History and Culture of Assam

(1).The ancient name of Assam was Pragiyotishpura – the city of Eastern Light, which later changed to
Kamrupa – the land where Kamdeva, the god of love was reborn. Assam traces her history back to at
least 2500 years B.C., when high civilization flourished in the land. During the era of Mahabharata, this
land was ruled by Non Aryans, the first known ruler being Mahiranga Danava of Danava dynasty.
Bhagadutta, son of Naraka who participated in the great Kurukshetra war as an ally of the Kauravas, was
the most powerful among the Danava Kings.

In the mid 7 Century A.D. the most illustrious monarch of Varmana dynasty Kumar Bhaskar Varmana
raised ancient Assam from obscurity and placed her in the forefront of Indian politics. Kumar Bhaskar
Varmana was a close friend of King Harshavardhana. During this period Hiuen Tsang came to Assam and
wrote about Assam and her people.

The dynasty of Pralamba assumed power at around 800 A.D. There were around twenty rulers from this
dynasty. By 1000 A.D, the Pal dynasty came into focus with the rule of Brahma Pal. Several rulers from
this dynasty ruled till the 11 century. By 1100 A.D., there again developed a reign of confusion in the
kingdom of Kamrupa with no definite ruler. The kingdom of Kamarupa disintegrated, resulting in the
emergence of many petty chiefs at different places.

The Ahoms belonged to the Tai or Shan section of the Siamese – Chinese branch of the Sino-Tibetans.
They arrived in Assam through North Burma, along the Noa Dihing River. During their six hundred years
rule, they were able to consolidate their power by bringing the different rulers or chiefs under their
dominion. When the Ahoms were consolidating their position in Assam, they came into conflict with the
ruling Kachari, Chutiya and Jaintia kingdoms. The Chutiyas were in power in northeastern Assam and
parts of Arunachal Pradesh. During the period of Sukapha the country comprised of Buridihing in the
east,Dikhou in the South, in the western side, there was river Brahmaputra and Naga Hills in the east.
Swargadeo Suhungmung extended its boundary up to Karatoya River and Dhaca and makes the Ahom
state a great kingdom by defeating the Mughals in the Battle of Itakhuli, King Gadadhar Singha extended
the Ahom territory up to Hajo.

With the treaty of Yandaboo in 1826, the fate of Assam passed into the hands of the British. Now began
a history in Assam which was a series of annexation and secessions. The British annexed Cachar in 1832
and Jaintia Hills in 1835. In 1874, Assam became a separate province with Shillong as its capital. Sylhet
was merged with East Bengal on partition of India.

Art ,Handicrafts and Paintings Forms of Assam

The Arts and Crafts of Assam are world famous for unique traditional methods of production and for
tribal art forms. The people of Assam have traditionally been craftsmen. Assam is mostly known for its
exquisite silks and the bamboo and cane products, several other crafts are also made here. The attractive
arts and crafts are a part of natural beauty of Assam. Every such handicraft has been created with the
effort of specific tribal groups and this is the fact that Assam’s culture is largely shaped by the tribes
living in the state.

Bamboo and cane

Bamboo and cane contribute a lot to the economy and lifestyle of Assam. This is mainly because of the
fact that the hills and forests of the region have vast expanses of bamboos and canes and the natives,
being excellent craftsmen that they are, have learnt to use them for a wide range of purpose in their life.
They happen to be the two most commonly-used items in daily life, ranging from household implements
to construction of dwelling houses to weaving accessories to musical instruments. Cane and bamboo
furniture’s on the other hand have been very popular in the domestic as well as the export market, while
paati, the traditional mat has found its way into the world of interior decoration. The main items are the
cane baskets, music instruments and the weaving accessories. The most famous product colorful
Assamese Japi (headgear) is additional sunshade, terracotta of Gauripur and various decorative items
bear witness to the craftsmanship of this land.

Jewelry

Assam has a rich collection of traditional jewelry, which is unique and attractive. Particularly of gold
jewelry is a tradition in Assam. Gold jewelry has always constituted the most-used metal for jewellery in
Assam, while the use of silver and other metals too have been there for centuries. Gold was locally
available, flowing down several Himalayan rivers, of which Subansiri is the most important. In fact, a
particular tribe of people, the Sonowal Kacharis were engaged only for gold-washing in these rivers.
Jorhat, in Upper Assam is the second biggest city of Assam, is the main jewelry making centre of the
state. Assamese jewellery includes the doog-doogi, loka-paro, bana, gaam-kharu, gal-pata, jon-biri, dhol-
biri and keru, all of which have also encouraged the modern jewellers to producing similiar designs
mechanically.

Woodcrafts

Assam is a state, which excel in woodcraft and carpentry. The woodwork is an ancient Assamese craft.
Assam has always one of the most forest-covered states of the country, and the variety of wood and
timber available here have formed a part of the people’s culture and economy. An Assamese can identify
the timber by touching it even in darkness, and can produce a series of items from it. This has greatly
facilitated the growth of Assamese woodcraft industry. While decorative panels in the royal Ahom
palaces of the past and the 600-years old satras or Vaishnative monasteries are intricately carved on
wood, a special class of people who excelled in wood carving came to be known as Khanikar. The
Art ,Handicrafts and Paintings Forms of Assampainted woodwork of Golaghat is a folk art in Assam. In
Assam, wood is used to make a wide range of products. A number of items for daily domestic use are
carved out of wood. This includes doors, stools, chairs, tables, dolah or palki, walking stick, and kharams
(wooden sandals), which might be engraved with the images of animals, birds and fishes.

Handloom

Handloom of Assam is famous for its several types of silks, the

most prominent and prestigious being muga, the golden silk exclusive only to this state. Handloom
weaving is a way of life in Assam. Muga apart, there is paat, as also eri, the latter being used in
manufacture of warm clothes for winter. Of a naturally rich golden colour, muga is the finest of India’s
wild silks. The designs used in Assam are mostly stylised symbols of animals, human figures, creepers,
flowers, birds, channels, cross borders and the galaxy, Assamese weavers produce beautiful designs on
the borders of traditional garments such as the mekhela-chaddar and riha and on the gamosa (towel) Or
the tribals make beautiful shawls also. The Laichangphi, produced traditionally by the weavers of Cachar
district, is a popular quilt sought after because of its warmth and softness. Each ethnic group of the State
has its own distinctive design and style. Sualkuchi is the biggest centre of silk production produced only
in Assam and also has the largest number of weavers is a way in this state.

Metal crafts

Metal craftsMetal craft of Assam are also popular for their beauty and strength of form and utility. It also
comprises of one of the oldest cottage industries of Assam. These products are famous all over India and
can be found in almost every Assamese household. Famed for their unique artistic skills, the local artists
and craftsmen of the state are mainly involved in designing brass and bell metal utensils. Brass and Bell
Metal products of Assam are also apart from these two metals, gold, silver and copper can also be used
to make different handicrafts in Assam. Gold, silver and copper too have formed part of traditional metal
craft in Assam, and the State Museum in Guwahati has a rich collection of items made of these metals.
Brass and bell metal crafts are mainly produced in Hajo and Sarthebari in Kamrup districts of Assam. The
main products created here are Kalah (water pot), Sarai, Kahi (dish) Bati (bowl) lota and tal (cymbals). A
sarai is a shallow bowl on a stand with a dome-like cover and it is used in Assamese rituals. The Kalah is a
designed pitcher which has attractive motifs engraved on them.

Masks

Masks form an integral part of the Assamese culture and tradition, adding to the color and vibrancy of
the state. A mask is also known as mukhas. They are worn mostly during theatres and bhaonas, which
revolve around the Assamese tribal myths and folktales. Since ages, these masks have been the centre of
each and every cultural event in the state. Being used by the tribes of Assam during bhaonas and
theatres, these masks of Assam are mainly made up of wood and bamboo. From the tribal arena, the
masks are seen today in almost every home of Assam as a decorative showpiece.

Pottery

Assam Pottery is a unique representation of the oldest craftsmanship of the state. Pottery is the ceramic
ware made by potters. Major types of pottery include earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. The
places where such wares are made are called potteries. Pottery is one of the oldest human technologies
and art-forms, and remains a major industry of Assam. This industry produces many household utensils.
Pottery includes several daily-use as well as fancy wares that are made up of mud and clay. The Kumars
and Hiras are two traditional potter communities of Assam and while the Kumars use the wheel to
produce his pots. Mud pots or pitchers, earthen holders of incense sticks, plates, clay glasses and many
other daily-use articles were the early symbols of the flourishing pottery of Assam. Ceramic art covers
the art of pottery, whether in items made for use or purely for decoration.

Paintings

Assamese paintings are known all over the world for their unique style and versatile nature. The
traditional paintings of Assam are based primarily on the folklores, myths and religious customs that
were once an integral part of the Assamese people. Ahom palaces and satras and naam-ghar etc still
abound in brightly-coloured paintings depicting various stories and events from history and mythology.
Most famous Hastividyarnava (A treatise on Elephants), chitra bhagavata and gita Gobinda painting are
excellent. These are also prominent mythology on the basis of which several traditional forms of
paintings were created by the veteran painters of Assam. So, the traditional paintings have become a
central point of attraction in the artistic contours of Assam.

British Rule in Assam

During the reign of Kamaleswar Singha (1795-1811) and Chandra Kanta Singha (1811-1818), the royal
court gradually showed the sign of a polarisation. During the time of Chandrakanta Singha, the court was
virtually divided into two blocks. the king and the members of the royal family were on one side, and
Purnananda Buragohain, the Prime Minister and his supporters on the other. Being unable to control the
activities of Purnananda Buragohain, the royal camp succeded in persuading the Burmese monarch to
despatch a force to Assam. In 1817, the Burmese appeared on the scene and installed Raja Chandrakanta
to power. But soon Chandrakanta was replaced by Purandar Singha, who was raised to the throne. When
this development came to the knowledge of the Burmese king, they despatched Alamingi at the head of
another Burmese force, which entered Assam frontier in 1818. With the intervention of the Burmese,
Assam was placed under Chandrakanta Singha, a puppet in the Burmese hands. The Burmese began a
reign of terror and it was in this context that the British intervened leading (the signing of the Treaty of
Yandaboo. While the British intervention saved Assam from being converted into a Burmese province, it
made Assam a slave under British rule. the Treaty of Yandaboo, signed on 26th January. 1826, proved to
be a turning point in the political history of Assam. The king of Ava surrendered his claims over Assam
and the 27 neighbouring states of Kachar, Jayantia and Manipur to British government.British Rule in
Assam

The East India Company, which took the realm of Assam as a result of the signing of the Yandaboo treaty,
issued a proclamation to the effect that at the end of success, Assam would have a Government adopted
to all. The purpose of the proclamation was to secure the support of the local people of Assam. Although
in the midst of the devastation caused by the Burmese; the local people initially welcomed the entry of
the East India Company, the people were soon disillusioned with the British. It is in this context that we
saw a series of rebellion till 1857, when the Sepoy Mutiny broke out.

Reference may be made to the rebellion of Prince Gomdhar Konwar under whose leadership the first
rebellion against the Company Raj took place in 1828. There was another rebellion, namely the rebellion
of Gadadhar, within a year of the rebellion of Gomdhar Konwar. In 1830, there was the rebellion of Piyali
Phukan and his associates, leading to the martyrdom of Piyali Phukan. In this context, we may also
mention the rebellion of the Khasis (1826), rebellion of the Stngphos (1829), insurrection of the Akas,
insurrection of the Nagas (1812), the insurrection of the Garos, that were directed towards removing the
East India Company from power.

In 1857, Assam also participated with the rest of the country in what is known as the Sepoy Mutiny. In
Assam it was Maniram Dewan, who masterminded the rebellion from distant Calcutta, The associates of
Maniram Dewan, like Piyali Barua, Madhu Malik, Bahadur Gaonbura were known foe their conspiracies
regarding the participation of the people of Assam in anti-British uprising. When the activities of the
rebels came to light, Maniram Dewan and Piyaji Barua were caught, tried and executed, and numerous
others were put into prison.

In the aftermath of the rebellion of 1857, there occurred the transfer of power from the East India
Company to the British Crown. The British government adopted a revenue policy in order to enhance the
rates of revenue so as to repair the damage of financial strain on the Government. It led to a number of
popular uprisings against the British government. For example, we may refer to the Patharughatar
Dhewa, a rebellion in Rangia, Lachima rising in Jayantia hills, rebellion in Manipur etc. All this
developments showed that all were not well in Assam in so far as the British rule was concerned.

After the occupation of Assam by the British in 1826, a long line of frontier of Bhutan touched, for the
first time, that of the British territory. In fact, right from the days of Warren Hastings, the GoveNors-
General were conscious about the critical role with ‘the Himalayan Kingdom’ the British was to play in
establishing contact with the people of Tibet. In 1774, Bhutan was forced to conclude a peace treaty and
to pay a tribute of five tangan horses annually to the Company. After the occupation of Assam by the
British, the tribute paid by Bhutan gradually fell into arrears, and frequent outrages and “decoities” were
committed in the British territory. In 1828, outrages committed by Bhutia officials in-charge of the
Buriguma Duar led to the attachment by the Government of the tract, but was restored in 1834 on
payment of fines. In 1841, to secure peace in this part of the frontier, a sum of Rs. 10,000/- was paid to
the Bhutan government.“ In 1844, the chief of the Koriapar Duar formally renounced his claim to this
Duar in return for annual payment of Rs. 5000/.

In 1867-68, the boundary between Bhutan and Koch Bchar was demarcated, but the portion between
Assam and Bhutan was left undemareated. In 1870, the dev Raja of Bhutan requested the British that
the boundary between Assam and Bhutan should be laid down. The Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, Sir
William Grey, directed the Commissioner of Assam to settle the matter. The Commissioner, however,
strongly opposed such demarcation stating that in the demarcation drawn in 1866, Dewangiri had clearly
been included in the British India and there was no objection from the Bhutan government. This led to a
misunderstanding between the two Governments on collection of taxes. Ultimately in September 1972
major J. M. Graham, the then Deputy Commissioner of Darrang, was appointed a Boundary
Commissioner, and Dewangiri remained with the British India territories; thus settled the Assam-Bhutan
boundary.

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century witnessed a new awakening due to
the interaction of various forces and movements. The popular organisations like the Raij mels, Sarbajanik
Sabha, Rayat Sabha and the Assam Association built up a climate of popular movements leading to the
emergence of nationalism in the said period. It was recorded that before the establishment of the
National Congress, most of the popular organisations in Assam maintained contact w ith other political
organisations outside Assam which were posed to take an all-hulia character. In the first sitting of the
National Conference held in 1883 before the inception of the Indian National Congress was attended by
delegates from Assam,.

Throughout the course of anti-British movements, Assam participated with tremendous involvement of
both men and women. Inspired by the dedicated leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the people of Assam
participated in the Non-co-operation Movement of 1920-21. The movement was particularly marked by
the participation of the students of Assam as well as the tea garden labourers. The students had their
own body, Assam Chhalra Sanmilan, through which they used to express their views and assert their
influence. It may be noted here that with the progress of the movement, the demand for formation of
the Assam Provincial Congress for the Assam Valley was gaining popular support. It led to the formation
of the Assam Provincial Congress in 1921.

Even during the Civil Disobedience Movement in Assam in 1930, there was full scale participation of the
people of the Province. The Quit India Movement of 1942. also, inspired the people of the Province to
make sacrifices for the cause of freedom.
By the time, there was political change in Great Britain and the Labour Party government came to power.
In accordance with the declaration of the Labour Party, the process of providing political independence
to India was accelerated. It was in this context that Lord Mountbatten was appointed the new Governor-
General who was entrusted with the responsibility of preparing the ground lor a smooth transfer of
power. Accordingly, in terms of the Mountbatten Plan, India was accorded independence in 1947 and
Assam became a Province of Independent India.

Constitution and reorganization of Assam

The British took over Assam in 1826 to make the eastern frontier of the British possessions secure,
although the architect of the British possession of the extended north-east frontier, David Scott, initially
was against the permanent occupation of Assam. But the scene completely changed with the discovery
that the tea plant was a native of Assam. The realisation that the plant was genuine tea and capable of
manufacture into a marketable item and later discovery of open seams of coal and presence of
petroleum and other minerals made Assam attractive to British capital investment in progressive
measure. The initial hesitancy . vanished and Assam was finally annexed in 1838. Assam underwent rapid
transformation after this and British investment increased. With the final annexation of Assam, the
Government of India assumed as successor government, the paramountcy over the north-east Hills. Like
the Ahoms, the Supreme Government pursued a policy of non-interference tempered by conciliation and
display of force. During the period of 1826 and 1874, the British authority extended over the hills
bordering Assam and Barak valley.

During this period, relations with the hills had been handled on an adhoc basis by the officials in the
neighbouring areas. The degree of authority exercised by the British on becoming the paramount power
had varied in different areas and in reference to different races of hillmen. The object of British policy
towards the hills had been conciliation and penetration giving the northeast India a new territorial and
administrative unity.Constitution and reorganization of Assam

With the coming of the Constitution of India in 1950, the tribal areas of north-east India were placed in
two parts, A and B in the Table appended to the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution. In the part A,the
United Khasi and Jaintia Hills District, the Garo Hills District, the Naga Hills District, the North-Cachar Hills
and the Mikir Hills District were placed. The North-East frontier Tracts including Balipara Frontirer Tract,
Tirap Frontier Tract, Abor Hill and Mishmi Hills and the Naga Hills Tribal Areas were categorised in Part B .
Part A areas formed the Autonomous Districts and were administered by the Government of Assam with
the Autonomous District Councils established in 1952 except in Naga Hills District. The Governor of
Assam continued to administer at his discretion Part B areas as Agent to the President of India. The Naga
Hills were restive and refused the scheme under the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution. In 1954, after
minor territorial adjustments, the North-East Frontier Tracts with Abor Hills and Mishmi Hills Districts
were transformed into NorthEast Frontier Agency, under Ministry of External Affairs. Subsequently in
1965, the Ministry of Home Affairs took charge of it. The Lushai Hills District became Mizo District in
1954.

The Government of India Act, 1935 and the Constitution of India kindled the aspirations of middle class
leadership of the Brahmaputra valley for an expanded Assam. The inner contradiction of the emerging
society, the emergence of new middle-classes in the Hills, ethnic and linguistic assertions, the lack of
sensitivity for equitable economic development in the leadership led to the break up of Assam as it
stood on the coming of Constitution of India which released new social forces all over the north-east.
Insurgency for ethnic identity broke the fragile administrative unity believing that homelands would give
better chance in the changing geopolitical scenario. History is a hard taskmaster. Like nature, it asserts
itself. Reorganisation is a continuous process. So, further reorganisation of north-east, within the broad
frame of the Union of India cannot be ruled out.

With the partition and independence of India in 1947, the district of Sylhet (excluding the Karimganj
subdivision) was ceded to Pakistan (the eastern portion of which later became Bangladesh). Assam
became a constituent state of India in 1950. In 1961 and 1962 Chinese armed forces, disputing the
McMahon Line as the boundary between India and Tibet, occupied part of the North East Frontier
Agency (now Arunachal Pradesh but then part of Assam). In December 1962, however, they voluntarily
withdrew to Tibet.

Between the early 1960s and the early 1970s Assam lost much of its territory to new states that
emerged from within its borders. In 1963 the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the
name of Nagaland. Part of Tuensang, a former territory of the North East Frontier Agency, was also
added to Nagaland. In 1970, in response to the demands of the tribal peoples of the Meghalaya Plateau,
the districts embracing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state
within Assam, and in 1972 it became a separate state under the name of Meghalaya. Also in 1972
Arunachal Pradesh (the North East Frontier Agency) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were
separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986.

Communal tensions and violence remained a problem in Assam even after the four ethnic-based states
were created. In the early 1980s, resentment among the Assamese against “foreigners”—mostly
immigrants from Bangladesh—led to widespread violence and considerable loss of life. The antiforeign
campaigns were spearheaded by the All Assam Students’ Union, which was led by Prafulla Kumar
Mahanta. Subsequently, disaffected Bodo tribal people (in Assam and Meghalaya) agitated for an
autonomous state. They were joined by the militant United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), which
waged a vigorous guerrilla campaign for the outright secession of Assam from India.

In 1985 Mahanta helped form a new political party, the Assam People’s Council (Asom Gana Parishad;
AGP), which won legislative elections in the state that year and formed a government with Mahanta as
chief minister (head of government). There followed a period of greatly increased violence, which was
attributed to the ULFA. When it was revealed that AGP members had forged direct links with the ULFA,
the national government in 1990 dismissed Mahanta’s government. The Indian army subsequently
undertook a series of military campaigns against the separatists (1990–91), and membership in the ULFA
was made a criminal offense.
The AGP, which had struggled with internal dissension after being ousted from power in 1990, again took
control of the state government in 1996. The party had campaigned on a platform calling for greater
autonomy and self-determination in Assam, but it came to oppose the ULFA. However, after it was
learned that the AGP government had recruited former ULFA members to kill family members of ULFA
leaders, the AGP was voted out of office in the 2001 legislative elections. The ULFA and other separatist
groups continued guerrilla and terrorist activities into the 21st century, and the government stepped up
counterinsurgency operations. The group, however, also engaged in discussions with government
officials, which resulted in the signing of a preliminary peace agreement in 2011.

Fairs and Festivals of Assam

Majuli Festival

One of the major festivals that draws visitors from far and near is Majuli Festival in Assam, the gateway
to the Northeast. The Majuli festival is held in Majuli, the largest river island in the world. Located on the
river Brahmaputra in Assam, it has been a center of Vaishnavite culture in Assam since the 16th century.
There are a large number of monasteries or Satras in the state which reflects its neo-Vaishnavite culture.
The Majuli festival is marked by several cultural programs and exhibitions.

Held on the bank of the River Luit, the Majuli Festival is a major tourist attraction and lets the visitors
have a glimpse of the culture and traditions of the island. The location is extremely picturesque and
serves as a perfect venue for the festival. Several cultural programs are held during the course of the
festival which shed light on the traditional customs and culture of the island. A food festival which
displays local delicacies of the state and of the tribes in Majuli in particular is held during this time. The
Majuli festival is also attended by artists and artisans who come to exhibit their handmade products.
Some of these products include garments and traditional handicrafts, bamboo products and locally made
cane. The festival is also marked by a host of other activities. Seminars are held along with discussions on
various topics that seek to highlight the local issues within the state.

Elephant festival

The popular Elephant Festival is held in the north eastern state of Assam in India. The State of Assam
organizes for one of the largest elephant festivals in India for the purpose of conservation and safeguard
of Asiatic elephants. The Elephant Festival of Kaziranga in Assam draws a huge crowd in the state during
this period. Thousands of tourists flock to Kaziranga in Assam to witness this fantastic Kaziranga Elephant
Festival.

The Festival of Elephants in Kaziranga is an assembly which is aimed at increasing eco-tourism amongst
human beings. The Elephant Festival is also intended to raise awareness about the elephant’s struggle
for all kinds of limited resources with humans. The main objective of the Kaziranga Elephant Festival is to
find out a solution to resolve the increasing man-elephant conflict.

The Elephant Festival in Kaziranga is a special event held in Assam. During this festival, the elephants are
neatened to perfection. A visitor can be a witness to the awesome view of row after row of elephants as
they catwalk before a fascinated spectators. All the elephants move in an elegant manner in procession.
The other programs for the elephants in the Elephant Festival in Kaziranga are that they run races and
also play games of various kinds. It is truly a festival time for the elephants which they carry out with a
festive spirit.

Magh bihu ( Bhogali bihu)

The Magh Bihu festival of Assam is celebrated with great fervor by its entire populace. Characterized by
merry making and feasting, this festival marks the end of the harvesting season when there is abundance
of everything. This is the time when the hard working agricultural folk of the state sit down to reap the
benefits of their labor. However, it must be pointed out that the Magh Bihu festival is not limited to the
agricultural pockets of the state. Right from the smallest of villages to the big towns and cities of Assam,
people celebrate this festival with great joy, though it must be mentioned that the mode of celebration
differs from the villages to the cities.

The Magh Bihu is also referred to as Bhogali Bihu or the festival of food and is celebrated in the month of
January. It is the time when winter sets out on its last course, making way for spring. The night before
Magh Bihu Festival is called Uruka and is characterized by loads of merry making and community feasts.
However, many of the religious minded folks of Assam choose to fast and pray on this night.

Bohag bihu (Rongali bihu)

The Bihu Festivals is one of the most popular festivals of Assam, a north-eastern state in India. The Bihus
are the most important festivals of Assam, which are celebrated each year with loads of fun and
abundance. Of the three Bihu Festivals held in Assam, the Rongali Bihu Festival is celebrated in Spring.
The Assamese people, irrespective of caste, creed, faith, religion and belief, take part in the Bihu Festival.

The Rongali Bihu Festival is also known as ‘Bohaag Bihu’ and is considered as the Festival of Merriment.
The Rongali Bihu Festival in Assam is celebrated to mark the beginning of the New Year, which is the time
of sowing seeds. The Assam Rongali Bihu Festival is the spring time Bihu and has sub-divisions as well.
The first day of Festival Rongali Bihu in Assam is called the Garu Bihu, when bull and cows are bathed
with turmeric, fed with gourds and brinjals and provided with new attaching ropes. The second day of
the Rongali Bihu festival is called the Manush Bihu, when men, women and children put on new clothes.
Special dishes are prepared at every home for feasts and destitutes receive contributions from the well-
off people. During the Assam Rongali Bihu Festival, people visit their friends and relatives with food
items and gifts. The close relatives and friends are also gifted with hand-woven scarves.

Ambubachi mela

The Ambubachi Mela is celebrated in the capital city of Guwahati, in the northeastern state of Assam in
India. The Ambubachi Mela is the most important festival of the Kamakhya Temple of Guwahati. The
Ambubachi is a ritual of asceses observed with “Tantrik means”. It is believed that the presiding goddess
of the temple, Devi Kamakhya, the Mother Shakti, goes through her annual cycle of menstruation during
this time stretch.

During the Ambubachi Mela in Guwahati, the doors of the Kamakhya Temple remain closed for three
days. It is believed that the Mother Earth becomes unclean for three days. During this time any kind of
farming work is not taken on. Daily worships and other religious performances are also stopped during
the Ambubachi Mela of Guwahati in Assam. After the completion of three days, the doors of the
Kamakhya Temple are reopened. But the doors of the temple are reopened only after Devi Kamakhya is
bathed and the other rituals are executed. It is then believed that the Mother Earth has retrieved her
purity. This is purely a ritual of the Tantrik cult.

Assam tea festival

The Tea Festival is held in the district of Jorhat in the northeastern state of Assam in India. Jorhat is well-
known for its extensive tea gardens, and is the nerve centre of the tea industry. Jorhat has the world
famous Teklai Experimental Centre. In this place research work is carried out to find new varieties of tea
and also the curative effects of green tea. The island of Fairs and Festivals of AssamMajuli, the largest
island on the Brahmaputra, and the Nambar Forest Reserve can be visited from Jorhat. In Majuli there
are numerous monasteries and the Nambar Forest Reserve is famous for being a regenerating hot spring.

Dehing patkai festival

The Dehing Patkai Festival is celebrated in the eastern part of the northeastern state of Assam in India.
The Dehing Patkai Festival in Dehing is named after the majestic Patkai range and the mischievous
Dehing River. The Patkai Festival of Dehing in Assam is an invigorating blend of tribal fairs, tea heritage
tours, golfing, adventure sports, and wildlife pleasure trip. Another interesting fact about the Dehing
Patkai Festival is that it offers a trip to the 2nd World War cemeteries which speaks of history of the past.
The festival also arranges for a trip to the Stilwell Road, which was once the passage to the golden land
of Myanmar.

During the Dehing Patkai Festival the visitors can choose to go for an elephant safari and take a path into
the wildness. The Patkai Festival of Dehing in Assam also makes arrangements for Food Festival, Craft
Fair, and Cultural Functions for the visitors. The Dehing Patkai Festival offers a wide range of adventure
sports on the dotted islands and the banks of the Brahmaputra River. These adventure sports include
angling, kayaking and parasailing. Trips to the Tea Gardens and the Digboi oil field can also be arranged
for the visitors.

Folk Dances of Assam

Folk Dances of Assam

It is often said that folk dance is the best manifestation of the culture and tradition of a particular place.
The best example to this statement can be seen in the various ethnic dance forms that are prevalent in
the different corners of Assam. The state is home to a number of indigenous tribes and races, each of
which has its own fairs and festivals. This has led to the propagation of innumerous dance forms
throughout the region. The different dance forms in the state can be broadly categorized under two
headings, classical dances and folk dances.

Bihu Dance

Bihu dance is the most popular folk dance of Assam and as its very name suggests, is related to the Bihu
festival, which is celebrated with pomp and glory within the state. The festival is mainly a celebration of
the different phases of cultivation and is observed by all the Assamese, irrespective of their caste and
creed. There are three types of Bihu festivals celebrated in Assam – one in the month of April (Bohaag
Bihu), one in mid-January (Maagh Bihu) and the third one in mid-October (Kaati Bihu).Folk Dances of
Assam

One of the major forms of merriments during Bihu festival comprises of dancing to the enthralling beats
of Dhol and Pepa (buffalo hornpipe). Apart from Dhol and Pepa, other traditional instruments used in
the dance include tala (a cymbal), gogona (a reed and bamboo instrument) and toka (a bamboo
clapper).Young girls dressed in the traditional attire of the state, Mekhela Chaddar, and adorned with
typical Assamese jewelry, like the Gaam Kharu and the Loka- paro, sway to the tunes and the beats of
the local Assamese songs. Boys, on the other hand, wear Dhoti and Gamocha.
Bihu geet (songs), sung during the festive season, accompany Bihu dance and have become almost like a
heritage for the people of the state, the lyrics being handed down from one generation to the next. The
theme for the song may vary from welcoming the Assamese New Year to describing the daily life of a
farmer, from historical references of invasions to Assam to contemporary socio-political commentary in a
satirical way. Due to the intermingling of the different ethnic tribes and races, several forms of the Bihu
dance have emerged in the state. However, the basic concept of the dance remains the same i.e. to
express the desire to feel both pain and happiness.

Jumur Nach

This is a typical folk dance performed by the tea community in the state, locally called ‘Chah Baganar
Jumur Nach’ or the Jumur dance of tea garden. Boys and girls hold each other’s waist and dance to the
tunes of the Jumur dance, with exact precision of foot work. Watching them sway to the tunes of the
song is indeed a very pleasant experience.

The dance is mostly performed in open places (now-a-days in cultural gatherings also). The male
members wear long traditional dresses and keep the rhythm with few traditional instruments: generally
a drum, hung on shoulder; a flute and a pair of “Taal” (two metallic discs). The girls mostly perform the
dancing part, holding each other’s waist and moving hands and legs forward and backward
synchronously.Folk Dances of Assam

The dance gets its name from the cluster of bells worn round the ankles, which make a clanging noise.
There are many variations of Jhumur. This dance is some times performed as a ritual worship of gods and
goddesses, sometimes for courting and lovemaking, and yet again as a prayer for rainfall. This dance
incorporates songs and dialogues, which depict the joys and sorrows, yearning and aspirations of the
everyday lives of the common people. It is believed that Jhumur was originally a means of recreation
between phases of tedious agricultural work. Probably the most entertaining form of Jhumur is the
Bhaduria, performed as thanksgiving for a bountiful monsoon.

Ali Ai Ligang dance

this is a dance in which young boys and girls of this tribe can participate for the praying of their holistic
local deity for batter harvesting. There is a rule of swinging of the hips during the dance performance
with a great passion. It is a dance which is not a folk dance but also an entertainment part of the Ali Ai
Ligang festival of Mishing tribe. After the finishing of this dance program the people of Mishing tribe
scarifies animals and offers them to deity. After that they all enjoy this feast.
Deodhani

Deodhani dance is a folk dance from the Indian state of Assam. It is as a solo or group performance. In
the group performance, it essentially comprises 3 or 4 women. This dance form is associated with the
worship of the snake goddess Manasa or Maroi. A Deodhani dance is generally performed to the
accompaniment of songs sung by an oja, an Assamese traditional chorus leader, during the dance.

Barpeta’s Bhortal Nritya

Barpeta’s Bhortal Nritya is one of the popular traditional dances of Assam which was developed by a well
known Satriya artist Narahari Burha Bbakat. It is an extension of Sankari culture. In this dance Six to ten
dancers equipped with cymbols perform to the first bit of ‘7hiya Nom” and produces a number of
attractive and colourful formations by displaying the cymbols. The dance is performed during the festival
season like Bihu. It can be seen in and around Barpeta and in the stages of Guwahati Bihu sanmilan.It is
basically performed in groups. It is performed to a very fast beat which is known as ‘ 7hiya Nom’. People
of all age group can enjoy this dance. Some of the best performances of this dance can be seen during
Bihu festival when the stage performances held in Guwahati and Barpeta. The Barpeta’s Bhortal Nritya is
a mirror image of the rich cultural heritage of Assam.

Dhuliya and Bhawariya

Generally accompanying bhawuas, i.e. theatrical performances of the type of miracle plays of Europe in
the middle ages.These dances verging on acrobatics are performed to tunes of vigorous music provided
with drums and cymbals. Masks are sometimes used.

Bagurumba

Bagurumba is a folk dance of indigenous Bodo tribe in Assam and Northeast India. It is a traditional
dance which is traditionally inherent to one generation to another generations. The Bodo women
perform the Bagurumba dance with their colourful dokhna, jwmgra (fasra) and aronai. The Bagurumba
dance is accepted as main traditional dance of Bodo people. But there are some other important dances
like- Bardwisikhla dance, Mwsaglangnai dance, Dahal-tungri sibnai dance, Sikri sikla dance, Daosri delai
dance, Sa-gwlao mwsanai, Kopri sibnai mwsanai and so on. All these dances are known as Kristi dance. It
is also accompanied by musical instruments like kham (a long drum, made of wood and goat skin or
other animal’s skin), sifung (flute, made of bamboo), jota (made of iron/tama), serja (a bowed
instrument, made of wood and animals skin), and gongwna (made of bamboo), tharkha (a piece of split
bamboo).

Khamba Lim

This is a typical folk dance of Assam, performed by two groups of men and women, who stand in two
rows.

Folk Songs of Assam

Folk Songs of Assam

Assam, the north-eastern state of India, situated on the littoral of the mighty river Brahmaputra is home
to diverse ethnic groups and cultures. This diversity contributed immensely to its musical gamut. The folk
music of the state can be segregated into different categories. Assam is known for its rich culture and its
richness can be very well noticed in its different types of folk music. Since the origin of the mighty
Brahmaputra, Assamese music has been affluent. Nevertheless, the introduction of Indian Classical
music and Religious music of Mahapurux Sankardeva and Madhavdeva has added precious stones to the
coronet of Assamese folk music, which dates back to several centuries and evidences of practice of
music are found during the 2nd century.

Bihu Geet

The festival of Bihu is the heart and soul of Assamese culture and Bihu geet are the songs sung during
this festival. The carnival of life are expressed through Bihu songs of geets, which a filled with deep
meaning. These are entwined around subject of love. These songs are performed by youth, which is
characterized by, flinging and flipping of hands, brisk stepping and swaying of hips. Husori is another type
of Bihu geet, which is sung by groups of boys and young men led by older men moving from door to door
thereby singing and dancing in the front or back courtyard collecting subscriptions to be spent on
repairing the village Namghar. Unlike Bihu geet, Husori is mainly based on religious theme and the
groups pray for the welfare of the people.

Kamrupiya Lokageet

Kamrupiya Lokageet is a popular form of folk music of Assam, which is basically sung in lower Assam.
This form of folk music developed during the reign of Kamrupa Kingdom and is sung since time
immemorial. These songs are based on various human emotions, especially of common people. It is
known for its richness of musical style.
Goalporiya Lokageet

Goalporiya Lokgeet is a form of folk music of Assam, which is mainly sung in the Goalpara district. It is
basically lyrical song of Goalpara and is not related with religious or rituals. Generally the main theme of
compositions is based mainly on love but not totally. It has different sub-genres that differ in the musical
mood and themes, of which the bhawaiya and the chatka are principal forms along with moishali and
maut songs. These songs are often sung in chorus sole accompaniment of the dotora.

Tokari Geet

Another type of folk music of Assam is Tokari geet, which is based on different mythological stories as
well as the social life of people. These songs are performed with Tokari, a musical instrument with a
single string played with fingers, cymbals and flute. These songs are mainly sung by the male folk led by a
leader. Tokari geet is also a popular form of folk music of the state.

Aainam

Aainam is a devotional folk music of the state, which is sung by the women. It is a traditional folk song,
which has been sung since time immemorial and is related to death and illness. This is mainly sung when
someone in the family is suffering from some serious sickness, especially small pox. It is sung by women
clapping their hands to praise the Goddess and is still prevalent in lower Assam.

Bianaam

Bianaam is another popular form of folk music of Assam, which is prevalent in both Upper Assam and
Lower Assam. These are basically marriage songs sung during the marriage and are generally fun making
the bride and groom. These songs illustrate epic stories of King Baana and his daughter Usha who was
married to Anniruddha, the grandson of Lord Krishna. These songs are particularly sung by the women
folk of the society.

Former princely States of Assam and Zamindaris

The region that came to be known as undivided Goalpara district came under British rule after the
transfer of the Deewani from the Mughal Emperor on August 12, 1765. Due to tribal influences on the
region the police thanas of Dhubri, Nageswari, Goalpara and Karaibari were placed under a special
administrative unit called “North-Eastern Parts of Rangpur” (Rangpur is in present-day Bangladesh) in
January 1822. The First Anglo-Burmese War commenced in 1824, and by March 28 the British had
occupied Guwahati, when the Raja of Darrang (a tributary of the Ahom kingdom) and some petty
chieftains submitted themselves to the British, who made rudimentary administrative arrangements by
October 1824. The Burmese occupiers retreated from the Ahom capital of Rangpur in January 1825 and
the nearly the whole of Brahmaputra Valley fell into British hands. In the war against the Burmese the
Ahoms did not help the British. In 1828, the Kachari kingdom was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse
after the king Govinda Chandra was killed. In 1832, the Khasi king surrendered and the British increased
their influence over the Jaintia ruler. In 1833, upper Assam became a British protectorate under the
erstwhile ruler of the Ahom kingdom, Purandhar Singha, but in 1838 the region was formally annexed
into the British empire. With the annexation of the Maran/Matak territory in the east in 1839, the
annexation of Assam was complete.

Assam was included as a part of the Bengal Presidency. The annexation of upper Assam is attributed to
the successful manufacture of tea in 1837, and the beginning of the Assam Company in 1839. Under the
Wasteland Rules of 1838, it became nearly impossible for natives to start plantations.[citation needed]
After the liberalization of the rules in 1854, there was a land rush. The Chinese staff that was imported
earlier for the cultivation of tea left Assam in 1843, when tea plantations came to be tended by local
labour solely, mainly by those belonging to the Bodo-Kachari ethnic groups. From 1859 central Indian
labour was imported for the tea plantations. This labour, based on an unbreakable contract, led to a
virtual slavery of this labour group. The conditions in which they were transported to Assam were so
horrific that about 10% never survived the journey. The colonial government already had monopoly over
the opium trade.

In 1874, the Assam region was separated from the Bengal Presidency, Sylhet was added to it and its
status was upgraded to a Chief Commissioner’s Province, also known as the ‘North-East Frontier’ non-
regulation province. The capital was at Shillong. Assamese, which had been replaced by Bengali as the
official language in 1837, was reinstated alongside Bengali. The new Commissionership included the four
districts of Assam proper Nagaon, Darrang, Sibsagar and Lakhimpur), The Lalung (Tiwa) Hills, Khasi-
Jaintia Hills, Garo Hills, Naga Hills, Goalpara, (Kamrup and Sylhet-Cachar of Bengal comprising about
54,100 sq miles. The people of Sylhet, Goalpara, Kamrup and the Hills protested the inclusion in Assam.

In 1889, oil was discovered at Digboi giving rise to an oil industry. In this period Nagaon witnessed
starvation deaths, and there was a decrease in the indigenous population, which was more than
adequately compensated by the immigrant labor. Colonialism was well entrenched, and the tea, oil and
coal-mining industries were putting increasing pressure on the agricultural sector which was lagging
behind.

The peasants, burdened under the opium monopoly and the usury by money lenders, rose again in
revolt. Numerous raiz mels decided against paying the taxes. The protests culminated in a bayonet
charge against the protesters at Patharughat in 1894. At least 15 were left dead and in the violent
repression that followed villagers were tortured and their properties were destroyed or looted. In 1903,
Assam Association was formed with Manik Chandra Baruah as the first secretary.

Bengal was partitioned and East Bengal was added to the Chief Commissioner’s Province of Eastern
Bengal and Assam. The new region, now ruled by a Lt. Governor, had its capital at Dhaka. This province
had a 15-member legislative council in which Assam had two seats. The members for these seats were
recommended by rotating groups of public bodies.

The Partition of Bengal was strongly protested in Bengal, and the people of Assam were not happy
either. Opposition to partition was co-ordinated by Indian National Congress, whose President was then
Sir Henry John Stedman Cotton who had been Chief Commissioner of Assam until he retired in 1902. The
partition was finally annulled by an imperial decree in 1911, announced by the King-Emperor at the Delhi
Durbar. The Swadeshi movement (1905-1908) from this period, went largely unfelt in Assam, though it
stirred some, most notably Ambikagiri Raychoudhury.

The administrative unit was reverted to a Chief Commissioner’s Province (Assam plus Sylhet), with a
Legislative Council added and Assam Province was created. The Council had 25 members, of which the
Chief Commissioner and 13 nominated members[clarification needed] formed the bulk. The other 12
members were elected by local public bodies like municipalities, local boards, landholders, tea planters
and Muslims.

Under the Government of India Act 1935, the Council was expanded into an Assembly of 108 members,
with even more powers. The period saw the sudden rise of Gopinath Bordoloi and Muhammed Saadulah
and their tussle for power and influence.

zamindari in Assam province

Permanently settled estates were created during the time of Lord Cornwallis in and around 1793 in
Bengal, Bihar and Odissa (Orissa). Subsequently, the system was exteded to Tamilnadu, Benaras districts
of UP and middle part of Koch Kingdom (part of present Goalpara District), whole sylhet districts (part of
present Karimganj District). The holders of the Permanently settled Estates were Proprietors nad were
known as Zamindars and the Land Tenure System is otherwise known as Zamindari system. The Land
Revenue (Kushiyara) System prevalent in the surama and Barak Valley was somewhat different from that
was in practice in Brahmaputra Valley. The permanently settled estate in the then Sylhet were classified
under the following names (a) Permanently settled Waste Land Grants, (b) Dassana, (c) Illam Daimi, (d)
Halabadi etc. In case of large estates, the owners were known as Zamindar or Talukdar and those whom
the lands were sublet were known as Patni. Large temporary settled estates were Illam which could be
sublet to actual cultivators or middle man. In case such middle man was known as Mirasdar. The
temporary settled estates of Sylhet proper were known locally under the following names (a) Illam, (b)
Nankar Patwarigeeri etc.. The revenue survey in Sylhet was carried out in 1860-66. It was called
“Thakbast” Survey in the sense that “thak” or demarcation marks of the estates were under taken. Illam
Settlement Rules, 1876 were under taken for Resettlement and Reassessment of revenue.

Freedom Movement in Assam

Assam has been under the rule of several dynasties among which the Varman dynasty, Koch, Kachari and
Ahom are the most prominent ones. During the 13th century, Sukaphaa a Tai prince who belonged to
Mong Mao, which is presently a part of China came to Assam crossing the Patkai range along with about
9000 followers and established the Ahom Dynasty in the year 1228. TheyA ruled over the state for about
600 years, during which the Delhi Sultanate and Mughals attacked the state 17 times but failed to
establish their authority. However, with time the rule of Ahoms had weakened owing to the some
internal politics. Assam was invaded by Burma thrice between 1817 and 1826 and during this time
Kingdom of Assam (Ahom) came under the control of Burma from 1821 to 1825.

The First Anglo-Burmese War and the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826 brought an end to the Burmese rile in
Assam and marked the beginning of British rule. In the year 1826, British annexed the Ahom kingdom
and in 1838 AD, all of northeast India became part of the Bengal Presidency of British India. The rule of
the East India Company ended in 1858 and the whole of India came under the direct control of the
British Crown. The assessment of land revenue was increased, and income tax, stamp duties, etc., were
also imposed by the new administration and it carried on trade in opium and salt in the State and earned
considerable profit thereby. The British discovered that the region of Assam was an implicit goldmine for
them and they got into the process of development and progress. The British dissolved the Ahom
administrative structure, made Bengali the official language, and recruited Bengali Hindus for various
posts instead of the local populace. Coal, limestone, and iron mines were opened and the government
offered incentives to European entrepreneurs to start plantations for the production of tea, rubber,
chinchona (source of quinine) hemp and jute. The British brought in contract labor from Bihar, Orissa
and Andhra Pradesh. By the turn of the century, one and a half million of such coolies were employed on
700 plantations producing 145 million pounds of tea annually.

The first revolt against the British was led by Dhananjay Borgohain and Gunadhar Konwar in 1828 AD.
Gunadhar Konwar was sentenced to seven years in prison and Dhananjay Borgohain, having been
sentenced to death fled to the Matak kingdom. There he secretly joined hands with his own sons
Harakanta and Haranath, son-in-law Jeuram Dulia Baruah, and many others and made plans to attack
Rangpur. But before they were betrayed by one of their associates, Sadiya Khowa Gohain and several
members of the group were hanged and others were debarred from country. Thereafter, the British
control over Assam was strengthened. The famous Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 AD, found an echo in Assam
under the leadership of Maniram Dewan and Piyoli Barua, who were eventually hanged in 1858 AD.
Meanwhile, the British had sought to clamp to linguistic freedom of the natives by introducing Bengali as
the medium of instruction in 1837 AD. However it ended in a fiasco because owing to the efforts of the
American Baptist Missionaries, and noted intellectuals of the day like Anandaram Dhekial Phukan, Hem
Chandra Baruah, and Gunabhiram Baruah, Assamese was reinstated as the medium of instruction in
1873 AD.

Like all other Indian states, Assam as well played an important role in the freedom movement of India.
Apart from Sepoy Mutiny, Assam took active part in every movement that led to India to attain
Independence. The people of Assam made remarkable contributions at every stage of the freedom
movement since 1920 to 1947. The visit of Mahatma Gandhi to the State in 1921 gave fillip to the
freedom movement which had already gathered momentum in both valleys of Assam. Kanak Lata Barua,
a 15 year old girl became the first martyr of the Quit India Movement in the year 1942 and many others
namely Kushal Konwar, Kamala Miri, Maniram Dewan, Bhogeshwari Phukanani etc. also sacrificed their
lives for their motherland. Assam’s contribution towards freedom movement of India cannot be ignored.

Quit india movement in assam

The Quit India Movement was the definitive freedom movement of India’s Independence Struggle. What
made matters worse for the British was that this was during the heights of Second World War (1939–
1945). Mahatma Gandhi’s iconic “Do-or-Die” slogan echoed in every Indian’s heart and mind. The arrest
of Gandhi was met by violent protests, attacks on British Imperial buildings, courts, post-offices and such
other establishments.Freedom Movement in Assam

In Assam too, prominent Congress leaders such as Gopinath Bordoloi, Md. Tayebullah, Siddhinath Sarma
were arrested within days of the AICC resolution adopting the movement. Sattradhikar Pitambar Deva
Goswami of Garmur Satra, Majuli was also arrested. The Assam Pradesh Congress Committee, Santi Sena
and other outfits were declared unlawful by the British. Muslim League had boycotted the Movement,
and the British resorting to communal appeasement once again on August 25, 1942 invited S.M.
Sadullah to form the Government in Assam after President’s rule was lifted.

A Non-Congress Government could not deter the spirit of the protesters. Violent protests including
snapping of railway lines occurred in Kamrup, Nagaon, Darrang, Sibsagar, Golaghat. In Barpeta houses of
loyalists officers were destroyed.

History of Assam from Vedic age to Gupta Period

The ancient name of Guwahati was Pragjyotishpur. Protohistoric Assam is reconstructed from epics and
literature from early times (Mahabharata, Kalika Purana, Yogini Tantra, diff. chronicles etc.). The earliest
political entity seems to have been led by a non-Aryan Danava dynasty with Mahiranga mentioned as the
first king. This dynasty was removed by Narakasura. Naraka appears to be a generic name for many kings
belonging to the Naraka dynasty. According to legend, the last of the Naraka kings was killed by Krishna
and his son Bhagadatta took the throne. Bhagadatta is said to have participated in the Mahabharata war
with an army of “chinas, kiratas and dwellers of the eastern sea”, thereby indicating that his kingdom,
Pragjyotisha, included part of Bangladesh. The last in the Naraka dynasty was a ruler named Suparua.

Kamarupa, also called Kamrup or Kamata, ancient Indian state corresponding roughly to what is now the
state of Assam, in northeastern India. This region had many rulers but, being protected by natural
fortifications, maintained fairly consistent territorial boundaries.

The ancient kingdom of Kamariipa, although roughly equivalent to Assam, generally occupied an area
larger than that of the modern province, and extended westward to the Karataya river, thus including the
Kuch Bihar State and the Rangpur District. The earliest notice of the kingdom which is of any use for the
purposes of the historian is the statement in Samudragupta’s inscription on the Allahabad pillar,
recorded about 360 or 370 AD, that Kamarupa was then one of the frontier states outside the limits of
the Gupta empire, but paying tribute and owing a certain amount of obedience to the paramount power.

Kamarupa was a typical Hindu kingdom of old. The name Kamrup, or more properly Kamarupa, which
now designates a district of Assam, was formerly applied to the whole of the eastern province of the
ancient Bharatavarshaf. It is synonymous with Pragjyotishab which, however, seems to have been the
older appellation for the country. In the Ramayana and Mahabharata the country is called Pragjyotisha,
and its ruler, the Pragjyotisheswara. The term Kamarupa is first made use of in some of the Puranas and
Tantras, which are admittedly of a later date than the great epics.

According to the Kalika Purana also a certain Naraka, king of Pragjyotisha, was a contemporary of Rama I.
He was preceded in the kingdom of Kamarupa by five other kings, the first of whom, Mahiranga Danava,
is said to have been the first king of the country, 2° and must have flourished at least one century before
Narak. The origin of the kingdom would thus date twelve centuries before the time of the Mahabharata,
or more than four thousand years before the present time.

There is also no definite information regarding the territorial extent of this ancient kingdom. The
boundaries appear to have varied in different times. In the Ramayana, Pragjyotisha is described as being
situated near the’sea. The Mahabharata too corroborates this, and Bhagadatta’s territories are described
as being extended to the sea coast. In the time of the Vishnu Purana the extent of the country was one
hundred yojanas on all sides from the city of Pragjyotishpur, modern Gowhati. The Jogini Tantra
describes the country as being ofa triangular shape, one hundred yojanas in lenght and thirty in
breadth.” Now, taking a yojana to be equal to four kroshes or about eight miles, old Kamarupa would be
about 800 miles in length and 240 in breadth. This gives a perimeter or circuit of about 1700 miles.
When the Chinese traveller Hiouen Tsiang visited the country in 639 AD, he estimated the circumference
at 10,000 Ii, or 1667 miles.
The account of the Yogini Tantra may not therefore be an undue exaggeration. This work is popularly
regarded as a great authority on every thing connected with Kamarupa. It contains a good deal of
information regarding the ancient geography and history of the country. According to it, ancient
Kamarupa was bounded on the north by the Kanjagiri, on the east by the hill stream Dikshu, and on the
west by the Karatoya; and it stretched southward as far as the junction of the Laksha with the
Brahmaputra.

The powerful kingdom of Kamarupa 2,000 miles in circuit. It apparently included in those times modern
Assam, Manipur and Kachar, Mymensing and Sylhet. The soil was rich and was cultivated, and grew
cocoanuts and bread fruit in abundance. Water led from rivers or banked up reservoirs flowed round
towns. The climate was soft and temperate, the manners of the people simple and honest. The men
were of small stature, of a dark yellow complexion, and spoke a language different from that of mid-
India. They were however impetuous, with very retentive memories, and very earnest in their studies.

The temple of Kamakhya at Gauhati is one of the most sacred shrines of the Sakta Hindus, and the whole
country is famed in Hindu traditions as a land of magic and witchcraft. The old tribal beliefs are gradually
being abandoned; and the way in which Hindu priests established their influence over non-Aryan chiefs
and gradually drew them within their fold is repeatedly exemplified in the pages of Assam History. The
Kamakhya Temple near Guwahati is referred to in the Vishnu Purana.

According to the Kalika Puran and the Jogni Tantra, the realm of Kamarupa included not only the valley
of the Brahmaputra, but also Bhutan, Rangpur, Koch Bihar, Mymensingh and the Garo Hills. According to
Hiuen Tsang’s descriptions in the seventh century, the Kamarupa country was about 17,000 miles in
circuit.

These vast territories of Kamarupa formerly abounded in forests, hills and rivers. In the Kalika Purana
and the Yogini Tantra more than seventy different hills are named, most Of which are regarded sacred by
that Tantra, and seem to have been situated in the province of modern Assam. The country was largely
intersected by rivers and streams, as it continues to be at the present time. Dr. Wade, speaking of Assam,
writes that “this country exceeds every other in the universe of similar extent in the number of its
rivers.” The Yogini Tantra describes Kamarupa as containing one hundred rivers.“ This evidently means
that the number of rivers is large.

The earliest recorded king of kamarupa was named Mahiranga Danava. He is regarded by some to have
been the first king of the country. Nothing more is known about him. He was succeeded by three kings of
his line, one after another, and the dynasty appears to have come to an end with the third, who was
named Ratnasura. After them, Pragjyotishpura seems to have been occupied by a race of Kiratas, who
had a rough exterior and fair complexion, who shaved their heads without any necessity, were
irreligious, and addicted to eating flesh and drinking liquor. Their chief was named Ghataka, who
possessed much physical power, and was defeated and slain by Naraka, the next king.

After the decline of the Pratapgarh family, a people called Chutia rose into power in upper or north
Kamarupa. Their king is said to have been descended from Kuvera, the Himalayan treasurer of
Mahadeva. He was most likely an Officer Of the court of Pratapgarh, and, on the downfall Of that line,
founded a kingdom of his own. The District of Durrang, and, in fact, the whole of the Uttarkola or north
valley of the Brahmaputra are supposed to have once been included in the Chutia territory. When the
Ahoms came into power the Chutias were driven back to the north east.

It is not known how the rule of the Pala kings of Kamarupa came to an end, or why Pala Raja had no
lineal successor to the throne of the country. It is probable that the last of the Pala kings having died
without an heir, the part of Kamarupa west of the Brahmaputra remained in a state of anarchy for some
time and was overrun by several tribes of koch, Mech, Garo, Kachari and Bhot. This period of disturbance
and disintegration of power was most favorable for the rise of upstarts, and thus a person of humble
birth some how acquired power, and, proclaiming himself king of Kamarupa, assumed the title of
Niladhavja. He was called Kanta Nath.

Languages and Literature of Assam

Languages of assam

Assamese

Assamese is spoken all along the Brahmaputra valley and sounds quite sounds quite similar to Bengali to
a non-speaker (i.e. non-Bengali or non-Assamese speaker), but have significant differences, especially in
grammar, pronunciations and vocabularies. The oldest Assamese writer was perhaps Hema Saraswati,
who wrote his famous Prahlada Charita in the late 13th century AD. Madhava Kandali (14th century) was
the next well-known figure, having written a vernacular Ramayana. Prominent among 15th century
works were Durgavara’s Giti Ramayana, poems and songs from the Puranas by Pitambara and Manakara
and the mass of literature called Mantras of unknown authorship.

Bodo language

A language of the Tibeto-Burman branch of Sino-Tibetan languages having several dialects. Bodo is
spoken in the northeastern Indian states of Assam and Meghalaya and in Bangladesh. It is related to
Dimasa, Tripura, and Lalunga languages, and it is written in Latin, Devanagari, and Bengali scripts.

Rabha language
Rabha is a Sino-Tibetan language of India. The two dialects, Maituri and Rongdani, are divergent enough
to cause problems in communication. According to U.V. Jose, there are three dialects, viz. Róngdani or
Róngdania, Mayturi or Mayturia and Songga or Kocha (page ix). Jose writes that “the Kocha dialect,
spoken along the northern bank of the Brahmaputra, is highly divergent and is not intelligible to a
Róngdani or Mayturi speaker” (page ix). Jose also writes that “[t]he dialect variations between Róngdani
and Mayturi, both of which are spoken on the southern bank of the Brahmaputra, in the Goalpara
district of Assam and belong to the northern slopes of Meghalaya, are minimal”. Jose concludes the
paragraph on dialectal variation with: “The Róngdani-Mayturi dialectal differences become gradually
more marked as one moves further west”.

Karbi

Despite of the 420,000 speakers spread across North-East Indian states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya and Nagaland—is one of the vulnerable languages of South Asia as identified by UNESCO.
Karbi is grouped under the Mikir languages which itself is part of the 50-odd-languages that are known
as the Kuki-Chin language group or simply known as Kukish languages. The last known census was in
2001 and the number of speakers might have increased by now but there are only a handful of people
that are working for reviving the language. One of them is D.S. Teron who is a veteran and is a full time
self-sponsored researcher based in the Karbi Anglong district of Assam. This page that is based on our
conversation with Teron leads to some of the most important aspects of the Karbi language—like
narration of a folklore, folk song, local festival celebrations and traditional games. The Karbi elders have
been historically great storytellers, be it while recounting the past of deceased family members through
Mosera Kihir, or the wailing songs of Kecharhe remembering the dead. Karbi is also known as Arleng or
Mikir. Our guest, Mr. Teron is from one of the five clans that are also known as Kur—these are Terang,
Teron, Enghee. Ingti and Timung.

Mishing language

Mising/Mishing, also known as Plains Miri, is a Tani language spoken by the Mishing people. There are
517,170 speakers, who inhabit mostly the Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Dhemaji, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Jorhat,
Golaghat, Tinsukia districts of Assam. The primary literary body of Mising is known as ‘Mising Agom
Kébang.

Literature of Assam

Probably the earliest text in a language that is incontestably Assamese is the Prahlada Charitra of the late
13th-century poet Hema Saraswati. Written in a heavily Sanskritized style, it tells the story, from the
Vishnu-Purana, of how the mythical prince Prahlada’s faith in Vishnu saved him from destruction and
restored the moral order. The first great Assamese poet was Madhava Kandali (14th century), who made
the earliest translation of the Sanskrit Ramayana and wrote Devajit, a narrative on Krishna. The bhakti
movement brought a great literary upsurge. The most famous Assamese poet of that period was
Shankaradeva (1449–1568), whose many works of poetry and devotion are still read today and who
inspired such poets as Madhavadeva (1489–1596) to write lyrics of great beauty. Peculiar to Assamese
literature are the buranjis, chronicles written in a prose tradition taken to Assam by the Ahom people
originally from what is now Yunnan, China. Assamese buranjis date from the 16th century, though the
genre appears much earlier in the original Tai language of the Ahom.

One of the first plays to be written in the Assamese language was playwright and lexicographer
Hemchandra Barua’s Kaniyar Kirtan (1861; “The Revels of an Opium Eater”), about opium addiction. His
plays chiefly addressed social issues. Barua also wrote Bahire Rongsong Bhitare Kowabhaturi (1861; Fair
Outside and Foul Within). Probably the most outstanding among the early modern writers was
Lakshminath Bezbarua (1868–1938), who founded a literary monthly, Jonaki (“Moonlight”), in 1889 and
was responsible for infusing Assamese letters with 19th-century Romanticism, which had by then begun
to fade from Western literature. Later 20th-century writers tried to remain faithful to the ideals
expressed in Jonaki. The short story genre flourished in Assamese with notable practitioners such as
Mahichandra Bora (1894–1965) and Holiram Deka (1901–63). The year 1940 marked a shift toward
psychological narrative, but World War II effectively put an end to literary development in Assam.

When writers resumed after the war, there was a clear break from the past. Also evident among
Assamese writers of this period was the influence of Western literature. Perhaps the area of most
unexpected growth was the development of the novel. Noteworthy examples of this form include Bina
Barua’s Jivanar Batat (1944; “On the Highway of Life”), Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya’s Ali (1960;
“Mother”), and Debendra Nath Acharya’s Anya Yug Anya Purus (1970; “Another Decade Another
Generation”). The short story remained a popular genre, although writers began to experiment with an
aesthetic that reflected the contemporary world. By the start of the 21st century, other new forms of
literature such as the travelogue, biography, and literary criticism had also taken hold in Assam.

Major dynasties of Assam

Varman dynasty

The Varman dynasty (350-650), the first historical rulers of Kamarupa; was established by Pushya
Varman, a contemporary of Samudragupta. This dynasty became vassals of the Gupta Empire, but as the
power of the Guptas waned, Mahendra Varman (470-494) performed two horse sacrifices and threw off
the imperial yoke. The first of the three Kamarupa dynasties, the Varmans were followed by the
Mlechchha and then the Pala dynasties.
The genealogy of the Varman dynasty appears most fully in the Dubi and Nidhanpur copper plate
inscriptions of the last Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (650-655), where Pushya Varman is named the
founder. The Dubi copper plate inscription of Bhaskar Varman asserts that Pushya Varman was born in
the family of Naraka, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta (as did the other two Kamarupa dynasties) three
thousand years after these mythical ancestors. The middle or Mlechha (Mech) dynasty, though claim
same descent, are native tribal rulers. K.L. Barua opines that there was a Mlechha (i.e., Mech) revolt in
Kamarupa and Salastambha, the leader or governor of the Mlecchas usurped the throne by deposing
Bhaskar Varman’s immediate successor Avanti Varman.

The most illustrious of this dynasty was the last, Bhaskar Varman, who claimed be a descendant from
god Vishnu and referred to as “lord of eastern India”. He accompanied King Harshavardhana to religious
processions from Pataliputra to Kannauj.

Kings of Varman dynasty maintained both diplomatic and matrimonial relations with other countries of
Aryavarta. Pushya Varman who himself named after king Pushyamitra Shunga, named his son Samudra
Varman after king Samudragupta in appreciations of kings of Aryavarta. King Bala Varman organised
Swayamvara for his daughter Amrita Prabha; which was attended by princes of different countries.
Princess eventually chosen prince of Kashmir Meghavahana as her groom. The alliance between king
Harsha of Thanesar and Bhaskar Varman lead to spread of political influence of later to entire eastern
India.

Mlechchha dynasty

The Mlechchha Dynasty (c. 650 – 900) ruled Kamarupa from their capital at Hadapeshvar in the present-
day Tezpur, Assam, after the fall of the Varman dynasty. The rulers were aboriginals, though their lineage
from Narakasura was constructed to accord legitimacy to their rule. According to historical records, there
were twenty one rulers in this dynasty but the line is obscure and the names of some intervening rulers
are not known. The Mlechchha dynasty in Kamarupa was followed by the Pala kings. According to some
historians, the remnant of the Mlechchha kingdom formed the later Kachari kingdom based in Dimapur
and the Sutiya kingdom based in Sadiya after being driven south and east by Brahmapala of the Pala
dynasty. The rulers of this dynasty are: Salasthamba (650-670), Vijaya alias Vigrahastambha, Harshadeva
alias Harshavarman (725-745), Balavarman II, Salambha, Harjjaravarman (815-832), Vanamalavarmadeva
(832-855), Jayamala alias Virabahu (855-860), Balavarman III (860-880) Tyagasimha (890-900).

Pal dynasty
Pala dynasty, ruling dynasty in Bihar and Bengal, India, from the 8th to the 12th century. Its founder,
Gopala, was a local chieftain who rose to power in the mid-8th century during a period of anarchy. His
successor, Dharmapala (reigned c. 770–810), greatly expanded the kingdom and for a while was in
control of Kannauj. Pala power was maintained under Devapala (reigned c. 810–850), who carried out
raids in the north, the Deccan, and the peninsula; but thereafter the dynasty declined in power, and
Mahendrapala, the Gurjara-Pratihara emperor of Kannauj in the late 9th and early 10th centuries,
penetrated as far as northern Bengal. Pala strength was restored by Mahipala I (reigned c. 988–1038),
whose influence reached as far as Varanasi, but on his death the kingdom again weakened.

Ramapala (reigned c. 1077–1120), the last important Pala king, did much to strengthen the dynasty in
Bengal and expanded its power in Assam and Orissa; he is the hero of a Sanskrit historical poem, the
Ramacarita of Sandhyakara. On his death, however, the dynasty was virtually eclipsed by the rising
power of the Senas, though Pala kings continued to rule in southern Bihar for 40 years. The main capital
of the Palas appears to have been Mudgagiri (now Munger) in eastern Bihar.

Khen dynasty

The Khen dynasty of Assam replaced the Pala dynasty in the 12th century. Their accession marks the end
of the Kamarupa kingdom, and the beginning of the Kamata kingdom, when Sandhya moved his capital
from Kamarupanagara to Kamatapur in about 1250.

According to the Gosani Mangala (1823), the Khen rulers had a humble origin, implying that they were
probably local non-Aryan chieftains that rose to power after the fall of the Palas. Ethnically, they are
possibly related to the Kheng people of nearby Bhutan. They worshipped Kamatashwari (also called
Chandi or Bhavani), thus providing a break from the earlier dynasties that drew their lineage from
Narakasura, the son of Vishnu. Along with the change in the deity, the Khen rulers moved the capital
from Kamarupanagara to Kamatapura further west on the banks of the Dharla River. Under the
patronage of Kamata rulers (e.g. Durlabh Narayan), some of the first examples of Assamese literature
were composed.

The kingdom of Kamatapura finally fell to Alauddin Husain Shah in 1498. But Hussein Shah could not rule
the kingdom— Bhuyan chiefs of the region, with the help of the Ahom king, Suhungmung, defeated the
invaders in 1505. Soon control of the Kamata kingdom passed into the hands of the Koch dynasty.

Sutiya Kingdom
The Sutiya Kingdom or Sadiya (1187-1673) was a state established by Birpal in 1187 in the areas
comprising the present Indian states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The kingdom absorbed the
ancient Pal dynasty of Kamarupa and reigned for over 400 years in eastern Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
with its capital at Sadiya. It became the dominant power in eastern Assam in the 12th century and
remained so until the 16th century with its domain from Parshuram Kund in the east to Vishwanath in
the west and in the process of its expansion had absorbed many local communities and tribes.Major
dynasties of Assam

It controlled the present Assam districts of Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Tinsukia, parts of Jorhat, Dibrugarh,
Sonitpur and East Siang, Subansiri, Lower Dibang, Lohit districts of Arunachal Pradesh. The Sutiya are an
ethnic group originally from Tibet and the Sichuan province of China.

Most illustrious of the Sutiya kings was Gaurinarayan (Ratnadhwajpal) son of Birpal. He brought many
other Sutiya groups into his kingdom. In 1224 Ratnadhwajpal defeated Bhadrasena, the king of Swetagiri.
Then he went on to subjugate Nyayapal and marched toward Kamatapur, where he formed an alliance
with the Kamata ruler by marrying a princess. Then he marched to Dhaka, and made friends with the
Gauda ruler. The hostilities with the Ahoms began when the Sutiya Kingdom expanded to the south and
during which Ahom king, Sutuphaa, was killed by the Sutiya king during a friendly negotiation. This
conflict triggered a number of battles between the two sides, which saw great loss of men and money.
The simmering dispute often flared till 1524 when the Ahoms struck the Sutiya Kingdom at its weakest
state, took Sadiya and killed the then king Nityapal. The Ahoms established their rule by instituting the
position of Sadiyakhowa Gohain, a newly constituted position of frontier-governor in charge of Sadiya.
But the Sutiya had dispersed to frontier regions, and continued raids against the Ahoms. It finally ended
in 1673 when they fall under the domination of the Ahoms.

Revolt of 1857 in Assam

The Revolt of 1857 is an important event in the history of India. It began on 10th may 1857 in Meerut
with the mutiny of Indian soldiers or sepoys as the British used to call them. The unrest against the
British rule that had been brewing for a long time now broke out into a revolt. The „mutiny of soldiers‟
soon spread like wild fire to large part of the country. The revolt was caused by wide spread discontent
that the British policies in India had created. The policy of conquest pursued by the British had created
unrest among many Indian rulers and chiefs. British had entered into agreements with them under a
system of subsidiary alliance. Sind, Punjab and Awadh were annexed by this policy. The vigorous
application of the doctrine of lapse by Dalhousie added to the discontent which the annexations had
already caused.

In the nineteenth century Assam entered into a new political and socio-economic phase with the
beginning of British rule in Assam. The third decade of the nineteenth century brought political changes
along with the treaty of Yandboo which was signed on twenty fourth February 1826 by general sir
Archibald Campbell on British side and the governor of Ligaing Maha Ming Hla Hatin from the Burmese
side. According to the clause of the treaty of the Yandboo the Burmese renounced its claim over Assam.
The withdrawal of the Burmese provided the British with the opportunity to create spear of influence in
the region .Thus the treaty of Yandboo marked the beginning of the new era in the history of Assam
which brought socio-political changes in this region.Revolt of 1857 in Assam

British regime was welcomed by the common people of Assam as well as the noble of the Ahom
Monarchy because the common people considered the Britishers as their saviour and the noble of the
Ahom monarchy thought the coming of the British regime as temporary as they were totally unaware of
the colonial mindset of the British. The interest of the ruling classes of Assam greatly affected by the
British colonial policies as mentioned by S.L Baruah , its new administrative measures introduced by the
British gave a serious blow to the old aristocracy. The abolition of the slavery in 1843 made the situation
worse and pushed its members down to the level of ordinary rayats

The old aristocracy could not cope up with the new administrative system introduced by the British. They
not only lost their privileges but also lost the chances to work in the new administrative structure
because the new government preferred the man of ability who were mostly the Bengali people. In this
situation the old aristocracy strongly felt that they could get back their privileges only after restoring the
Ahom monarchy. Moreover 500 Assamese exservicemen who were unemployed after king purander
singh had been dethroned.

The policies of the new government affected the common people also. The administrative machinery
introduced by the East India Company did not satisfy the subjects and nobles alike.Like the aristocratic
class the mass had also lost their faith in the British Government as they believe that the British saved
them from the Burmese but in course of time they came to know the real motive of their so called
saviours. concerned only with collection of taxes, a new government was totally indifferent in improving
the economy of the miserable rayats. Benudhar Sarma also stated that lands were reassessed. Provision
was made for the realization of tolls from the users of the ghats and bazars. He further stated that British
came to Assam only to deliver her people from the clutches of the Burmese, they fastened the Assamese
slowly but surely to their own yoke; an artfull fellow indeed a devil in a doublet. As a colonial power it
was obvious that the British were trying to fulfill their economic interest by every means. Francis Jenkins
in 1853 admitted that the economic conditions for the Assamese people already suffered very much due
to prolonged strife coupled with the invasion of the Burmese and their atrocities .The British regime gave
more importance to the collection of taxes from the masses but the economic interest of the people
were ignored by the British government which brought dissatisfaction among the common masses which
later contributed as one of the causes of revolt of 1857 in Assam.

With the coming of the British the people of Assam came into direct contact with the neighboring states
especially with Bengal which brought many socio-economic changes in the society of Assam. It is a
significant landmark in the Assamese society Assam remain aloof from the other parts of India. But the
Colonial power brought Assam closer to other parts of India which helped Assamese people to know
about the development of other places of India. The people of Assam closely followed the development
of education, culture and literature of Bengal. Infact Maniram Dewan, Kashinath Tamuliphukan, Joduram
Deka Baruah and some other wrote articles in Bengali paper like Samachar darpan, Samachar chandraka
published from Kolkata.
Maniram Dewan and the Revolt of 1857

Maniram was a man of ability having vast knowledge of social political knowledge of that period and also
proved himself loyal to the British Empire by giving all the informations regarding the socio-economic
and political conditions of the state. In 1828 Neufulle appointed him as Sirasatadar. Though Maniram at
first appreciated the British rule in Assam but later he realized his fault when he was not given enough
opportunity to extend his tea gardens at chinamara and chenglung. He was not allowed waste land at
concessional rates like the European planters. In 1858 A.J Muffet Mills, the Judge of the Sadar Diwani
Adalat came to visit Assam to get more information regarding the local states of adminstration.
Kandeswar Singha submitted a memorandum claiming his rights to hold Assam on a triubutory basis
under the Company rule but Mill rejected this claim.This report compelled Maniram to get rid of the
foreign government and thereafter he went to kolkata. In kolkata he came in contact with many
intellectuals and came to know the uprising of the sepoys in other parts of India and thereby planned to
organise revolts in Assam against the British. Maniram suggested Kandeswar Singha to take the helpof
the local sepoys stationed at Sibsagar and Dibrugarh to fulfill their purpose.

Maniram and Piyali Baruah must be counted as two of the brightest luminaries whose name posterity
must remember with reverent care .The role of Piyali Baruah in the revolt of 1857 was decisive. Unlike
Maniram from the very beginning Piyali did not support the British regime. The Chief planner of the
revolt was Maniram Dewan but it was piyali who brought the plan to action. Infact Maniram cannot be
termed as perfect organizer because he never appeared before the people with his plans and actions.
Amulya Chandra Sarma had stated that the socibility of piyali Baruah made him popular among all
sections of the people. The other important orgainser of the Revolt were bahadur gaon Burha, formud
Ali, Madhumalik, Dutiram Baruah. The revolt was planned to be orgainsed during the Durga Puja but an
incident took place which led to opening up of the whole plan before the British government and also
changed the scenario of the Revolt in Assam. As a result of which the leaders were arrested one by one
which destroyed the whole planning of the revolt in Assam.

Workers, Peasant and Tribal Movements in Assam

The Assam-Bengal Railway Workers’ Strike (1921)

Perhaps the first sympathetic strike in our country of a tremendous magnitude took place in 1921 when
the workers of Assam Bengal railway resorted to an indefinite strike. The strike is very important from
the historical point of view not only because it showed strong working class solidarity but also due to the
fact that it attracted national attention and involved national political leaders. The strikers were clearly
inspired by Non-Cooperation Movement that swept the country at that time. Unlike other labour
movements of the period when the workers resorted to strike just to protect their own interest like
demanding wage increase or reduced working hours etc., the workers of Assam-Bengal Railway resorted
to strike just to express their sympathies towards the oppressed plantation workers at Chandpur in
Assam. Although it was an organized movement but ultimately the struggle failed. However, its
importance cannot be ignored in the trajectory of Organized Labour Movement in Assam.

Dibru-Sadiya Railways Workers Strike, 1928

A seventeen-day strike was occurred again in the Dibru-Sadiya railways workers in 1928. In this strike 430
working people involved and ended in a wage increase for them. Earlier in 1920, the workers of
DibruSadiya railways went on strike and they achieved their ends. The main demand of the second strike
was to revision of the wages of workers and introduction of a pay scale. About four hundred and thirty
workers had been involved in the strike and the company had to concede to the workers‟ demands. The
management declared a fifteen to twenty five per cent increase in the wages on different categories of
labour. After the declaration of management, the strike called off. The second strike of the workers of
Dibru-Sadiya also got its achievement.

Dhubri Match Factory Workers’ Strike, 1935-36

The workers of Dhubri Match Factory again went on strike. In 1935-36, all the workers of the factory
were again on a 57- day strike, in protest against retrenchment. It was inspired by Labour Party of
Bengal. Therefore, it was a unionized movement and led by Bipin Chandra Chakroborty, a veteran trade
unionist from Bengal. The strike was a successful one because the workers won almost all their demands.
After this strike, resolutions passed at the Dhubri Labourers‟ Conference under the guidance of Bipin
Chandra Chakraborty clearly reflected the influence of the new communist ideology. On 14 December
1936, the workers again went on strike. Unlike the earlier strikes, when the company conceded the most
of the demands of the workers, this time the management was very much adamant. The strike was
continued till the April, 1937. The strike of 1936 had a great significance in the trade union history of
Assam. It got mass support from the people of Assam. The critical state of affairs was debated in the
Assam Legislative Assembly also and for the first time the trade union movement of Assam got political
significance.

Phulguri Uprising

The Phulguri Uprising which is also known as ‘Phulguri Dhawa’ in Assamese was the first agrarian revolt
in Assam after 1857. Phulguri is a place in present Nagaon district. Most of the people of this area belong
to Lalung and Kachari tribes. As the people of Phulguri were mostly opium-eaters, the consumption of
opium was higher there compared to other places. High price of opium fixed by the British government
caused much resentment among the people of Phulguri. The ban imposed by the British government on
private cultivation of opium also caused much dissatisfaction among the people of Phulguri. Besides, a
rumour spread that the British government would soon impose duties on all their sources of income
such as cultivation of betel leaf (pan) and cultivation of fruits in the garden.
Due to the above mentioned causes an uprising broke out which initially took the form of protest
through Raij Mels. One day on 17 October, 1861 when people from district villages assembled in a mel
the British police forcibly tried to disperse the villagemen. The incident enraged the native people so
much that they jumped upon the police party who tried to disperse them. In this encounter many
policemen were injured and Mr. Singer, the Assistant Commissioner of police of Nagaon district was
beaten to death. However, an additional police force captured the rebels and their leaders were severally
punished either with the death sentence or life imprisonment.

Though the Phulguri uprising was a failure its significance cannot be underrated. It was the first popular
rebellion of the peasantry of Assam against the British colonial rule. For the first time the middle class
intelligentsia came out in support of the Phulguri rebels. Not only that, it also served an inspiration to
other villagemen and tribals. This is evident from the fact that within the next few years the peasants of
the districts of Darrang and Kamrup broke out in rebellion against the exploitation of the British.

Rangia and Lachima Revolt

The people of Rangia, in the district of Kamrup following the foot steps of the Phulguri peasants very
soon lodged their protests, organizing Raij Mels. The cause of their protest was a hundred percent
increase in the land revenue. The Rangia revolt began on 24th December 1893 when the people of
Rangia ransacked the Rangia market. Moreover, people staged a demonstration on 10th January, 1894 in
which they raised the slogan of not paying the increased revenue. On the same day McCabe, the Deputy
Commissioner of Kamrup, imposed a ban on holding any Mel All the important leaders of the revolt were
soon arrested by the police and the revolt lost its edge.

The Lachima Revolt was also held due to the same reasons as that of Rangia. The only difference was
that the rebels of Lachima took recourse to violence. They assaulted the revenue collectors who were
the agents of the British government. The incident took place in Kalpa, near Lachima, in the district of
Kamrup on 21st January 1894. The revenue collectors were so severely beaten by the villagers that one
of them died. The infuriated British police immediately arrested as many as seventy- five villagers. But
the agitated villagers soon freed the arrested persons from the custody of the police. This led to a major
police crackdown on the village. Unable to sustain the torture the rebels ultimately had to give in and
the revolt came to an end.

Patharughat Uprising

Like Phulguri Dhawa the rebellion of Patharughat is also commonly known among Assamese as
Patharughatar Ran i.e. the battle of Patharughat. Patharughat is a place in the Darrang district where a
revolt broke out in 1894. Here also the grievances of the people were against the enhancement of the
rates of revenue. Raij-Mels were held in which not only a protest was lodged against the increased in the
rates of land-revenue but a warning was also issued to the villagers to the effect that no one should pay
the increased revenue to the government. On 28th January, 1894 when a police party went to the village
to attach the property of a peasant cultivator, who was a defaulter, they were surrounded by a mob.
Soon after the incident the rebels of Patharughat marched towards the police camp leading the police to
open fire.Many of the villagers died and were injured. It led to the complete suppression of the rebels of
Patharughat by the British.