Unit 5: Surface Chemistry

 The branch of chemistry that deals with the process that occurs at the surface of
objects is called surface chemistry.
 Phenomena like corrosion, catalytic activity, electrode process etc. take place either at
the surface of solids or at the interface of two objects.
 The subject of surface chemistry finds many applications in industry, analytical work
and daily life situations.

ADSORPTION

 The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk of a
solid or liquid is termed adsorption.
 Adsorption is essentially a surface phenomenon. Solids, particularly in finely divided
state, have large surface area and therefore, charcoal, silica gel, alumina gel, clay,
colloids, metals in finely divided state, etc. act as good adsorbents.
Examples:
1. If a gas like O2, H2, CO, Cl2, NH3 or SO2 is taken in a closed vessel containing
powdered charcoal, it is observed that the pressure of the gas in the enclosed vessel
decreases. The gas molecules concentrate at the surface of the charcoal, i.e., gases are
adsorbed at the surface.
2. In a solution of an organic dye, say methylene blue, when animal charcoal is added
and the solution is well shaken, it is observed that the filtrate turns colourless. The
molecules of the dye, thus, accumulate on the surface of charcoal, i.e., are adsorbed.

 Adsorbent: The solid on the surface of which gas or liquid molecules accumulate is
called adsorbent.
 Adsorbate: The substance (gas or liquid) whose molecules accumulate on the solid
surface is called adsorbate.

Example: When the NH3 accumulates on the surface of charcoal, ammonia is Adsorbate
and charcoal is adsorbent.

Desorption: The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a surface on which it

is adsorbed is called desorption.
Difference between absorption and adsorption

Absorption is a process in which one substance penetrates into another substance.

Adsorption is a process in which a substance takes another substance on its surface.

Absorption Adsorption
1. It involves uniform distribution of 1. It involves uneven distribution of
molecules in the bulk as well as surface molecules in the bulk as well as surface
2. It happens at a uniform rate 2. The process is fast in the beginning and
gradually becomes slower
3. At the end, the absorbed molecules 3. At the end, molecules of the Adsorbate
penetrate into the surface are found mainly on the surface of the solid

Example:
1. When a sponge is dipped in water, it absorbs water because water reaches the interior
of the sponge. A chalk crayon dipped in ink adsorbs ink.
2. Water vapours are absorbed by anhydrous calcium chloride but adsorbed by silica gel.

In other words, in adsorption the concentration of the adsorbate increases only at the
surface of the adsorbent, while in absorption the concentration is uniform throughout the
bulk of the solid. Both adsorption and absorption can take place simultaneously and this
process is termed as SORPTION.

Mechanism of adsorption

Molecules on the surface of a solid have free, unsatisfied combining forces. The
molecules of a gas or liquid which come to the surface get attracted by these forces and
thus get adsorbed. Due to attraction, energy of the system decreases. Hence, adsorption is
always exothermic. ∆H is always negative. The stronger the attractive forces, the greater
the heat evolved. The amount of heat evolved when one mole of a gas or liquid is
adsorbed by a solid is called heat of adsorption or enthalpy of adsorption.

Types of adsorption

1. Physical adsorption/ van der Waal’s adsorption/Physisorption

2. Chemical adsorption/Chemisorption
1. Physical adsorption/ van der Waal’s adsorption/Physisorption
The process in which the adsorbed molecules are held on the solid surface by weak van
de Waal’s force is called physical adsorption.
Characteristics:

a) Surface area of the adsorbent: Larger the surface are, greater is the adsorption. This is
why solid catalyst in powdered state is more efficient as it provides larger surface are.

b) Lack of specificity: Since van der Waal’s forces are present in all the substances,
phisisorption is general. That is any gas is adsorbed by an adsorbent.

c) Nature of gas: Easily liquefiable gases like SO2 and NH3 are readily adsorbed.

d) Heat of adsorption: The adsorption process is always exothermic.

e) Effect of pressure: Increase in pressure increases the adsorption

f) Reversible nature: It is reversible. That is on decreasing the pressure desorption takes

place.

g) Effect of temperature: Physical adsorption is favored at low temperature as van der

Waal’s forces are stronger at low temperature.

2. Chemical adsorption/Chemisorption
The process in which the Adsorbate is held on to the solid surface by strong chemical
bonds is called chemical adsorption.
Characteristics:

a) Surface area of the adsorbent: Larger the surface are, greater is the adsorption.

b) Specificity: It is highly specific in nature. It is possible only if the adsorbed molecules

are capable of forming a bond with the surface.

c) Heat of adsorption: It is higher due to strength of chemical bond.

d) Reversible nature: Desorption does not takes place as there is chemical bond existing
between the surface and the gaseous molecule.

e) Effect of temperature: Chemical adsorption is favored at high temperature.

Difference between Physisorption and Chemisorption

Physisorption Chemisorption
1. It arises because of van der Waals’ 1. It is caused by chemical bond formation.
forces.
2. It is not specific in nature. 2. It is highly specific in nature.
3. It is reversible in nature. 3. It is irreversible.
4. It depends on the nature of gas. More 4. It also depends on the nature of gas.
easily liquefiable gases are adsorbed Gases which can react with the adsorbent
readily. show chemisorption.
5. Enthalpy of adsorption is low (20-40 kJ 5. Enthalpy of adsorption is high (80-240
mol –1) in this case. kJ mol–1) in this case.
6. Low temperature is favourable for 6. High temperature is favourable for
adsorption. It decreases with increase of adsorption. It increases with the increase of
temperature. temperature.
7. No appreciable activation energy is 7. High activation energy is sometimes
needed. needed.
8. It depends on the surface area. It 8. It also depends on the surface area. It too
increases with an increase of surface area. increases with an increase of surface area.
9. It results into multi-molecular layers on 9. It results into uni-molecular layer.
adsorbent surface under high pressure.

Adsorption Isotherm

The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by the adsorbent with pressure at constant
temperature can be expressed by means of a curve termed as adsorption isotherm.

Freundlich adsorption isotherm: Freundlich, in 1909, gave an empirical relationship

between the quantity of gas adsorbed by unit mass of solid adsorbent and pressure at a
particular temperature. The relationship can be expressed by the following equation:

where x is the mass of the gas adsorbed on mass m of the adsorbent at pressure P, k and n
are constants which depend on the nature of the adsorbent and the gas at a particular
temperature.

Taking log for

Adsorption from solution phase

When activated charcoal is shaken with an aqueous solution of acetic acid, the molecules
of acetic acid get adsorbed on the surface of charcoal. Such adsorption from solutions is
explained by Freundlich adsorption isotherm.

where C is molar concentration of the solution.

Applications of adsorption

The phenomenon of adsorption finds a number of applications. Important ones are listed
here:

(i) Production of high vacuum: The remaining traces of air can be adsorbed by charcoal
from a vessel evacuated by a vacuum pump to give a very high vacuum.

(ii) Gas masks: Gas mask (a device which consists of activated charcoal or mixture of
adsorbents) is usually used for breathing in coal mines to adsorb poisonous gases.

(iii) Control of humidity: Silica and aluminium gels are used as adsorbents for removing
moisture and controlling humidity.

(iv) Removal of colouring matter from solutions: Animal charcoal removes colours of
solutions by adsorbing coloured impurities.
(v) Heterogeneous catalysis: Adsorption of reactants on the solid surface of the catalysts
increases the rate of reaction.

(vi) Separation of inert gases: Due to the difference in degree of adsorption of gases by
charcoal, a mixture of noble gases can be separated by adsorption on coconut charcoal at
different temperatures.

(vii) In curing diseases: A number of drugs are used to kill germs by getting adsorbed on
them.

(viii) Froth floatation process: A low grade sulphide ore is concentrated by separating it
from silica and other earthy matter by this method using pine oil and frothing agent

(ix) Adsorption indicators: Surfaces of certain precipitates such as silver halides have the
property of adsorbing some dyes like eosin, fluorescein, etc. and thereby producing a
characteristic colour at the end point.

(x) Chromatographic analysis: Chromatographic analysis based on the phenomenon of

adsorption finds a number of applications in analytical and industrial fields.
 CATALYSIS

 Catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of the chemical reaction without
undergoing any chemical change.
 The process is called catalysis.
 Example: Decomposition of potassium chlorate is a slow process but little manganese
dioxide makes it faster.

 Promoters are substances that enhance the activity of a catalyst. For example, in
Haber’s process for manufacture of ammonia, molybdenum acts as a promoter for iron
which is used as a catalyst.

 Poisons/negative catalyst are substances that decrease the activity of a catalyst. For
example in decomposition of H2O2, glycerol acts as negative catalyst.

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous catalysis

Homogeneous catalysis: A chemical reaction in which the catalyst and the reactants are
in the same phase is termed as Homogeneous catalysis.

Example:

1. Oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide with dioxygen in the presence of
oxides of nitrogen as the catalyst.

2. Hydrolysis of methyl acetate is catalysed by H+ ions furnished by hydrochloric acid

3. Hydrolysis of sugar is catalysed by H+ ions furnished by sulphuric acid.

Heterogeneous catalysis: A chemical reaction in which the catalyst and the reactants are
in the different phases is termed as Heterogeneous catalysis.
 Example:
1. Oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide in the presence of Pt.

2. Combination between dinitrogen and dihydrogen to form ammonia in the presence

of finely divided iron in Haber’s process.

3. Oxidation of ammonia into nitric oxide in the presence of platinum gauze in

Ostwald’s process.

4. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils in the presence of finely divided nickel as catalyst.

Adsorption Theory of Heterogeneous Catalysis

1. Diffusion of reactants to the surface of the catalyst.

2. Adsorption of reactant molecules on the surface of the catalyst.
3. Occurrence of chemical reaction on the catalyst’s surface through formation of an
intermediate
4. Desorption of reaction products from the catalyst surface, and thereby, making the
surface available again for more reaction to occur.
5. Diffusion of reaction products away from the catalyst’s surface.

Important features of solid catalysts

1. Activity: The ability of a catalyst to accelerate the rate of a chemical reaction is called
activity.

 On the surface of a solid catalyst, there exist some points such as cracks, peaks and
some imperfections where unsatisfied valencies are present
 The reacting molecules get adsorbed at these points
 These points are called active sites or active centres
 However, they must not get adsorbed so strongly that they are immobilised and other
reactants are left with no space on the catalyst’s surface for adsorption.
2. Selectivity: The ability of the catalyst to direct a reaction to produce a particular
product in greater yield is called selectivity.

 Selectivity of different catalysts for same reactants is different. For example, starting
with H2 and CO, and using different catalysts, we get different products.

Shape selective catalysis by Zeolites

 The catalytic reaction that depends upon the structure of pores of the catalyst and the
size of the reactant and product molecules is called shape selective catalysis.
 Zeolites are good shape-selective catalysts because of their honeycomb-like
structures.
 They are microporous aluminosilicates with three dimensional network of silicates in
which some silicon atoms are replaced by aluminium atoms giving Al–O–Si
framework.
 The reactions taking place in zeolites depend upon the size and shape of reactant and
product molecules as well as upon the pores and cavities of the zeolites.
 They are found in nature as well as synthesised for catalytic selectivity.
 Zeolites are being very widely used as catalysts in petrochemical industries for
cracking of hydrocarbons and isomerisation.
 An important zeolite catalyst used in the petroleum industry is ZSM-5. It converts
alcohols directly into gasoline (petrol) by dehydrating them to give a mixture of
hydrocarbons.

Enzyme Catalysis
 Enzymes are proteins which catalyses various biochemical reactions
 The catalysis brought by enzymes is called as enzyme catalysis
Example 1:

Example 2:
Example 3: Curd contains lactobacilli enzyme which catalyses the hydrolysis of milk into
curd.

Characteristics of enzyme catalysis

(i) Most highly efficient: One molecule of an enzyme may transform one million
molecules of the reactant per minute.

(ii) Highly specific nature: Each enzyme is specific for a given reaction, i.e., one catalyst
cannot catalyse more than one reaction. For example, the enzyme urease catalyses the
hydrolysis of urea only. It does not catalyse hydrolysis of any other amide.

(iii) Highly active under optimum temperature: The rate of an enzyme reaction becomes
maximum at a definite temperature, called the optimum temperature. On either side of the
optimum temperature, the enzyme activity decreases. The optimum temperature range for
enzymatic activity is 298-310K. Human body temperature being 310 K is suited for
enzyme-catalysed reactions.

(iv) Highly active under optimum pH: The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction is
maximum at a particular pH called optimum pH, which is between pH values 5-7.

(v) Increasing activity in presence of activators and co-enzymes: The enzymatic activity
is increased in the presence of certain substances, known as co-enzymes. It has been
observed that when a small non-protein (vitamin) is present along with an enzyme, the
catalytic activity is enhanced considerably.

Activators are generally metal ions such as Na+, Mn 2+, Co2+, Cu2+, etc. These metal ions,
when weakly bonded to enzyme molecules, increase their catalytic activity. Amylase in
presence of sodium chloride i.e., Na+ ions are catalytically very active.
(vi) Influence of inhibitors & poisons: Like ordinary catalysts, enzymes are also inhibited
or poisoned by the presence of certain substances. The inhibitors or poisons interact with
the active functional groups on the enzyme surface & often reduce or completely destroy
the catalytic activity of the enzymes. The use of many drugs is related to their action as
enzyme inhibitors in the body.

Mechanism of enzyme catalysis

Step 1: The reacting substance(S) binds to the enzyme to form a complex. This lowers the
energy of activation.

Step 2: Enzyme – Substrate complex breaks into products releasing the enzyme.

The high specificity of enzyme catalysts is compared to a lock and a key.

Catalysts in industries

1. In the manufacture of ammonia by Haber’s process, Fe powder is used as catalyst and

Mo as promoter.

2. In the manufacture of sulfuric acid by Contact process, Pt or vanadium pentoxide as

catalyst.

3. In the manufacture of nitric acid by Ostwald’s process, alloy of Pt and Rh is used as

catalyst
 COLLOIDS

True solutions/Crystalloids: Homogeneous mixtures in which the particle size is less

than 1 nm are called true solutions.

Suspensions: Heterogeneous mixtures in which particle size is more than 1000 nm are
called suspensions.

Colloids (In Greek, colloids = glue like): Heterogeneous mixtures in which the size of the
particle is intermediate between that of true solutions and suspensions.
Example: Smoke, milk, butter etc

Dispersion medium and dispersed phase

Dispersion medium: The continuous bulk phase (medium) in which the colloidal particle
get dispersed is called the Dispersion medium.
Dispersion phase: The particle of size 1 – 1000 nm which disperse in the dispersion
medium are called the dispersed phase.

Types of Colloids
(i) Physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium
(ii) Nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium
(iii) Type of particles of the dispersed phase.
Physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium
Gel: A colloidal solution in which liquid dispersed phase is present in a solid dispersion
medium is called gel. Eg- Cheese, Butter
Sol: A colloidal solution in which solid dispersed phase is present in a liquid dispersion
medium is called sol. Eg- Paints
Emulsions: A colloidal solution in which liquid dispersed phase is present in a liquid
dispersion medium is called gel. Eg- Milk, hair cream
Nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium
a) Lyophilic (solvent attracting) b) Lyophobic (solvent repelling).
(If water is the dispersion medium, the terms used are hydrophilic and hydrophobic)
Lyophilic colloids (solvent attracting): The colloids in which the dispersed phase has an
affinity for the medium or the solvent is called lyophilic colloids. These can be easily
prepared by mixing dispersed phase and medium. These ae reversible in nature.
Example: Starch, albumin etc
Lyophobiccolloids (solvent repelling): The colloids in which dispersed phase has no
affinity for the medium or the solvent are called lyophobic colloids (solvent repelling).
These cannot be easily prepared by mixing dispersed phase and medium. These are
irreversible in nature.
Example: Ferric chloride in water, gold sol etc.

Difference:
Type of particles of the dispersed phase
1. Multimolecular colloids: These are colloidal particles which are aggregation of many
atoms or small molecules of size less than 1nm.
Example: Gold sol, Sulphur sol
2. Macromolecular colloids: These are colloidal particles which are aggregation of
many larger sized molecules.
Example: Starch, Rubber
3. Associated colloids (micelles): These are the colloids which behave as normal, strong
electrolyte at low concentration but behave as colloidal solutions due to aggregation at
higher concentrations.
Example: Soap and Detergents
Micelle can be defined as a cluster formed by the aggregation of many molecules or ions
in a solution.
The minimum molar concentration at which the strong electrolyte particles aggregate to
form the micelle is called CMC – Critical Micelle Concentration.
Kraft Temperature Tk: The temperature above which micelle formation takes place is
called as Kraft Temperature.
Mechanism of Micelle formation
 A soap anion like has a long hydrocarbon part at one end and a polar
at the other end
 Being non polar, the hydrocarbon end is hydrophobic and the other end is hydrophilic
 At low concentrations, these anions spread on the surface of water such that their
group remains in water and the hydrocarbon end stays away.
 Hence soaps and detergents are called surface active reagents
 At higher concentration, above CMC, negative ends repel and hydrocarbon end come
closer such that they form a spherical shape.

Cleansing action of Soap

 Soap contains long chain anions, one end of which is hydrophobic and the other
end is hydrophilic.
 When soap is applied to a textile containing grease and soaked in water, the non
polar end remains in grease and the polar end in water.
  As a result the interfacial tension between grease and water decreases
 They mix well
 Grease goes into water along with dirt and textile gets clean

Preparation of colloids

A) Chemical methods

Colloidal dispersions can be prepared by chemical reactions leading to formation of

molecules by double decomposition, oxidation, reduction or hydrolysis. These
molecules then aggregate leading to formation of sols.

B) Electrical disintegration or Bredig’s Arc method

 Suitable for the preparation of metallic sols like gold/silver

 Water containing little KOH (to stabilize the sol) is taken in a vessel.
 It is kept cold by immersing the container in ice bath
 An electric arc is struck between two gold electrodes
 Heat produced by the spart causes small amount of gold to vaporize
 Due to ice bath, metal in vapour state aggregates to form gold sol

C) Peptization
 It is a method of converting a freshly prepared precipitate into colloidal state by
adding a suitable electrolyte.
 Added electrolyte is called peptizing agent
 Generally peptizing agent contains a common ion with that of the precipitate
 Eg: When freshly prepared ferric hydroxide is treated with a small amount of ferric
chloride, ferric hydroxide sol is formed.

Purification of colloidal solution

The process used for reducing the amount of impurities to a requisite minimum is known
as purification of colloidal solution.

1. Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from a colloidal solution by

means of diffusion through a suitable membrane.

Particles in a true solution can pass through the animal membrane or parchment paper or
cellophane sheet but not the colloidal particles. The apparatus used is dialyzer.

A bag of suitable membrane containing colloidal solution is suspended in a vessel

through which freshwater is flowing. The molecules and ions diffuse through the
membrane into the outer water and a pure colloidal solution is left behind.

2. Electro-dialysis: Ordinarily, the process of dialysis is quite slow. It can be made faster
by applying an electric field if the dissolved substance in the impure colloidal solution is
only an electrolyte. The process is then named electro-dialysis. The colloidal solution is
placed in a bag of suitable membrane while pure water is taken outside.
3. Ultrafiltration: It is the process of separating the colloidal particles from the solvent
and soluble solutes present in the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters, which
are permeable to all substances except the colloidal particles. Colloidal particles can pass
through ordinary filter paper because the pores are too large. However, the pores of filter
paper can be reduced in size by impregnating with collodion solution to stop the flow of
colloidal particles. The usual collodion is a 4% solution of nitrocellulose in a mixture of
alcohol and ether. An ultra-filter paper may be prepared by soaking the filter paper in a
collodion solution, hardening by formaldehyde and then finally drying it.

Properties of Colloidal solution

(i) Colligative properties: Colloidal particles being bigger aggregates, the number of
particles in a colloidal solution is comparatively small as compared to a true solution.
Hence, the values of colligative properties (osmotic pressure, lowering in vapour
pressure, depression in freezing point and elevation in boiling point) are of small order as
compared to values shown by true solutions at same concentrations.

(ii) Tyndall effect: The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles is
called Tyndall effect. When a beam of light is passed through the colloidal solution, the
path of the beam gets illuminated with bluish light viewed at right angles to the direction
of the passage of light. The path of the beam becomes visible due to the scattering of light
by colloidal particles.

(iii) Colour: The colour of colloidal solution depends on the wavelength of light
scattered by the dispersed particles. The wavelength of light further depends on the size
and nature of the particles. The colour of colloidal solution also changes with the manner
in which the observer receives the light. For example, a mixture of milk and water
appears blue when viewed by the reflected light and red when viewed by the transmitted
light. Finest gold sol is red in colour; as the size of particles increases, it appears purple
then blue and finally golden.
 (iv) Brownian movement. Continuous random zig-zag movement of colloidal
particles in a medium is called Brownian movement. It is due to the collision of
moving molecules of the dispersion medium with the colloidal particles. Particles of
the medium are very small and are moving randomly in all directions. They collide
with the colloidal particles and transfer their kinetic energy. Colloidal particles move
slowly and randomly due to unequal bombardments by the particles of the medium.
This is seen as “Brownian Movement”.

(v) Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge.
The nature of this charge is the same on all the particles in a given colloidal solution and
may be either positive or negative.

 Since the whole system has to be electrically neutral, the dispersion medium has a
charge opposite that on the colloidal particle.
 The surface of the colloidal particle contains a fixed layer of ions of the same kind. A
mobile secondary layer of oppositely charges ions remain around it in the medium. T
 Thus a potential difference is set up on the surface of the colloidal particle.
 This is called Zeta potential or electrokinetic potential

(vi) Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles under an applied electric

potential is called electrophoresis.
When an electrode potential is applied across two platinum electrodes dipped in colloidal
solution, the colloidal particles move towards one or the other electrodes. Positively
charged particles move towards the cathode and negatively charged particles move
towards the anode. By noting the direction of motion, we can find the charge on the
colloidal particles.
(vii) Coagulation: The stability of the lyophobic sols is due to the presence of charge on
colloidal particles. If, somehow, the charge is removed, the particles will come nearer to
each other to form aggregates (or coagulate) and settle down under the force of gravity.

The phenomenon by which the small colloidal particles grow bigger and finally
precipitate out is called coagulation or precipitation or flocculation.

 Coagulation of lyophobic sols can be done by adding another colloid of opposite

charge, subjecting it to repeated dialysis, boiling of colloidal solution, by
electrophoresis or by adding an electrolyte etc.
 Coagulation of lyophilic sols can be done (i) by adding an electrolyte and (ii) by
adding a suitable solvent. When solvents such as alcohol and acetone are added to
hydrophilic sols, the dehydration of dispersed phase occurs. Under this condition, a
small quantity of electrolyte can bring about coagulation

Hardy Schulze rule: Ion of opposite charge is effective in coagulation of a sol. Higher
the valency of the flocculating ion added, greater is the coagulating power of the ion.
Eg (1): In the coagulation of negatively charged sol, the coagulation power is in the
order: Na+< Ba+2< Al+3.
Eg (2): In the coagulation of positively charged sol, the coagulating power is in the
order: [Fe (CN6)4-]>PO43->SO42->Cl-
Higher the charge on the flocculating ion, lesser is the amount of the electrolyte
required to coagulate a sol.

Protection of Colloids

 A lyophobic sol becomes more stable by the addition of a little of lyophilic sol to it.
 The process of protecting the lyophobic sol from precipitation by the electrolyte due
to previous addition of a little lyophilic sol is called protection of lyophobic sols.
 The added lyophilic colloid is called protective colloid.
 Example: Gelatin added to gold sol to protect its precipitation by NaCl.

Emulsions: These are the colloids in which both dispersed phase and dispersion medium
are liquids.

a) Oil in water (O/W) emulsions - Milk

b) Water in oil (W/O) emulsions – Butter (melted)

Colloids around us

(i) Blue colour of the sky: Dust particles along with water suspended in air scatter blue
light which reaches our eyes and the sky looks blue to us.

(ii) Fog, mist and rain: When a large mass of air containing dust particles, is cooled
below its dewpoint, the moisture from the air condenses on the surfaces of these particles
forming fine droplets. These droplets being colloidal in nature continue to float in air in
the form of mist or fog.

(iii) Food articles: Milk, butter, halwa, ice creams, fruit juices, etc., are all colloids in one
form or the other.

(iv) Blood: It is a colloidal solution of an albuminoid substance. The styptic action of

alum and ferric chloride solution is due to coagulation of blood forming a clot which
stops further bleeding.

(v) Soils: Fertile soils are colloidal in nature in which humus acts as a protective colloid.
On account of colloidal nature, soils adsorb moisture and nourishing materials.

(vi) Formation of delta: River water is a colloidal solution of clay. Sea water contains a
number of electrolytes. When river water meets the sea water, the electrolytes present in
sea water coagulate the colloidal solution of clay resulting in its deposition with the
formation of delta.

Applications of colloids
(i) Electrical precipitation of smoke: Smoke is a colloidal solution of solid particles such
as carbon, arsenic compounds, dust, etc., in air. The smoke, before it comes out from the
chimney, is led through a chamber containing plates having a charge opposite to that
carried by smoke particles. The particles on coming in contact with these plates lose their
charge and get precipitated. The particles thus settle down on the floor of the chamber.

(ii) Purification of drinking water: The water obtained from natural sources often
contains suspended impurities. Alum is added to such water to coagulate the suspended
impurities and make water fit for drinking purposes.

(iii) Medicines: Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature. For example, argyrol is a
silver sol used as an eye lotion. Colloidal antimony is used in curing kalaazar. Colloidal
gold is used for intramuscular injection. Milk of magnesia, an emulsion, is used for
stomach disorders. Colloidal medicines are more effective because they have large
surface area and are therefore easily assimilated.

(iv) Tanning: Animal hides are colloidal in nature. When a hide, which has positively
charged particles, is soaked in tannin, which contains negatively charged colloidal
particles, mutual coagulation takes place. This results in the hardening of leather. This
process is termed as tanning. Chromium salts are also used in place of tannin.

(v) Cleansing action of soaps and detergents (discussed previously)

(vi) Photographic plates and films: Photographic plates or films are prepared by coating
an emulsion of the light sensitive silver bromide in gelatin over glass plates or celluloid
films.

(vii) Rubber industry: Latex is a colloidal solution of rubber particles which are
negatively charged. Rubber is obtained by coagulation of latex.

(viii) Industrial products: Paints, inks, synthetic plastics, rubber, graphite lubricants,
cement, etc., are all colloidal solutions.

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