackets after the
name and place the page or paragraph number at the end of the sentence. This is
called a “narrative citation.” E.g.: As Brown (2001) discovered in his landmark study,
there are literally “thousands of species of lichen” (p. 9).

EXAMPLE CITATIONS

Reminders: 1. Include page number / section name / or paragraph number for all quotations.
Use p. for one page, pp. for several pages, and para. for paragraph.
2. Include page number / section name / or paragraph number for paraphrases to help
readers locate the specific section in a long source.
3. Include authors’ last names only (no initials) and the year of the date.
4. Cite each source each time that you use it.
5. Unlike references, citations stay the same regardless of the type of source (e.g. a
book is cited the same as a movie), except for non-retrievable sources such as
interviews, emails, lectures, etc.

Author Type Narrative Citation Parenthetical citation

One author Addison (2019) (Addison, 2019)
Two authors Brown and Simcoe (2016) (Brown & Simcoe, 2016)
Three or more Carter et al. (2018) (Carter et al., 2018)
Group author without Health Canada (2020) (Health Canada, 2020)
abbreviation
Group author with abbreviation
First citation Canadian Food Inspection (Canadian Food Inspection
Agency (CFIA, 2019) Agency [CFIA], 2019)
Subsequent citation
CFIA (2019) (CFIA, 2019)

No author or group author

Same idea in multiple texts
Same author and year, different sources
One author quoted or cited by another
Email or interview
PowerPoint, lecture, handout (via Brightspace)
APA GUIDE 8
5. No author and no group author (all types of sources)
Use shortened title Page number: ("The Hidden Force,” 2018, p. 37).
Paragraph number: ("Reconnecting with People,” 2019, para. 3).
Note: Place “quotation marks” around titles of articles, chapters and web pages.
Italicize titles of books, brochures, reports and journals.
Note: If the author is specifically identified as ‘Anonymous’, then use Anonymous in your citation
e.g. (Anonymous, 2008).

6. Same idea in multiple texts

Cite all authors in alphabetical order, separated by a semi-colon (;).
(Clark, 2016, p. 130; Martin, 2017, p. 32)
(Davidson, 2016, p. 361; Johnson, 2018, p. 14)

7. Same author and year, different sources

If you have multiple sources by the same author/organization that are published in the same
year, distinguish between them by adding a, b, c, etc. after the date. The order is
determined by the order of the corresponding references in your references list.
(Microsoft, 2019a) (Microsoft, 2019b)

8. One author quoted or cited by another

Identify the author and year cited by the source you are reading, and add “as cited in” and
the author(s) year, and page of the source you are using.
A Nobel Prize winning biologist once warned “We live in evolutionary
competition with microbes—bacteria and viruses. There is no guarantee that we
will be the survivors” (Lederberg, 1990, as cited in Specter, 2020, p. 43).

Freud (1927) believed that it is impossible to impose belief (or disbelief) upon
anyone (as cited in Evans, 2019, p. 59).
Note: Only include the source you read in your references list, not the original source.

9. Email, interview, or personal photograph (Personal communication)

Sources that cannot be retrieved by the reader are cited in the text as personal
communications.
Provide last name, initial, date, and label as “personal communication” or “personal
photograph”, as appropriate.
(T. L. Green, personal communication, April 5, 2020)
Note: Do not include personal communications in your references list because they are not
retrievable – i.e. your reader cannot access them.

10. PowerPoint, lecture, handout or podcast posted on Brightspace

If the lecture notes, podcast, or PowerPoint slides come from a course learning
management system like Brightspace and you are writing for an audience with access to
that system, list the teacher’s last name(s) and year: (Jones, 2020).
Include a reference list entry (see Reference sample 15)
APA GUIDE 9
11. Artificial Intelligence (AI) Writing Tools

First: Do you have permission from your professor to use AI writing tools such as ChatGPT in
your work? If you are unsure, contact your teacher to clarify. Using text generated by AI writing
tools without permission may be considered academic fraud which is subject to the process and
sanctions in Algonquin’s policy AA48: Academic Integrity.

If you have permission to use AI writing tools, remember the information generated may be
biased, outdated, incorrect, or incomplete. Be sure to consider and check the credibility of the
material before using it in your work.

When borrowing AI generated text, include the following three components of acknowledgement:
1) The prompt you used to get the generated text
2) The APA citation
3) The APA reference

1. The prompt. As you introduce the quote or paraphrase of the AI generated text, identify the
question you entered into the search box.

a) Paraphrasing the generated text:

When I prompted ChatGPT “What strategies are being taken to preserve that Amazon
rainforest,” five actions were identified: protected areas, community based conservation,
forest certification, government policy, international cooperation (Open AI, 2023).

b) Quoting the generated text:

When prompted with the question “What are AI writing tools?”, ChatGPT described them as
tools that “leverage natural language processing (NLP) algorithms and machine learning
techniques to generate, edit, or optimize written content” (Open AI, 2023).

2. The citation. ChatGPT responses are generated through an algorithm, so when you borrow
the generated text from a chat session you should credit the author of the algorithm.
ChatGPT was developed by the company Open AI.
(OpenAI, 2023)

3. The reference. When the source is not a traditional format, we use square brackets after the
title to indicate the type of source it is. Open AI describes ChatGPT as a “large language
model,” so that description should go in square brackets.
Here are the building blocks for writing an APA reference for an AI writing tool:

Developer. (Version Year). Name of generative AI tool (Version number) [Type of AI Model].
URL of tool.

Here is the reference for the Chat GPT generated text that is used in this example:

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (May 24 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com

APA GUIDE 10

SECTION 4: PREPARING YOUR REFERENCES LIST (DOCUMENTING)

Why document? Your references list adds detail to the information in your citations. By matching
the author’s name in a citation with his/her name in your references list, a reader can get enough
detail to go out and find the original source you used.
What to document? Document all sources you have used in your paper except non-retrievable
sources such as personal photographs or emails.

GENERAL RULES FOR DOCUMENTING

1. Format
• Place your references on a separate page at the end of your paper.
• Centre the title References at the top of your page.
• Arrange all sources in alphabetical order (Notes: Remember the “nothing before
something” rule. For example, Smith, P. appears before Smithers, A.L. Also, the articles
The, A, and An are ignored in alphabetizing.)
• Do not number your entries.
• Double space your references list.
• Indent the second and following lines of each entry (hit ENTER, then TAB once).
• Pay careful attention to spaces, periods, commas, and italics in the examples.

2. Author
• Place last name first. Provide initial (first letter) of all given names.
• Leave out titles, such as Dr., and credentials, such as Ph.D.
• Use a comma to separate the author’s initials from the next author’s name
• an ampersand (&) before the final author’s name with up to 20 authors
• If the author is a group, capitalize each word of the group name (see example 5).
Group authors include government agencies, associations, business, hospitals,
universities, and task forces.
• If there is no individual author and no group author, move the title to the position where
the author would normally go (see example 18).
• For multiple authors, provide the names in the order in which they appear in the
original source for up to 20 authors (see example 11).

3. Publication Date
• Provide as much of the date as you can find, in the order year, month, day.
• Spell months out in full (e.g. September, not Sept.).
• If there is no date, write n.d. instead.

4. Title
Books: Capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle and proper nouns
(e.g. Canadian). Italicize all words.
Journal and magazine titles: Capitalize every major word of the title. Italicize all words.
Journal articles: Capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle and proper nouns
(e.g. Canadian). Do not italicize.
Webpages: Capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle and proper nouns
(e.g. Canadian). Italicize all words.
APA GUIDE 11

Add special information, like edition number, in parentheses ( ) right after the title, before the
period – e.g. Canadian grammar and style (2nd ed.).
For non-traditional sources like PowerPoints, Films, Maps, identify the type of source in
brackets [ ] right after the title, before the period – e.g. Girl with ice cream [Photograph].

5. Publication Information (Print Sources)

• Provide the name of the publisher as shown on the work, which is usually found on the
inside of the front cover.
• When a corporate author is the same as the publisher, omit the publisher from the
reference.

6. Web Addresses (URLs) and DOIs (Online Sources)

A) DOIs. A DOI (digital object identifier) is an alphanumeric string that provides a link to
online material, particularly to journal articles. It is usually found on the first page of your
source. If your source has a digital object identifier (DOI), provide it. Present the DOI as a
hyperlink.

o https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.090869

If the DOI in your source is not a hyperlink, create a hyperlink by adding https://doi.org/ before
it.

B) URLs. The URL is the site’s web address. For sources from websites other than library
databases that do not have a DOI, include the URL in the reference
o Link directly to the source and ensure that the link will work for readers:
https://blood.ca/en/organs-tissues/deceased-donation/organ-donation-after-death
o If the URL ink is no longer working, the source cannot be included in the
References because it is not recoverable.

o If the source does not have a DOI and you found the source in a library database, do
not include the URL of the database in your reference because the source is
considered widely available (see sample 14).
APA GUIDE 12

SECTION 5: EXAMPLE REFERENCES

The examples below cover the most common sources used at the
college level, but it is not a complete listing.
If your source is not covered, please consult an APA manual at the library
or see your professor.

TEXTUAL WORKS
Books ONLINE MEDIA
17. Webpage on a website with a group author
1. Whole book – one author, first edition 18. Webpage on a website without an author
2. Whole book – more than one author, not the 19. Webpage on news site
first edition 20. Blog
3. Whole book – editor instead of author, 21. Mobile app
sub-title
4. Part of a book (chapter, essay or section)
5. Electronic book—group author
6. Electronic book from a library database VISUAL / AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA
7. Entry in an encyclopedia—online with an 22. Image—retrieved from an image database
author (e.g. Flickr, Pixabay) with identified photographer
8. Entry in a dictionary--online without an author
9. Report (e.g. technical, government) 23. Image—online, from within an article, or
website with identified photographer
Periodicals (Journals, Magazines, 24. Image—online, from within an article, or
Newspapers) website without an identified photographer
25. Map—online
10. Newspaper or magazine article, print
26. Map—online, dynamic
11. Journal article – online, with up to 20 authors, 27. Streaming video (Youtube, Netflix)
with DOI 28. Television series episode available online
29. Podcast
12. Journal article—online, with more than 20
authors, with DOI
13. Magazine, newspaper, journal article –
30. AI Writing Tools
online, without DOI, not from a library
database
14. Magazine, newspaper, journal article— LEGAL REFERENCES
online, without DOI, from a library database

30. Legislation
Course Materials 31. Federal Regulation
31. Legal case
15. PowerPoint slides or lecture notes posted on
Brightspace
16. Lecture notes not posted on Brightspace,
personal photographs, personal interviews
APA GUIDE 13

In order to prepare your references list accurately, it is important that you pay close attention
to the punctuation, spaces and italics in each entry and ensure that your entries copy the
format exactly.
There may be cases in which you must use two examples to prepare one entry, such as a
chapter with two authors
(see ex. 2 - Book: multiple authors) in a book edited by someone else (see ex. 4 – Part of a
book).
The small labels beneath each example are there to help you identify the parts of each
example. Do not include them in your references.

1. Book: One author, first edition

Citation (in text) (Wagamese, 2019, p. 19)

Wagamese, R. (2019). One drum: Stories and ceremonies for a planet.
author date title (italic, cap 1st word of title and subtitle)
Reference
Douglas & McIntyre.
publisher

author: Last name, first initial (e.g. Rae, M.). Do not include titles such as Dr.
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
Reference notes sub-title: Put a colon (:) between main and sub-titles and capitalize the first
letter of the sub-title.
e-book: For an online book, see notes below examples 5, 6.

2. Book: More than one author, not the first edition

Citation (in text) (Gurak et al., 2015, p. 10)
Gurak, L. J., Lannon, J. M., & Seijts, J. (2015). A concise guide to
authors date title (italic, cap 1st word)
Reference
technical communication (2nd Canadian ed.). Pearson.
edition (if not 1st) publisher

author: List all authors in the order in which they appear on the inside cover.
Last name, first initial (e.g. Rae, M.). Do not include titles such as Dr.
Reference notes
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
e-book: For an online book, see notes below examples 5, 6.

Click here to return to examples list

APA GUIDE 14
3. Book: Editor instead of author, sub-title
Citation (in text) (Scott & Oliver, 1964, p. 10)
Scott, F. R., & Oliver, M. (Eds.). (1964). Quebec states her case:
editor(s) editor label date title (italic, cap 1st word)
Reference
Speeches and articles from Quebec. Macmillan.
sub-title (italic, cap 1st word) publisher

editor: Last name, first initial (e.g. Rae, M.). Do not include titles such as Dr.
Add label (Ed.) for one editor or (Eds.) for two or more.
Reference
notes date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
sub-title: Put a colon (:) between main and sub-titles and capitalize the first
letter of the sub-title.

4. Part of a book (chapter, essay, article or section)

Citation (in text) (Drucker, 1969, p. 10)
Drucker, P. D. (1969). The first technological revolution. In K. Davis &
section author(s) date section title (cap 1st word) book author(s)/editor(s)

Reference W. G. Scott (Eds.), Human relations and organizational behaviour

editor label book title (italic, cap 1st word)
(pp. 356-364). Harper.
section pages publisher

author: Last name, first initial (e.g. Rae, M.). Do not include titles such as Dr.
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
Reference notes book List by first initial then last name (e.g. M. Rae.).
editor/ Include the note (Ed.) for a single editor, (Eds.) for more than one.
author: Place the word “In”, capitalized, before the editor/author.

5. Electronic book – Group Author

Citation (in text) (Best Start Expert Panel, 2007, p. 10)
Best Start Expert Panel on Early Learning. (2007). Early learning for
corporate author (cap all words) date

Reference every child today: A framework for Ontario early childhood settings.
book title (cap 1st word of title and subtitle)
http://cfcollaborative.ca/wp-content/uploads/ELECT-Jan-2007.pdf
URL link to book

author:
If there’s an organization, use it in place of an author, as here.
Capitalize each word.
publisher: When the publisher is the same as the author (as with a professional
Reference notes organization), omit the publisher.
URL: Include the book’s URL. If URL doesn’t fit on one line, add a space
to break it over two lines

Click here to return to examples list

APA GUIDE 15
6. Electronic book from a library database

Citation (in text) (Mason, 2014, p. 35)

Mason, C.W. (2014). Spirits of the Rockies: Reasserting an Indigenous
author date title (italic, cap 1st word in title and subtitle and cap proper nouns)
Reference presence in Banff National Park. University of Toronto Press.
publisher

URL: Do not include a URL for books accessed through a library database.
Reference note

7. Entry in an Encyclopedia—Online, with an author

Citation (in text) (Miller, n.d.)
Miller, J.R. (n.d). Residential schools in Canada. In The Canadian
author date entry title encyclopedia title (cap, italic)
Reference encyclopedia. Retrieved June 18, 2020 from
retrieval date
https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/residential-schools
author: If the entry does not have an author, begin the reference with the entry
title.
date: When the reference work is continuously updated, use n.d. as the year
Reference notes of publication and include a retrieval date.
retrieval date: Include a retrieval date when the reference work is continuously
updated.

8. Entry in a dictionary—Online, without an author

Citation (in text) (Merriam-Webster, n.d.)
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Gregarious. In Merriam Webster
group author no date entry title dictionary title
Reference dictionary. Retrieved May 14, 2020 from
retrieval date
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gregarious
author: Include the group author of the dictionary or encyclopedia.
date: When a dictionary or encyclopedia is continuously updated and not
archived, use (n.d.) for the publication date and include a retrieval
Reference notes date.
entry title: Provide the title of the dictionary or encyclopedia entry.
retrieval date: Provide a retrieval date when a work is expected to change or
be updated.

Click here to return to examples list

APA GUIDE 16

9. Report (Technical or government)

Citation (in text) (Jackson & Bradford, 2019, p. 32)
Jackson, J. & Bradford, B. (2019). Measuring public attitudes
author(s) (last names, first initial) date

Reference towards the police (Catalogue No. PS18-43/2018E-PDF). Public

report title (cap first word) report number
Safety Canada. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36499.84003
publisher name DOI

author: Last name, first initial (e.g. Rae, M.). Do not include titles such as Dr.
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
Reference notes report number: Include the report number in parentheses.
DOI: List the DOI as a hyperlink. Add https://doi.org/ before a DOI that is
not already a hyperlink.

10. Article from a newspaper or magazine, print format

Citation (in text) (Bramburger, 2020, p. 12)

Bramburger, J. (2020, June 11). Bep Guidolin and Bryan Murray were
author(s) date article title (cap 1st word)
two Pembroke Lumber Kings coaches headed in opposite directions.
Reference
Pembroke Observer and News, 12.
newspaper title (italic, cap all) article page(s)

author: Last name, first initial (e.g. Rae, M.). Do not include titles such as Dr.
date: Provide exact date: year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s
no date, show (n.d.).
Reference notes
article title: Capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle.
newspaper title: Capitalize all main words of a newspaper or magazine title,
and italicize.

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APA GUIDE 17
11. Journal article with up to 20 authors: Online, with DOI
Citation (in text) (Abi-Jaoude et al., 2020, p. E136)
Abi-Jaoude, E., Naylor, K.T., & Pignatiello, A. (2020).
author(s) date
Smartphones, social media use and youth mental health.
article title (cap 1st word)
Reference
Canadian Medical Association Journal, 192(6), E136-E141.
journal title (italics, cap all words) vol.(iss.) article pages
https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.190434
DOI

author: Last name, first initial, for up to 20 authors. Second last and last
author separated with an ampersand (&).
date: Include only the year for journal articles.
vol/iss: Italicize the volume number but not the issue number. Leave no
space between them.
Reference notes article title: Capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle.
journal title: Capitalize all main words of a journal title, and italicize.
DOI: DOI stands for “digital object identifier”, a numbering system used by
libraries and databases to identify online resources. If an article has
a DOI, provide it as a direct link to the article in the format that
begins https://doi.org/ .

12. Journal article with more than 20 authors: Online, with DOI
Citation (in text) (Watts et al., 2019, p. 1838)
Watts, N., Amann, M., Amell, N., Ayab-Karlsson, S., Belecour, K.,

Boyhoff, M., Byass, P., Cai, W., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Capstick,

S., Chambers, J., Dalin, C., Daly, M., Dasandi, N., Davies, M.,

Drummond, R., Dubrow, R., Ebi, K.L., Eckelman, M. …

Reference
Montgomery, H. (2019). The 2019 report on The
author(s) date article title
Lancet Countdown on health and climate change. The Lancet,
journal title
394(10211),1836-1878. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-
vol.(iss.) article pages
6736(19)32596-6
authors: With more than 20 authors, list the first 19, insert an ellipsis (…), and
Reference notes then add the final author’s name.
APA GUIDE 18

13. Journal, magazine, or newspaper article: Online, without DOI, not from a library
database
Citation (in text) (Kolbert, 2020, para. 10)
Kolbert, E. (2020, May). Where have all the insects gone?
author(s) date article title (cap 1st word)
National Geographic.
journal title (italic, cap all words)
Reference
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2020/05/where-have-

all-the-insects-gone-feature/
URL link to article

author: Last name, first initial (e.g. Rae, M.). Do not include titles such as Dr.
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
Reference article title: Capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle.
notes title: Capitalize all main words of a newspaper or magazine title, and
italicize.
URL: Provide the URL that links to the article. If URL doesn’t fit on one
line, break it over two lines and maintain the hanging indent.

14. Magazine, newspaper, journal article without DOI: Online, from a library database
Citation (in text) (Brackley, 2020, p. 10)
Brackley, C. (2020, March/April). Charting the Lakehead.
author(s0 date article title (cap 1st word)
Reference
Canadian Geographic, 140(20), 74-79.
magazine title (italic, cap all) vol.(iss.) article pages

author: Last name, first initial (e.g. Rae, M.). Do not include titles such as Dr.
date: Provide exact date: year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s
no date, show (n.d.).
title: Capitalize all main words of a journal, magazine, or newspaper title.
Reference notes noDOI /
no URL: Do not include a URL or database information for articles that do not
have DOIs and are found on library databases.
For online articles without DOIs not found on library databases, see
example 13 above.

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APA GUIDE 19
15. PowerPoint slides or lecture notes on Brightspace
If the slides or lecture notes come from a classroom management system like Brightspace
and your audience has access to that resource, provide the name of the site and its URL
Citation (in text) (Gilabri, 2020)
Gilabri, M. (2020, May 21). Temperate deciduous forests [PowerPoint
author date (year, month, day) title (cap first word) description

Reference slides]. Brightspace Algonquin College.

site name
https://www.algonquincollege.com/brightspace/
URL with hyperlink

author:
The author’s name will most often be the teacher who produced and
posted the slides.
date: The date as it appears on the presentation. If no date is present, use
Reference notes (n.d.).
description: Indicate the type of resource.
URL: Provide the URL of the webpage where users log in.

16. Non-retrievable source (e.g. email, lecture notes not posted on Brightspace,
interview, personal photo, etc.)
There is no entry in the references list for email, lecture notes not posted on Brightspace,
interviews you have conducted, or personal photographs. These items are non-retrievable.
Include only an in-text citation according to citation example 9 above.

17. Webpage on a website with a group author

Citation (Eastern Ontario Model Forest, 2019, para. 3)
Reference Eastern Ontario Model Forest. (2019). Community forest carbon offset
author(s) date title (cap 1st word and proper nouns)
program. https://www.eomf.on.ca/programs/carbon-offsets
URL direct link
Reference author: Group author or personal author.
notes date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s no date use (n.d.).
title: Italicize webpage titles.
Site name: Do not include website name if it is the same as the group author.
URL: If URL doesn’t fit on one line, add a space to break it over two lines

18. Webpage on a website with no author

Citation (Mexiletine (oral route), 2023)
Reference Mexiletine (oral route). (2023). Mayo Clinic.
title date website name
https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/mexiletine-oral-
route/description/drg-20064791
URL direct link
Reference title: If the author is unknown or cannot be reasonably determined, more
notes the title to the author position, followed by the date.
date: If there’s no date use (n.d.).
website name: include before the URL

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APA GUIDE 20
19. Webpage on a news website
Citation (in text) (Dart, 2020, para. 10)
Dart, C. (2020). Documentary “Meat the Future” shows us the possible
author(s) date File title (italics, cap first word of title)
future of meat. CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/documentarychannel/
site name
Reference
features/documentary-meat-the-future-shows-us-the-possible-future-
URL hyperlink
of-meat
author:
Last name, first initial (e.g. Rae, M.). Do not include titles such as Dr.
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
title:Webpage title, Italicized. Note here that the title of the documentary,
“Meat the Future,” has both major words capitalized and is in
Reference notes
quotation marks.
site name: Name of the website. If website name is the same as the group
author, omit the site name.
URL: URL with hyperlink

20. Blog post

Citation (in text) (Macdonald, 2020, para. 10)
Macdonald, D. (2020, April 27). Gender impact of Canada’s
author(s) date entry title (cap 1st word)
income supports. Behind the numbers.
Reference Title of blog (italics)
http://behindthenumbers.ca/2020/04/27/gender-impact-of-canadas-
URL link
income-supports/
author: If you know the author’s real name, add it as last name, first initial. If
the blog is written under a screen name, include the screen name
Reference notes
blog title: The title of the blog where the entry is posted, in italics.
URL: URL with a direct to the blog post

21. Mobile app

Citation (in text) (Eilers-Smith, 2019)
Eilers-Smith, M. (2019). Smart Bird ID (Version 3.9.2) [Mobile
rights holder(s) date title (cap all) version description label
Reference
app]. https://apps.apple.com/ca/app/smartbird-id/id1271449623
URL

rightsholder: A rightsholder may be a company or a specific creator.

date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If no date, show (n.d.).
Reference notes
version: In most programs, this can be found under ‘Help’ and/or ‘About’.
description: If your source is a mobile app, use the descriptor [Mobile app].
APA GUIDE 21
22. Image, Online, Retrieved from an image database (e.g. Flickr, Pixabay) with an
identified photographer.
Citation (Wang, 2008)
Wang, J.C. (2008). Bur oak [Photograph].
Photographer date mage title media type label
Reference
Flickr https://bit.ly/2RZ6zIk
source URL hyperlink (shortened)

photographer: Give the name of the photographer, last name and initials. If
there is no photographer or artist listed, begin the entry with the title.
date:. If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
title: For an untitled photo, include a description in square brackets in
place of the title (e.g. [Hospital ventilator].
Reference notes media type: After the title, describe the media type of the source in square
brackets – e.g. [Photograph], [Map], [Drawing].
source: Source is the name of the site from which the image was retrieved.
URL: If a URL is very long and complex, you may use a URL shortening
service to shorten it. In this case, https://bitly.com was used. If you
shorten a URL, check to make sure the shortened link brings you to
the correct source.

23. Image, Online, from an article or website with an identified photographer.

Citation (Fox, n.d.)
Fox, S. (n.d.). [Bur oak bark] [Photograph]. University of Guelph
Photographer. no date. photo title media type source
Reference
Arboretum. https://arboretum.uoguelph.ca/thingstosee/trees/buroak
URL

photographer: provide the name of the photograph, last name, initials

Reference date: When no date is available, use (n.d.).
notes title: When no title for the photo is provided, create a descriptive title and
place it in square brackets.

24. Image, Online, from an article or website without an identified photographer.

Citation (Natural Resources Canada, 2015)
Natural Resources Canada. (2015). [Bur oak acorn] [Drawing].
Author date title media type
Reference https://tidcf.nrcan.gc.ca/en/trees/factsheet/65
URL

author: Begin with the author of the source. Here it is a group author.
Reference title: When no title for the drawing is provided, create a descriptive title
notes and place it in square brackets.
media type: describe the media type in square brackets
For full information on including images within a document, see Section 6: Including
Figures in a Document

Click
Click here
here to
to return
return to
to examples
examples list
list
APA GUIDE 22
25. Map: Online
Citation (in text) 1st: (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2019) 2nd: (MNR, 2019)
Ministry of Natural Resources, Provincial Geomatics Service Centre.
map creator (last name, 1st initial or organization)
(2019). Canoe routes of Algonquin Provincial Park
Reference date map title (cap first word, italics)
[Route map]. Friends of Algonquin Park.
description publisher
http://www.algonquinpark.on.ca/virtual/canoe_routes_map/index.php
author:
Instead of a personal author, provide the name of the person or
organization who created the map.
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
title: Place the description [Map] after the title. If you know the type of
map (e.g. reference, topographical, etc.), include this in the label.
Reference notes note: If your map is in an atlas, include the word “In” and the title of the
atlas, followed by the map’s page numbers, after the map title – e.g.
In Rand McNally premier world atlas (pp. 82-83). See example 4:
Chapter, essay or article in an edited book for format details.
If your map is part of a map series, include the series information
after the title - e.g. Canada, 31 F/13.

26. Map: Online, Dynamic

Citation (in text) (Google, n.d.)
Google. (n.d.). [Google Maps directions for driving from Pembroke,
author no date map description

Reference Ontario to Mont Orford National Park, Quebec]. Retrieved May

Retrieval date
14, 2020, from https://goo.gl/maps/JH7XLVTkmQKEMXKy5
URL hyperlink

author:
For the group author, list the company that software that generates
the map.
date: There is no publication date, so use (n.d.)
title: Dynamically created maps do not have a title, so provide a
Reference notes
description of the map and enclose it in square brackets.
retrieval date: Provide a retrieval date when a work is expected to change.
URL: Provide a hyperlink. Use a shortened URL. Most sites will have an
option to “share” the map and will provide a shortened URL.

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APA GUIDE 23
27. Streaming video (e.g. YouTube, Netflix)
Citation (in text) (Treasure, 2011)
Treasure, J. (2011). Five ways to listen better [Video]. Ted Global.
author date video title (italic, cap 1st word) description production company
Reference https://www.ted.com/talks/julian_treasure_5_ways_to_listen_better#
URL of video with hyperlink
t-9558
author:
If you know the author’s real name, add it as last name, first initial.
If you have only a screen name, include the screen name exactly as
written and label it [User name].
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2020, May 19). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
Reference notes title: In italics
description: Identify the type of source with square brackets: [Video]
production company: List the company or organization that produced the video
and hosts the posting site
URL: List URL with hyperlink to the video

28. Television series episode available online

Citation (in text) (Caulfield & Hodge, 2018)
Caulfield, T. (Writer), & Hodge, B. (Director). (2018, October 22).
writer(s) and director(s), labelled accordingly (last name, 1st initial) date
Vitamins and supplements (Season 2, Episode 2) [TV series
episode title (cap 1st word) season no., episode no. description
Reference episode]. In T. Caulfield (Executive Producer), A user’s guide to
executive producer(s) Title of TV series.
cheating death. https://www.visiontv.ca/videos/users-guide-cheating
URL where episode can be viewed
v-death- itamins-supplements/
author:
If there are multiple writer/producers/directors, list and identify them).
Executive producer is listed as follows: In first initials last name.
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2000, May 19). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
Reference notes episode title. List the title and identify season and episode number.
description: Identify the type of source in square brackets
producers: Iist and identify producers
URL: Include a URL that links to the episode, if it is available at a website.

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APA GUIDE 24
29. Podcast
Citation (in text) (CBC, 2018)
CBC. (Producer). (2018). Missing and murdered: Finding Cleo
producer(s), labelled date title (cap first word, italic)

Reference [Podcast]. https://curio.ca/en/collection/missing-murdered-finding-

URL of podcast’s homepage – hyperlink
cleo-2602/
author:
Provide the name(s) of the producer(s), host, etc. with an identifying
label (Producer), (Host).
If there are multiple producers, follow the format for multiple authors
Reference notes (see example 27 ).
date: Year, month, day-e.g. (2019, June 8). If there’s no date, show (n.d.).
description: Add the appropriate label after the title – [Podcast]
URL: Provide the web address of the podcast’s homepage as a hyperlink.

30. AI Writing Tools

First: Do you have permission from your professor to use AI writing tools such as ChatGPT in
your work? If you are unsure, contact your teacher to clarify. Using text generated by AI
writing tools without permission may be considered academic fraud.

Please refer to the Artificial Intelligence Writing Tools earlier in this document for information
on how to fully cite generated text, including both the question prompt and the APA citation.

Include the prompt you used to initiate the AI action.

Citation (in text)
(Open AI, 2023)
Open AI. (2023). ChatGPT (May 24 version) [Large language
author date title of tool version media type
Reference
model]. https://chat.openai.com
URL

author: include the name of the company that developed the tool.
title: Include the name of the tool used.
Reference notes
media type: identify the type of AI model
URL: include the URL to the tool’s homepage

Click here to return to examples list

APA GUIDE 25
31. Provincial or federal legislation
1st citation: (Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act, 2005)
Citation (in text)
2nd citation: (AODA, 2005)
Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act, SO 2005, c. 11. s. 10.
title of act (cap all words, italic) statute statute year chapter section
Reference
https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/05a11
url

title: Use the short title if one is available.

statute: Copy the statute volume as it is written in the act (SO for Statutes of
Ontario). Include the year immediately after.
Reference notes section: Include a section number if you are referring to a specific section of
the act.
URL: If you got the act online, add the URL at the end. If URL doesn’t fit on
one line, add a space to break it over two lines.

32. Federal Regulation

Citation (in text) (Cannabis Regulations, SOR/18-144)
Cannabis Regulations, SOR/18-144. https://laws-
Regulation title, Statutory Orders and Regulations / year - number
Reference
lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2018-144/index.html
url

title: Use the short title if one is available.

Statutory Orders and Regulations and year:
Reference notes Regulation number:
URL: Add the URL at the end. If URL doesn’t fit on one line, add a space
to break it over two lines.

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APA GUIDE 26
33. Legal case (including Quicklaw) (for online, see notes below)
Citation (in text) (R. v. Latimer, 2000)
R. v. Latimer (2000), [2001], 1 S.C.R. 3 at para. 7, 2001 S.C.R. 1, 2001
parties decision year volume reporter pinpoint parallel citations
Reference
SCC 1, McLachlin C.J.C.
judge (optional)

parties: Complainant/respondent’s
name first, then
defendant/appellant’s.
(R. is the crown; in private
litigation, include
complainant’s last name).
decision: Year of the decision, if
different from year of
reporter.
year: Year of reporter from top
reference.
volume: Volume number from top
Reference notes
reference.
reporter: Abbreviation of reporter from top reference.
section: Include a paragraph number if you are referring
to a specific section of the case.
parallels:Include the year, reporter and volume of parallel citations listed below
top reference.
judge: If the judge’s name is available and relevant, include it at the end of
the reference.
Place a comma after the last parallel citation, then the judge’s last
name and office – e.g. C.J.C. for Chief Justice of Canada).
online: If you got the act online, add the URL at the end.

Click here to return to examples list

APA GUIDE 27
References

American Psychological Association. (2019). Publication manual of the American

Psychological Association (7th ed.).

APA GUIDE 28

SECTION 6: INCLUDING FIGURES IN A DOCUMENT

Different types of figures can be included to present data or information to the audience, including
graphs, charts, maps, photographs, and drawings. Figures are numbered sequentially (Figure 1,
Figure 2, Figure 3). Place the figures as close as possible to their mention in the text. Include full
source information directly below the figure and in the reference list. When including a figure in
the text, four referencing elements are required: callout in the text, figure number and title,
citation, and reference.

1. Callout in the Text: Refer to the image by its figure number in a sentence preceding the
figure.

2. Figure Number and Title: Immediately above the image, provide a figure number and a
figure title. Use bold font for the figure number. The figure title should concisely describe
what is portrayed. Place the title two lines below the number, capitalize all major words,
and use italic font.

3. Citation: Include an APA citation immediately below the figure, aligned to the right margin.

4. Reference: Include a reference in your references list at the end of your document. If the
figure is taken from a book, article, or website, provide a reference to that source. If the
photographer or artist is mentioned in the source, start the reference with that person’s
name; otherwise, start the reference with the author of the entire source. If the figure is a
stock image taken from a site such as Flickr or Pixabay, provide a reference to the image
specifically (see reference example 21)

1. Example of Callout, Figure Number and Title, Citation, and Reference for a figure
within a website article that does not include the name of the artist:

As Figure 1 depicts, although the adult deer ticks measure around ¾ inches, deer ticks in the

larvae stage could be only ¼ inch or smaller and therefore more difficult to see.

Figure 1

Sizes of Deer Ticks at Different Stages

(Canadian Lyme Disease Foundation, 2021)

APA GUIDE 29

Reference at the end of the document:

Canadian Lyme Disease Foundation. (2021). Tick ID.

http://canlyme.com/lyme-prevention/tick-id-removal/

2. Example of Callout, Figure Number and Title, Citation, and Reference for a figure
from an article that includes the name of the photographer:

Bur oak bark, pictured in Figure 2 below, is rough with ridges that develop into thick scales as the

tree grows.

Figure 2

Bur Oak Bark

(Fox, n.d.)

Reference at the end of the document:

Fox, S. (n.d.). [Bur oak bark] [Photograph]. University of Guelph Arboretum.

https://arboretum.uoguelph.ca/thingstosee/trees/buroak
APA GUIDE 30

SECTION 7: SAMPLE POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

APA GUIDE 31
APA GUIDE 32
APA GUIDE 33
 1

SECTION 8: SAMPLE RESEARCH ESSAY

The Feminization of Poverty in Canada and its Effects on Women’s Health

Janae Gallant

Bachelor of Science in Nursing, University of Ottawa / Algonquin College

ENG1100: Workshop in Essay Writing

Professor Angela Woollam

December 2, 2019

Note:

Thank you to Janae Gallant for permitting the use of her essay as a model.
 2

The Feminization of Poverty in Canada and its Effect on Women’s Health

The saying might go “another day, another dollar”, but do not be surprised if women

begin saying “another day, another 75 cents” (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2019). In a first-

world country like Canada, many feminists, economists, and politicians have debated the

existence of gender inequality, but the downstream effects of gender discrimination on health

outcomes show that it is a Canadian reality and that women are particularly vulnerable to

poverty. A core contributor to this vulnerability includes the gender wage gap, which is complex

and involves factors far greater than simply paying women less than men; it includes

childbearing expectations and expenses, differing values among typical “women’s” work versus

typical “men’s” work, and the greater volume of women with no other option but to work

minimum and low wage jobs (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2019). These complex factors

intersect in Canada and across the globe, leaving women more vulnerable to falling below the

poverty line (Fox & Moyser, 2018). The increased prevalence of women falling into poverty as

compared to men cannot be addressed from a policy level until the Canadian government

acknowledges the existence of poverty feminization and devotes resources to raise women out

of these circumstances. Until these resources materialize, women living in poverty in Canada

will continue to have poorer health outcomes than women of secure financial status, and this

lack of investment only harms the economy and perpetuates the cycle of poverty into future

generations. Poverty in Canada has been feminized as women are paid less than men and are

expected to bear the burden of unpaid labor. This lack of investment of government resources

into leveling out the disparity has created a cycle of poverty that harms the health of this

demographic.

Poverty in Canada

While Canada is a first-world country with many advantages for its citizens, poverty

remains a prominent issue across the nation. Poverty is best examined by comparing the gap

between the highest and lowest earners in a given population. This comparison, termed income

inequality, is the true marker for health outcomes, as countries with larger gaps have poorer
 3

health outcomes than countries with smaller gaps. The Organization for Economic Co-operation

and Development (OECD) compares national policies and their outcomes across 35 countries,

including Canada. In their most recent reports, Canada ranked 19th for highest poverty rate and

21st for the highest rates of income inequality based on data spanning from 2014 to 2018

(OECD, 2019b; OECD, 2019a). While Canada is not among the countries with the greatest

disparities, this research shows an unexpectedly large income gap and a high poverty rate for a

first world country that has resources many of the countries higher on the OECD list do not

have. While Canada may appear to be doing well compared to other countries, the OECD data

also shows that within the country, the income gap is at an all-time high (OECD, 2019b).

Statistics Canada reports that 3.4 million Canadians are living below the poverty line, which

accounts for 9.5% of the population (Statistics Canada, 2019). The demographics associated

with a greater vulnerability to poverty and low-income status include several aspects, one of

which is gender.

Women in Canada have consistently shown to be more vulnerable to poverty over the

last four decades (Fox & Moyser, 2018). Of this demographic, single mothers and elderly

women appear to be affected the most. Research from Statistics Canada shows that women are

most vulnerable to poverty and low-income status outside of marriage and that single mothers

make $27 900 less per year than single fathers. When children are not involved, unattached

women still make $8 700 less per year than unattached men. In Canadians over the age of 65,

16.3% of women are classified as low-income compared to 11.9% of men from this age

demographic (Fox & Moyser, 2018). These undeviating statistics are the result of a multitude of

factors including the discriminatory wage gap, gendered work, and unpaid labour, all of which

leave women in Canada more susceptible to low-income status and poverty as compared to

their male counterparts.

Factors Contributing to Women’s Poverty in Canada

While the gender differences in poverty rates and low-income status appear obvious

when confronting the statistical evidence, many in Canada do not believe that poverty has been
 4

feminized in the country and deny the existence of gender discrimination. The general disbelief

in gender discrimination is shown in the denial many have of the existence of the gender wage

gap. While it has decreased significantly since 1998, it persists today, as seen in Figure 1. A

common argument is that it is illegal to pay women less than men in Canada, which therefore

eliminates the possibility of a wage gap. This is an oversimplified perspective for an issue so

complex. While Canada’s Human Rights Act does prohibit gender discrimination when it comes

to wage, there is little accountability for employers, and the 25 cents per hour gap persists

despite this regulation. This pay differential widens even further for women with disabilities,

women of colour, and female immigrants (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2019). Another

misguided belief is that women pursue lower-paying careers when in reality the careers that are

female-dominated are simply paid less despite being as demanding and necessary as male-

dominated work (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2019). As depicted in Figure 2 below,

research on the nursing field dispels the myth that women are paid less than men because men

are more likely to work dangerous jobs, as the government of Ontario reports that healthcare is

one of the most dangerous fields, as nurses report that more than half of lost time due to injury

at work is due to workplace violence (Project Secretariat of the Ministry of Labour and Ministry

of Health and Long-Term Care, 2017).

 5

Figure 1

Gender Wage Gap From 1998 to 2018

Note. The chart above depicts the gender wage gap among employees in Canada ages 25-54

and the decrease of the gender wage gap since 1998. In 2018 the gender wage gap was at

approximately 13.6%. (Pelletier et al. 2019)

Figure 2

Gender Wage Gap Myths

(Global News, 2018)

Additional contributors to the feminization of poverty include the burden of childcare and

household-related unpaid labour. A common argument that has perpetuated the myth of the

gender wage gap is that women choose their families over their careers, which in turn means
 6

they take home less money than their male counterparts by their own choice. While it is true that

working women are more likely to work part-time due to family reasons and to take maternity

leave, there is still a 10% gap among women without children compared to men (Fox & Moyser,

2018). Additionally, women tend to stay home or work part-time for longer not by their own

choice, but due to a lack of affordable childcare in Canada (Fox & Moyser, 2018). In 2005,

research from the OECD prompted them to publish a recommendation to the Canadian

government to increase child care funding as it was pushing sole parents, most of whom are

women, into poverty (OECD, 2005). Despite this recommendation published over a decade ago,

the Canadian government only funded the Canada Child Benefit in 2016 to increase income for

families with children (Statistics Canada, 2019). While this implementation is a step in the right

direction, it is too little too late the many women who went without childcare and may have fallen

further into poverty over this period. Gender norms among Western society also place a greater

burden on women to complete unpaid work, which includes childcare, household cleaning, and

meal preparation. These tasks are crucial to a functioning household but do not result in income

and instead keep women from their careers (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2019). The

feminization of poverty is complex and results from factors including the gender wage gap, a

lack of affordable childcare, and the expectations of unpaid labour among women Until effective

government policy is put into place to mend these issues, the feminization of poverty will

continue to lead to poorer health outcomes for women than for their financially stable

counterparts.

Adverse Health Outcomes for Women in Poverty

Access to free healthcare alone does not resolve the adverse health outcomes

experienced by people living in poverty. While Canada does offer free health care to its citizens,

this has not proven to be sufficient in buffering the effects of poverty on illness and disease.

Research by Alter et al. (2011) followed 14,800 patients in Canada and monitored their cardiac

disease status for over 10 years. Results showed that while Canadians of low socioeconomic

status access health services more often than their middle and upper-class counterparts, they
 7

were still more likely to develop cardiac diseases and to experience early mortality (Alter et al.,

2011). If access to universal healthcare alone was sufficient to equalize citizens of varying

demographics regarding health outcomes, then these differences would not be observed in

Canada. The persistence of poor health outcomes despite access to free health care is

compounded by other social determinants of health, including gender, which could cause them

to be exponentially worse.

When controlling for gender, women of the lower socioeconomic bracket are subject to

additional health risks due to their increased likelihood of experiencing poverty, as well as their

increased reliance on the health care system due to female cancers and childbearing. Ferlay et

al. (2015) report that from a global perspective, 85% of women diagnosed with cervical cancer,

and 87% of women who die from it, are of low or middle income. A study by Kumachev et al.

(2016) explored care approaches and health outcomes in Ontario breast cancer patients as they

relate to socioeconomic status. Their results showed that women of higher socioeconomic

status were more likely to have discovered the disease at an earlier stage and to undergo

chemotherapy and radiation. Additionally, women of higher socioeconomic status had greater

rates of overall survival than Ontario breast cancer patients of lower socioeconomic status.

These recent findings show that while universal healthcare has advanced to provide Canadian

women with many advantages, the universality is not sufficient to establish health equity. A

Statistics Canada Health Report published in 2017 analyzed the association between income

inadequacy with pre-term birth rates and small-for-gestational-age births (Bushnik et al, 2017).

The authors explain that these results are consistent with previous findings of moderate to high

correlations existing between low socioeconomic status and these maternal and neonatal

outcomes. Pre-term labor and low birth weight are health risks to both mothers and babies, and

the existence of their association with mothers of low socioeconomic status shows that women

living in poverty in Canada face greater risks to their health. The babies being born to these

mothers face additional stressors and challenges in their lives despite having access to

universal health care as they grow up.

 8

The cost of childrearing is on the rise in Canada, and with this rise comes an increased

risk of experiencing poverty by women in society. Raising a child, or multiple children, requires

great financial sacrifice for families. When child rearing is done by a single parent, the financial

burden can be harder to overcome. While this is true for parents of any gender, women are

more likely to be sole parents than men (Canadian Women’s Foundation, 2019). As previously

discussed, single mothers make an average of $27 800 less per year than single fathers (Fox &

Moyser, 2018). It may be true that women make the conscious choice to stay home with

children or to work part-time; however, this decision is often influenced by the rising costs of

childcare in Canada. The OECD reports that one in three single parents in Canada are without

work and are facing poverty. They also report that child care services are accessed more by

wealthier parents than by low-income parents (OECD, 2005). A lack of affordable child care

leaves single parents in a difficult position: they require childcare to work, but they also need to

work to afford said childcare. This paradoxical situation ensures that women of low

socioeconomic status remain in financial crisis, and the risks of living in poverty are then passed

on to their children.

Poverty is cyclical and affects children in a variety of physical, psychological, and social

aspects that can negatively alter their development and life trajectory. Mothers of lower-income

have shown to be more likely to exhibit an authoritarian parenting style than mothers of higher

socioeconomic status. Authoritarian parenting combines a high degree of control with a low

degree of warmth, and it is associated with negative behavioural outcomes like a greater

tendency for depression, low self-esteem, and aggressive behaviour. This association between

socioeconomic status and parenting style is thought to be due to the increased stress

experienced by parents as well as a lack of education among this demographic about how

important warmth is for child development (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2015, p. 238). Additional

research by Mazza et al. (2017) found that a sensitive period exists between ages 0-3 where

family poverty is most likely to lead to aggressive behaviour in adolescence. This shows the

importance of early intervention for families living in poverty, many of which are single mothers.
 9

Longitudinal research by Nikulina and Widom (2013) followed participants growing up in poverty

for 30 years to determine whether an association existed between socioeconomic status in

childhood and health outcomes as an adult. Their results showed that a combination of

childhood neighbourhood poverty and childhood family poverty interacted to predict poor

pulmonary functioning in adulthood as compared to participants of higher socioeconomic status

(Nikulina & Widom, 2013). With 30% of single mothers in Canada raising their children in

poverty, it is evident that government intervention is needed to help break the cycle (Fox &

Moyser, 2018).

Government Action Can Alleviate Poverty Among Women

Only when the feminization of poverty is acknowledged at the government level can

change be implemented at an effective enough degree to relieve women of the vulnerability they

face. The Canadian government can invest resources to help bridge the poverty gap among

women, and doing so would have economic benefits and contribute to the overall health of

Canadians in the long term. For poverty among women to be effectively tackled in Canada, the

government should first recognize that women are at an increased risk of succumbing to low-

income living due to societal infrastructures and norms. Greater accountability can be put into

place to ensure employers are offering equal pay, and maternity leave can be standardized to

ensure no mother needs to sacrifice crucial time with her child to make a living wage.

Additionally, the Canadian government needs to increase the affordability of child care centres

to ensure they are financially accessible for low-income parents, most of whom are single

mothers. Grants for education should be made readily available to help women excel in their

careers and enter higher-paying professions, which would prevent the cycle of poverty from

being passed on to their future generations. Government-funded public health organizations can

ensure that patients who are living in poverty are receiving adequate preventative care, and

they can educate low-income women on potential health risks they might not otherwise be

aware of. These interventions would help to break the cycle of poverty among women and
 10

would benefit the Canadian government in the long run, making it a mutually beneficial

investment.

Investing in Canadian women to relieve their vulnerability to poverty would help Canada

thrive economically. When women are financially stable they are less reliant on government

resources like monthly cheques, food stamps, and pharmaceutical coverage which are only

short-term solutions to the problems they face. Financially stable women would then be more

able to contribute to the Canadian economy through tax dollars, which is money that can then

be further invested in other economic issues. As previously discussed, women in poverty face

additional adverse health outcomes. While Canadians of all demographics are fortunate to have

access to universal health care at no out of pocket cost, raising women out of poverty would

decrease their likelihood of illness which would otherwise be paid for by the Canadian

government. Creating effective policies to buffer the vulnerability women face to poverty is of

great benefit to individual women in these situations, as well as the Canadian government as

they work to allocate limited resources.

Conclusion

Poverty feminization in Canada is complex and is the result of a multitude of issues that

can be mitigated through government intervention to help women and their children thrive. The

gender wage gap, childbearing costs, and increased health risks all prevent women from

attaining their optimal state of well-being. The adverse health outcomes experienced by this

demographic should not persist in a country with universal health care. These adversities are

likely to persist until the government acknowledges that institutional discrimination exists within

Canadian society to the disadvantage of women. Acknowledgement needs to be followed by

policy change and an allocation of funding to help break the cycle that harms Canadian women,

their children, and the country as a whole.

 11

References

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Socially disadvantaged patients use more health services, still have poorer health

outcomes. Health Affairs, 30(2), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2009.0669

Bushnik, T., Yang, S., Kaufman, J. S., Kramer, M. S., & Wilkins, R. (2017, November 15).

Socioeconomic disparities in small-for-gestational-age birth and pre-term birth. Health

Reports, 28(11), 3–10. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/82-003-

x/2017011/article/54885-eng.pdf?st=XI3wgFKi

Canadian Women’s Foundation. (2019, May). The facts about the gender pay gap in Canada.

https://canadianwomen.org/the-facts/the-gender-pay-gap

Ferlay, J., Soerjomataram, I., Dikshit, R., Eser, S., Mathers, C., Rebelo, M., Parkin, D. M.,

Forman, D., & Bray, F. (2015, March 1). Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide:

sources, methods and major patterns in GLOBOCAN 2012. International Journal of

Cancer, 136(5), E359–E386. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.29210

Fox, D., & Moyser, M. (2018). The economic well-being of women in Canada. (Women in

Canada: A Gender-Based Statistical Report, 89-503-X). Statistics Canada.

https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-503-x/2015001/article/54930-eng.pdf

Global News. (2018, April 13). The gender pay gap is not a myth. Here are 6 common claims

debunked. Global News. https://globalnews.ca/news/4142982/gender-pay-gap-not-a-

myth/

Kail, R. V., & Cavanaugh, J. C. (2015). Human development: A lifespan view (2nd ed.). Cengage

Learning.

Kumachev, A., Trudeau, M. E., & Chan, K. K. W. (2016). Associations among socioeconomic

status, patterns of care and outcomes in breast cancer patients in a universal health care

system: Ontario’s experience. Cancer, 122(6), 893–898. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.29838

Mazza, J. R. S. E., Lambert, J., Zunzunegui, M. V., Tremblay, R. E., Boivin, M., & Côté, S. M.

(2017). Early adolescence behavior problems and timing of poverty during childhood: A
 12

comparison of lifecourse models. Social Science and Medicine, 177, 35–42.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.01.039

Nikulina, V., & Widom, C. S. (2014). Do race, neglect, and childhood poverty predict physical

health in adulthood? A multilevel prospective analysis. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38(3),

414–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.09.007

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2005, May 27). OECD urges

Canadian governments to increase funding for childcare.

https://www.oecd.org/canada/oecdurgescanadiangovernmentstoincreasefundingforchild

care.htm

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019a). Income inequality [Data

set]. https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm#indicator-chart

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019b). Poverty. [Data set].

https://data.oecd.org/inequality/poverty-rate.htm

Pelletier, R., Patterson, M., & Moyser, M. (2019, October 11). The gender wage gap in Canada :

1998 to 2018 (Labour Statistics: Research Papers, 75-004-M – 2019004). Statistics

Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/75-004-m/75-004-m2019004-

eng.pdf?st=sAt6lvkB

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May). Preventing workplace violence in the health care sector.

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Statistics Canada. (2019, February 26). Canadian income survey, 2017. The Daily.

https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/190226/dq190226b-eng.htm
APA GUIDE 34

APPENDIX A: FORMATTING TITLES OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES IN SENTENCES

When titles of books and articles appear in your own sentences, the rules for capitalization,
quotation marks, and italics are different from those in APA references in citations.

Article Titles: Capitalize every major word and enclose in quotation marks.

Example: In “Finding a Solution to the Organ Shortage,” Arthur Caplan (2016) argues that a
“two-step approach” should be practiced that would involve first responders in deaths that
occur outside of the hospital (p. 1183).

Book Titles: Capitalize every major word and italicize the title.

Example: David Attenborough believes that Rachel Carson’s 1962 book Silent Spring
changed the scientific world the most in the twentieth century (Thomsen, 2014, para. 6).

Journal, Magazine, Newspaper Titles: Capitalize every major word and italicize the title.

Example: The library subscribes to paper copies of two very good Early Childhood
Education periodicals: Young Children and Teaching Young Children.