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UGANDA TECHNICA COLLEGE - BUSHENYI

COMMUNICATION SKILLS STUDY NOTES

Communication Skills equips the learner with writing and inter-personal skills of communication
and helps the learner to communicate effectively to team mates and the public. The specific
objectives of teaching communication skills are:

(i) To enable students gain skills in communication.

(ii) To enable students to practice and demonstrate communication skills in general and
in their areas of specialization.
(iii) To enable students to gain skills in report writing.

By the end of the Sub-Module, the learner should have competency in

 Describing the communication process
 Identifying and explaining forms of communication, giving advantages and
disadvantages of each
 Identifying and minimizing barriers to effective communication
 Illustrating the communication flow in an organization
 Making and taking notes
 Writing a technical report, an application letter and curriculum vitae
 Presenting a seminar or workshop paper
 Writing business letters, memos and loose minutes
 Application of listening skills in day to day activities
 Preparing questions for oral interviews
 Preparing and presenting a speech
 Organizing and conducting a meeting
 Conducting an interview
 Doing an interview
 Communicating well with clients, supervisors and authorities
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COURSE OUTLINE

SUB MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS

- Definitions of Communication
- Objectives of Communication
- The Communication Process
- Types of Communication, (Oral & Written). Advantages of Oral and Written
Communication
- Verbal & Non verbal Communication
- Forms of Communication: Barriers to effective communication, Consequences of not
understanding or getting a different meaning.
- Communication flows: Upward, downward and horizontal Communication

SUB MODULE 2: WRITING SKILLS

- Notes making: Importance of making notes, methods of making notes and how to make
good notes.
- Notes taking: Importance of taking notes and how to take god notes
- Technical report writing: Importance of reports, characteristics of a good report and
elements of a report.
- Application letter and Curriculum Vitae writing.
- Seminar and workshop paper presentation; aspects to consider when preparing and
delivering a paper at a seminar or workshop.
- Managing question and answer session in a seminar or workshop.
- Writing business letters: Importance of business letters, principles of effective letter
writing and elements of a business letter.
- Memo Writing.

SUB MODULE 3: ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

- Listening: Importance of listening, stages of listening and how to improve on the

listening skills
- Speaking: Interpersonal and public speaking, characteristics of a good speech and profile
of good speaker.
- Conducting Meetings; Types of meeting, roles of the Chairperson, Secretary and
members in a meeting, agenda, terms used in meetings, and minutes.
- Interviews: Types of interviews, preparing for an interview, handling questions in an
interview and organizing an interview.
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INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Definition of Communication:

The word communication is derived from the Latin word “Communis/Communicare” which
means to share or participate. Communication can be defined as the ability of conveying
information through speech, signs and signals, writings or behavior. It can also be defined as a
process of providing required information to the concerned person(s) or as the exchange of
thoughts, opinions, and information through speech, writings or signs. Communication can also
be defined as a process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more
people. In management, communication involves transmission and accurate replication of ideas
ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational
goals.

A good communicator at the workplace is one who is not only able to convey information to
other people clearly and simply but also one who is able to listen so as to understand instructions,
learn new things, ask questions and read situations.

Communication is not always effective. It can only be said to be effective if the intended
message is understood by the receiver. Effective communication therefore should stimulate
action or encourage the receiver to think in new ways.

A skill can be defined as the learned ability to carry out an activity. While skills are often
learned, some skills are in born while others are generated from practice or aptitude. Every
human being is born with some ability to learn communication skills but these can be made
better through practice either formally or informally.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is an essential element of life. Every living thing (including animals and plants)
has some need and ability to communicate. For human beings, communication is important both
for social interaction and for work related activities. It is the life blood of every society and an
essential engine in the corporate world. No business can develop if there is no effective internal
and external communication. Effective communication is important in all aspects of life such as
education, religion, entertainment, politics, inter-personal relationships etc.

THE PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION

The main objectives or purpose of communication in the work place can be summarized as
follows:

(i) To provide/ obtain information. This includes getting information to and from the public
about the activities and products of the business, advertising, getting information to and from
workers to enable them carry out their assignments and getting/ giving information about the
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strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the business. One may also need to know
from an organization about the existence of job opportunities or administrators in an organization
may need to pass on written or oral information to their staff or to the public.

(ii) Providing/ obtaining advice. Workers need to be advised from time to time about personal
challenges. They may also on the other hand have some advice to offer to their colleagues,
subordinates or even their bosses. Sometimes some advice may be sensitive and if not delivered
tactfully, it may be misunderstood or be counter-productive.

(iii) Counseling: Communication may also be aimed at counseling. While counseling is similar
to advising, counseling is viewed to be more technical and professional and is also used for
people who have “already” gone astray. A good counselor has to have very good
communication skills for the message to be understood and taken seriously.

(iv) Giving orders/ directives: Sometimes it is necessary to give orders or directives. An order is
an authoritative communication (written or oral) that directs its recipient to act and is usually
given by a senior to a subordinate. Orders need not be given in anger but must be clear enough
to avoid misinterpretation or misunderstanding. A good order should be clear, specific and
complete and possible to execute.

(v) Giving suggestions: Suggestions are views from workers (often subordinates) about how
best the objectives of the organization can be achieved. Suggestions must be packaged in such a
way that they sound realistic, plausible and convincing. The language must be refined so that a
suggestion is not misunderstood as an attack or a destructive criticism.

(vi) Criticizing: Criticism, especially constructive criticism, is a necessary ingredient in any

developing organization. Criticism may come from within an organization or from without.
Criticism should be delivered in such a way that it is not perceived to be borne out of ill intention
or sabotage. Effective criticism and advice promotes understanding and it can be a two way
process if the subordinate staff are accorded freedom.

(vii) Persuasion: This is an effort to influence others to consider your suggestion. It is used a lot
in marketing, religion, politics and even relationships. It is a preferable alternative to coercion
(the use of force) or repression and it requires a lot of tactfulness and care so that the person
persuading is perceived as honest and confident.

(viii) Education: Education is another important objective of communication. Sharing of

knowledge is essential to success in any endeavor in life. Imparting and acquiring knowledge,
whether in the formal or informal setting requires good communication skills both on the part of
the learner and the teacher.

(ix) Motivation: Workers need to be encouraged about the usefulness of their efforts both to
themselves and to the society. Effective communication in an organization should increase
productivity in an organization through effective and efficient decision making, coordinated
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workflow, smooth supervision, good co-worker relationships and promotion of products and
services. Some people are expert motivational speakers and can be hired to talk to workers in
order to raise their morals and keep them focused on the objectives of the organization.

(x) Management of Discipline: This includes communicating codes of conduct to staff, warning
(may be oral or written), suspension and dismissal. The communication given should always be
clear, specific and as polite as possible. For instance, a dismissal letter can contain a statement
thanking the victim for his contribution to the organization.

(xi) Professional Communication: Some people are professional communicators. Such people
engage in communication as a profession. Examples of such people include actors, TV & Radio
presenters and public relations personnel.

(xii) Making Requests: This includes formal and informal requests. Examples are requesting for
information, action, jobs etc.

(xiii) Socialization: While most communication at the workplace is work related, communication
between workers is also important for enhancing interpersonal relationships between workers.
Research shows that cordial co-worker relations promote job satisfaction and productivity at
work.

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is a process because it involves several steps and elements. It can also be
viewed as a cycle because it involves feedback in order for it to be effective or complete. The
major elements of the communication process are the following:

The Source:

This is the origin, or author of the information or content or message to be communicated.

The Transmitter: Sometimes the source of the message may delegate transmission to another
person for instance when a minister reads a speech on behalf of the President. In most cases
however, the transmitter is the same as the source.

The Message:

Once a person identifies a need to communicate, he/she formulates the content and chooses the
appropriate words or methods to use in order to pass on the message using certain codes. This
process is called codifying or encoding. Codifying or encoding is like packaging the message by
the sender. The most commonly used codes are words (spoken or written) but one may also use
non-verbal codes such as body gestures. It is important that both the sender and the receiver
understand the codes used in the same way to avoid a breakdown in communication.

The Medium:
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Once the message is packaged, then an appropriate medium is chosen. This is the channel of
communication. Examples of common media are the written medium, oral medium and the non-
verbal medium. The suitability of the medium depends on the communication situation and other
factors such as the available time, the distance between the receiver and the sender.

The Receiver:

This refers to the person(s) for whom the message is meant. When the message is received by
the receiver (listener or reader), the receiver has to decode the message or unpack it. In order for
communication to be successful, the receiver (decoder) should have the ability to decode the
message in a way that the sender intended it to be understood.

The Feedback:

After decoding the message, the receiver provides a feed back that should go back to the source/
sender in order for the process of communication to be complete. Thus the process of
communication is based on the following key elements.

1. An information source/sender or author that formulates and produces a message. When

the message is ready, it is then transmitted through an appropriate medium. In most cases,
the source carries out the transmission of the message. In some cases however, the author
may delegate the transmission function to another person.
2. A transmitter, who encodes the message into signals and passes it on to the receiver.
Encoding involves careful choice of appropriate words and or gestures which should be
mutually intelligible to both the sender and the receiver if the communication has to be
effective.
3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission. This may be oral, written on
non-verbal.
4. A receiver, who “decodes” (reconstructs) and receives the message from the signal. This
can also be referred to as the destination, listener or audience ( in case of oral
communication) or reader (in case of written communication).
5. A feedback which is provided by the receiver and received by the source. The feedback
may be in form of words, actions, change of behavior/ attitude or even silence. At this
stage in the cycle of communication, the receiver assumes the role of the sender while the
sender becomes the receiver. The interchange of roles is continuous when the
communication is of an interactive nature.

The following diagrams illustrate the process of communication.

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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

There are four major types or media of communication namely

(i) Written Communication

(ii) Oral Communication

(iii) Visual Communication

(iv) Audio-Visual Communication

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WRITTTEN COMMUNICATION

Writing is communication using signs made on paper or more recently, on an electronic screen.
Over time, writing has evolved from the use of pictograms that were initially inscribed or cut out
on stones. Later, writing began to appear on papyrus, paper and clay. Currently, writing is also
possible using electronic equipment such as computers.

ADVANTAGES/ MERITS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

One may choose to use written communication for a variety of reasons, some of which are
outlined below

(1) Written communication is the most appropriate for conveying technical, statistical or detailed
information. The reader may find it easier to appreciate, understand and recall information that
is presented in written form. Besides, it is easy to supplement written information with visual
aids such as charts, graphs, tables and diagrams.

(2) It may be easy to reach the intended recipient using written information. A person who may
not be physically present can be able to read a written document that is sent to him or her. We
are also able to read historical documents that were written by our long departed ancestors.

(3) Written documents provide proof of communication and are legally binding. Important
documents such as laws, minutes of meetings etc need to be preserved in writing.

(4) One can ensure confidentiality of what is communicated especially if the written document is
specifically addressed and delivered to a specific recipient and labeled “confidential”.

(5) Written documents provide the reader an opportunity to read the document again or to review
the material at a convenient time and place. In situations where a reply is required, the reader
has an opportunity to refer to the document which enables him to give a complete and accurate
response.

(6) Writing allows the sender/ author to have sufficient time to plan what one intends to
communicate, thereby choosing the most appropriate words and including every necessary detail.
Written information is therefore accurate and precise.

(7) Writing may save time and money because it may be cheaper and time saving than making a
personal visit or using a phone call.

(8) Most people attach greater importance to written communication than to verbal
communication. Some situations therefore require written communication e.g appointment
letters for jobs.

(9) With written communication, duplication of the same information is possible therefore the
same information can reach many people in different places and at different times.
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(10) Written communication facilitates assignment and delegation of responsibilities through job
descriptions and directives. For execution of duty and accountability purposes, the person to
whom duty is delegated will refer to the delegated responsibilities in the delegation document.

LIMITATIONS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

(1) It can be time consuming both in the process of writing and the process of moving it from the
sender to the receiver.

(2) It is costly because it involves use of writing materials such as pens, computers, printers,
paper etc

(3) Quick clarification is not possible because in case of failure to understand by the reader, the
writer may not be present to clarify to the reader.

(4) It is prone to errors e.g typographical errors, errors of omission and commission, and
forgeries. This can lead to abuse of office, embezzlement, impersonation and cheating.

(5) It is limited to the literate and those with good eyesight. Although, there is a specialized
format of writing for the blind known as Braille, it requires specialized training which may not
be available or affordable to all people with sight impairment.

(6) It is sometimes too formal to promote friendliness. It is not appropriate to use in situations
where one wants to promote and maintain personal friendship and informal comradeship.

ORAL COMMUNICATION

Oral communication is the most natural and most commonly used form of communication. It
involves speaking and listening. Examples include face-to face conversation, telephone
communication, Radio and TV broadcasts, interviews, discussions, seminars, workshops,
meetings, speeches, announcements, press conferences etc

MERITS/ADVANTAGES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

(1) Oral communication saves time, especially in situations when action is required to be taken
immediately. Talking expedites work and makes people do what they are told sooner than any
other form of communication.

(2) Oral communication may also save money since the alternative of writing not only requires
money for writing materials but it also requires time.

(3) Oral communication is a more natural form of communication. This makes it a more
appropriate medium for persuasion control and advice because it has a “personal” and friendly
touch.
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(4) The speaker is able to get immediate feedback about how the message is being received,
whether it is being appreciated or understood. In case the speaker notices some problem, he/she
can quickly adjust by choosing simpler words or a different strategy such as using more
examples and clarifying.

(5) The speaker can supplement oral communication with paralinguistic devices such as
intonation, stress and speed of speaking in order to enhance the message that is being delivered
orally.

(6) It is useful and most appropriate when communicating to groups e.g in meetings,
conferences, assemblies etc.

(7) Oral communication is particularly appropriate for the illiterate and those with sight
impairment.

(8) Good speaking skills are often associated with competence. A speaker who delivers a good
speech off the cuff is more likely to be respected and preferred over one who delivers a written
speech.

(9) Oral communication promotes a high level of understanding and transparency since it is
interpersonal.

(10) There is no rigidity in oral communication. Flexibility that characterizes oral

communication allows for possible change of decisions.

(11) Oral communication is best for problem resolution through talking.

(12) It builds self-esteem of both the speaker and the audience.

(13) It is a good source of entertainment to eradicate boredom at the work place.

(14) Oral communication can be recorded for future reference.

(15) Unlike written communication, oral communication is spontaneous and therefore more
likely to reflect the true feelings of the speaker.

(16) It helps in avoiding delays, bureaucracy (red tape) and other formalities. Less preparation
time is required as most oral communication is instantaneous and spontaneous.
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LIMITATIONS/ DISADVANTAGES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

(1) It requires that the communicator and the receiver be in the same place or there is need for
connection using mechanical or electronic devices.

(2) It is not suitable for lengthy or complicated messages because there is a danger of missing out
some vital details either by the communicator or the listener.

(3) It is temporary in nature and is likely to be forgotten over time unless it is preserved by
recording it. This makes it difficult to be referred to gain in future.

(4) It may be difficult to rely on oral messages as their validity is compromised by lack of a
record.

(5) It does not allow the speaker sufficient time to prepare and one may end up saying what they
did not intend to say or leaving out vital details. On the other hand, there is a possibility of
misunderstanding on the part of the listener.

(6) It is difficult to assign responsibility for mistakes and it is possible for the speaker to deny
what they said or the listener to deny what they heard.

(7) There is a likelihood of distortion of the message if it is passed on along a hierarchy or chain
of command.

(8) It may encourage hasty responses that have not been carefully thought about and may be
regretted afterwards.

(9) It is difficult to repeat or duplicate the same message on a different occasion or to a different
listener.

(10) Information retention is difficult because most people are only able to retain 20% of what
they listen to.

(11) It is prone to selective listening. Some listeners may choose not to listen to certain parts of
the message or may miss it because of some distraction.

(12) The message may be affected or influenced by para-verbal elements such as tone, speaker’s
personality, altitude of listener’s to the speaker, weather, situation etc.

(13) Some speakers may take too long and engage in verbosity thereby wasting time.

(14) It is informal and less respected than written communication.

(15) It requires maximum attentiveness on the part of the audience.

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NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal communication involves communication without using words. Examples include

body language (gestures), facial expressions, use of signs (eg road signs), pictures, colours,
dressing, posture, distance, eye contact, touching etc. Non-verbal communication represents two
thirds of all communication and comprises both conscious and unconscious gestures.

ADVANTAGES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

(1) Non-verbal communication supplements and gives emphasis to verbal communication. In

that way, the meaning intended by the speaker through the use of words is accentuated by way of
non-verbal communication.

(2) It may be useful for communicating with someone who is hard of hearing or unfamiliar with
the language used or babies who are unable to speak yet.

(3) It can be used in noisy environments or places where silence is supposed to be maintained.

(4) Non-verbal communication is usually spontaneous and does not lie. In case of doubt of the
honesty of a speaker, it is always good to look out for non-verbal clues which may give the true
intent and message of a speaker.

DISADVANTAGES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

(1) It may betray the intentions of the speaker by revealing the inner feelings which may
contradict the words spoken. For instance one may say he is a very confident person at a job
interview when the non-verbal communication coming from him indicates the contrary.

(2) Over-using gestures may cause boredom or distract listeners. When gesturing is overused it
may be considered as an inappropriate mannerism that may spoil the message.

(3) Different cultures may interpret some forms of body language differently eg hugging,
handshakes, kissing. If used wrongly, it may be misinterpreted.

(4) It may not be recorded permanently and it may be difficult to refer to it again.

(5) It is not possible to use if the listener cannot see or is not in the same location with the
speaker.
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FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

(i) Verbal Communication: This is communication that involves the use of words that constitute
the content of the message. The success of such communication is determined largely by the
choice and arrangement of words used coupled by the ability of the listener/ reader to understand
the words used. Verbal communication may either be oral or written.

(ii) Non Verbal Communication: This refers to the message that is sent through body language
and other non verbal media such as colours, signs, dressing, actions e.g crying (for joy or for
pain), laughing (for happiness or amusement). Others include hairstyles, architecture, clothing
etc. Examples of body language in communication include facial expressions, postures and
gestures. Facial expression can show one’s state of mind, happiness, sadness, confidence, love,
hatred, disapproval etc. It is said that Non verbal communication accounts for about 55%-93%
of what is perceived by the listener. In the event that non verbal contradicts verbal
communication, the listener will tend to believe the non verbal message. For example, if one is
telling lies and the non verbal clues betray him/her, then he/she will be disbelieved.

(iv) Para-Verbal Communication: Also referred to as paralinguistic communication, this

refers to the quality or tone of the speaker which has a bearing on the meaning sent
across. The same words may convey a different meaning depending on the
intonation, pitch, and stress.

Consider a statement like;

‘I did not call you an idiot’

Such a statement can have different meanings depending on which word in the statement is
stressed.

(a) I did not call you an idiot- means the speaker denying that he is the one that called yo an idiot
but someone else may have called you so.

(b) I did not call you an idiot- means the speaker is denying that he called you an idiot, may be
he called you something else but you misunderstood.

(c) I did not call you an idiot – means the speaker might have called someone else an idiot but
not you.

(d) I did not call you an idiot – means the speaker perhaps called you some thing else but not an
idiot.

When listening or reading, it is important to identify the tone of the communication. For
example is the tone literal or metaphorical, is it satirical, serious or humorous? For example,
someone can say ‘Thank You’ but the same words can have either a literal or an ironical
meaning.
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EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Effective communication occurs when the desired effect is achieved and maintained by a
communication act. In order for communication to be effective, the following should be taken
into consideration.

(1) The speaker or writer should determine the purpose of his/her communication and use the
most appropriate means to achieve the purpose.

(2) The audience (readers or listeners) should be taken into consideration in terms of their
interests, competencies, age, gender, beliefs etc.

(3) The message should be developed and organized in a clear, concise, correct and logical way.

(4) The communicator should develop and maintain a positive attitude both towards the subject
and the audience. One should show respect to the audience.

(5) The communicator should be honest and speak or write the truth and avoid unnecessary
exaggerations or distortion of facts.

(6) One should use language that is gender neutral and free of political or social bias eg
chairperson instead of chairman, visual impairment instead of blindness, disabled instead of lame
etc.

(7) One should make ample preparation so as to include all facts and be knowledgeable.

(8) Effective communication should be courteous, clear, complete, concise, correct and
consistent; (the 6C’s).

Courteous communication is polite, friendly and respectful and this can be achieved through use
of courteous language through using words like please, thank you etc. Clarity is achieved
through use of simple language and logical arrangement of the message while correctness is
achieved through doing thorough research to get one’s facts and being honest. Completeness is
achieved by ensuring that all essential information is included. For example, when writing an
invitation for a meeting, ensure that all essential information is included. A good way to test for
completeness of a message is by putting it to the 5Ws and 1H test i.e who, what, where, when,
why & how?

Conciseness refers to the ability to communicate using as few words as possible to communicate
a message in a clear way while correctness refers to getting your facts correct but also editing out
typographical and other errors. Consistence refers to ensuring that the message does not
contradict itself e.g addressing a male as ‘she’.

(9) To communicate effectively, one should avoid the use of jargon, colloquial and pompous
language and stick to simple language.
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(10) One should avoid ambiguity. Consider a sentence like ‘Ronald told Robert that he was
admitted at the University’. This sentence does not clearly show who was admitted at the
University.

(11) One should be presentable in dress and manners and should have integrity so as to inspire
confidence among listeners.

(12) One should have self control; i. e the ability to know what to say and what to withhold
depending on the circumstances.

(13) One should keep it short & interesting. ‘A good speech is like a mini skirt, short enough to
arouse interest but long enough to cover the subject’

(14) One should adopt a suitable tone, voice modulation pronunciation and accent and proper
choice of words.

(15) One should organize the message well; have a good and interesting introduction, logical
arrangement of points building up to a climax or memorable conclusion.

(16) One can make good use of figurative language (such as imagery, proverbs etc) and humor.
This style is more suitable for informal communication.

(17)One should maintain good posture and eye contact with listeners. This ensures that feedback
from the listeners is taken in and it guides the way the communication proceeds.

BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication can be rendered ineffective by various barriers. A communication barrier is

anything that impedes the free flow of communication. Barriers can occur at any stage during
the process of communication causing a total or partial breakdown in communication

The following are common communication barriers

(1) Wrong choice of medium: For example choosing the oral medium when one should have
used the written medium can lead to a breakdown in communication.

(2) Physical barriers: These include things like noise (eg in factories). Note that the term “noise”
in communication is sometimes used to refer to all kinds of interference such as ineligible
handwriting, poor equipment etc.

(3) Time and Distance: These can be a barrier to communication especially if the sender is not in
the same location as the receiver.

(4) Semantic barriers: This is in reference to the meaning of words used. If the listener/reader is
unable to decipher/decode the intended meaning, this may result in communication breakdown.
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Consider the example of an employee who is given a letter to go and ‘burn’ a copy out of it and
instead he goes and puts it in a fire.

(5) Socio- Psychological barriers: These include attitudes, opinions, emotions, biases,
assumptions and competence especially of the listener/reader. Sometimes a listener ‘hears’ what
he/she wants to hear instead of what has been said. Other times listeners may not pay good
attention or appreciate listening to views that are contrary to what they already believe in.
Listeners who are in a very sad or very excited state of mind may fail to listen objectively.

(6) Information overload/underload: When a person is bombarded with a lot of information at the
same time, there is a likelihood of misinterpreting, forgetting or overlooking some of the
information. On the other hand giving insufficient information is equally bad.

(7) Lack of attention: This may be caused by distraction, boredom, pain, anger or sheer lack of
interest.

(8) Bureaucracy: When information flow has to pass through a complex heirachy, sometimes
some of the information gets lost or distorted along the way.

(9) Lack of confidence in the speaker: This is likely to lead subjectivity and a tendency to
disagree/criticize the speaker instead of paying attention.

(10) Cultural barriers: When the speaker and listener are from different cultures, some words or
gestures may be understood differently e.g in some Asian cultures, nodding vertically means no
while it means yes in most other cultures.

OVERCOMING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

Communication barriers can be overcome through;

(1) Careful choice of medium that is appropriate to the communication situation.

(2) Choice of appropriate environment to create a conducive environment for listening/reading.

(3) Choice of simple and unambiguous words.

(4) Adopting the right frame of mind and avoiding being subjective ie being open to new ideas
and information and agreeing to disagree if it becomes necessary.

(5) Avoiding information overload by giving few instructions or a little information at a time. In
case the message is complex, one should develop it systematically by moving from the known to
the unknown or from the simple to the complex.

(6) The speaker/writer should endeavour to catch and retain the attention of the listener/reader by
trying to have the communication as interesting as possible. On the other hand, the
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listener/reader should avoid distraction by external stimuli such as telephones, music etc in order
to concentrate on listening.

(7) Bureaucracy should be minimized as much as possible so that information flow is quick and
effective.

(8) The speaker/writer should build confidence by doing ample research so as to be

knowledgeable. This way, the listeners/ readers will be inspired to have confidence in the
speaker/writer thereby creating interest in the subject.

(9) The speaker/writer should take into consideration the culture, age, interests, opinions and
attitudes of the listeners to avoid being on a collision course with them. This does not
necessarily mean saying only what the listeners want but if one wants to say something that may
displease the audience, it must be done tactfully.

(10) The speaker/writer must avoid stereotyping i.e holding assumptions about certain subjects
or groups of people e.g assuming that some ethnic groups behave in a certain way or have certain
beliefs. This will ensure that while communicating to them one will not tend to base him/herself
on those assumptions. Similarly, the listener should avoid being subjective or holding certain
biases about the speaker.

CONSEQUENCES OF INEFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Ineffective communication happens when there is failure to get or understand the meaning that
was intended or when a different meaning from the intended one is inferred.

In business, ineffective communication can result in a number of negative consequences, some

of which are the following:

(1) Lower efficiency: This is because there will be delays in implementation and sometimes the
need to repeat or revise some communication.

(2) Decreased employee morale and productivity: If employees lack information their morale
will be low and productivity will be affected.

(3) Mistakes: Ineffective communication could result in costly mistakes and wastage of
resources.

(4) Poor publicity and public relations: Even if the business is doing well internally, if
communication within and outside the organization is not effective, the public may never get to
know the true worth of the business and this may result in poor sales and poor performance in the
long run.
 18

(5) Ineffective communication affects interpersonal relationships which in turn affect

organizational performance. It also leads to lack of trust between workers and management. It
leads to tension, speculation and creates fertile ground for rumor-mongering.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION FLOWS

INTERNAL Vs EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Communication in an organization may be classified or the basis of whether it is within an

organization or between organizations. Communication within the same organization can be
termed as internal communication or intra-office communication while that between different
organizations or offices is termed as inter-office communication.

COMMUNICATION FLOW

There are three main directions of flow of communication namely, the downward flow, upward
flow and horizontal flow.

The downward flow is where information moves downwards from top management through
middle management down to the lowest cadres in the organization. Such information is in most
cases in form of directives, information and instructions.

The upward flow is where information moves from the lower cadres through the middle cadres
up to the top management through established channels. Such information includes feedback,
reports, inquiries, complaints etc.

Horizontal flow is when information exchange takes place between persons of the same level or
rank in the same or different departments.

DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

Downward communication makes use of both the oral and written communication medium. In
order for communication to be effective, managers should be well informed of the objectives,
activities and achievements of the organization so as to be able to effectively communicate to
their surbodinates. They should work according to a communication plan so as to avoid
incidences of a communication gap or over-communication. Middle managers should be given
responsibility to initiate and effect some of the communication so that authority is not over-
concentrated at the top. Information should be passed on to the right persons in the heirachy.

As much as possible, top managers should avoid bypassing middle managers to communicate to
lower cadres as this may lead to middle managers feeling they are being overlooked. However,
there may be incidences where direct communication from a top manager to a lower cadre may
be inevitable or necessary.
 19

Downward communication may have some short comings including:

(i) Under communication or over communication. This is a situation where a superior may talk
or communicate too little or too much.

(ii) Delays: In a big organization, when communication has to move through several steps, this
may lead to unnecessary delays characteristic of bureaucracy/red tape.

(iii) Loss of information: When information has to flow through many stages, there is a risk of
some of it being lost on the way so that eventually only part of information reaches the last
destination. Some researchers suggest that only 20% of the communication sent downward
through five levels of management gets to the 5th level down.

(iv) Distortion of information: Information sent downwards may be distorted through

exaggeration, under statements and twisting of facts as it is passed along.

(v) Resistance: Downward communication is usually associated with authoritarianism

since surbodinates are only receptacles of information and have no chance of
participating in the decision making. This may trigger resistance since it is natural for
human beings to resist ideas where they have had no input.

UPWARD COMMUNICATION

Upward communication is important for providing feedback from lower cadres to top managers
and giving suggestions and constructive criticism. It also enables lower cadres to air their
grievances and make their contributions and it creates an atmosphere for harmony and cohesion.

Upward communication can be through meetings, office visits, suggestion boxes, social
gatherings, letters, reports etc. Some of the limitations of upward communication are:-

(i) Most employees are reluctant to initiate upward communication because they fear to be
misunderstood.

(ii) Some employees are always finding an excuse to minimize the amount of work they are
required to do. They may speak ill of a new innovation or program if it is likely to require them
to put it more effort even if such an innovation may be aimed at improving overall productivity.

(iii) Middle managers may edit communication originating from their subordinates especially if
such information is likely to appear to expose their weaknesses.

(iv) Some of the content in upward communication may be malicious and ill intentioned.

(v) Upward communication moves against gravity. It is more natural for information, ideas and
instructions to flow downwards rather than upwards.
 20

HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION

Horizontal communication (between persons at the same level) is the most commonly used type
of communication in any organization. One of the most common forms of horizontal
communication is the “grape-vine’. This refers to informal, conversational exchanges between
employees. Sometimes it may be about the job or it may even be mere gossiping or rumour
mongering. While the grapevine is not a reliable source of information in any organization, it is
nevertheless not to be ignored since it may provide useful information that may never have come
out through the official/established channels of communication. The grapevine is sometimes
also referred to as informal communication.

Horizontal communication may also be through formal communication channels. Same level
managers may exchange e-mails, memos, office letters or share ideas in official meetings.
 21

MODULE II: WRITING SKILLS

NOTE MAKING AND NOTE TAKING

Note taking involves writing down most of what one hears or reads in its original form without
actually processing the information while note making is a more active process that involves
selecting, analyzing and summarizing what one listens to or reads.

Notes are important for future reference and for aiding memory. Notes are usually written in
summary form, taking into consideration only the key points.

TAKING/ MAKING GOOD NOTES

(1) One needs to listen attentively and pay attention to details and clues.

(2) To save time and be able to capture as much as possible, one can make use of abbreviations.
The abbreviations used must be familiar to the reader so that when referring to them, one does
not get confused.

Examples of common abbreviations used in notes

& = and, No. or # = number, = Equal to or is the same as, b4 = before, ref = reference

> = greater than, < = less than, i.e = that is, Vs = versus or as opposed to

(3) The notes should be organized logically and systematically according the different parts of
the subject.

(4) The notes should be kept in an orderly and safe way so that they do not get disorganized, lost,
eaten by rats or used as waste paper.

(5) Good notes should be concise, brief and accurate. One does not have to write down
everything heard or read but should be selective and pick out the important points.

(6) Good notes should be well organized by highlighting keywords/points, using headings,
subheadings and numbering.

(7) Margins should be left blank for future comments or additional notes. One can also leave
space and try to pick up the material missed later through reading, from colleagues or common
sense.

(8) One can include diagrams, charts and tables if necessary. By use of a diagram or chart, one
can be able to summarize a lot of information.

(9) One can make use of mnemonics and groupings to aid memory. Mnemonics are words used
to group concepts or facts for easy memory e. g BODMAS.
 22

(10) One can also use highlighting, annotating and underlining. Highlighting can be done using
a pen of different colours, bolding etc while annotating involves making brief notes in the
margin. This usually happens during revision.

(11) Notes need to be reviewed periodically by the owner to achieve lasting memory.

(12) In case one needs to write a list of references later, one should take note of the particulars
of a book that they have noted material from at the time of taking the notes. Important
information includes the author’s name, the name of the journal if it is an article in a journal, the
place of publication, the date of publication, the publisher and the web address if it is from an
internet source.

(13) Where possible, one can record the lecture and make notes later while listening at their own
pace.

(14) One should ask questions for clarification where they do not understand if one is listening to
a physical speaker.

TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

Importance of Report Writing

A report is a document intended to convey to the reader some findings, conclusions or

recommendations based on facts or circumstances which have been investigated.

Learning about report writing helps one to use the skills acquired not only for the present course
requirements but also later in life when one may need to write or read reports. Reports,
depending on the purpose and subject, may be short or long, formal or informal, oral or written.

The length of a report depends on a number of factors such as the purpose of the report, the
scope, the time available, the nature of the readers/consumers and the resources available.
Informal reports are typically meat for internal use in an organization. They are usually brief and
do not require a lot of formalities such as table of contents, introduction, conclusion etc. The
language used may be informal as well and contractions and abbreviations may be used provided
they can be understood by the reader. Informal reports contain only the important facts and may
not require a lot of details.

On the other hand, formal reports are usually meant for top management or supervisors. The
language of an official report is usually carefully selected and colloquialism is not permissible.
A strict format is usually adhered to as prescribed and the report contains formal sections such as
the title page, Table of Contents, Abstract, Introduction, Main Body (arranged in chapters),
Conclusion, etc.
 23

In modern management, reports are basic management tools used in communication and
decision making. They help the management of the business to have up to date information
about the activities, progress and challenges in the organization.

Characteristics of a Good Report

(1) A good report should contain accurate facts. This necessitates that the reporter should carry
out ample research and report with specificity.

(2) It should be precise and focus on the predefined goals, objectives or terms of reference. The
content should be relevant to the objectives.

(3) It should have an executive summary or abstract which gives a brief synopsis of the contents
of the report.

(4) It should be reader-oriented and friendly, taking into consideration the level of competence
and the time available for reading it. A report meant for lay persons may not contain as much
technical language as that meant for technical experts.

(5) The language used should be simple and unambiguous. It should be free from jargon,
exaggerations and poetic or figurative language.

(6) The content should be logically arranged so as to achieve clarity. The content can be
numbered or arranged in chapters, headings and subheadings.

(7) The language should be properly edited to avoid mistakes of grammar, spellings, punctuation
etc.

(8) The correct format as prescribed by the college organized or general convention at the time of
writing the report should be followed.

Typical elements of a report

(1) The Title Page. This includes the title of the report, author’s name and particulars, date of
submission and any other required details.

(2) Acknowledgements. This includes words of appreciation for any persons that may have
helped the author in one way or another in the process of preparing the report eg one’s family
members, secretary, supervisor, colleagues etc.

(3) The Table of Contents. This shows the pages where major chapters, sections and
subsections are located in the document.

(4) List of Tables. This shows the table titles and pages where these tables are located in the
document.
 24

(5) List of Diagrams. This shows the diagram titles and the page numbers in the document
where such diagrams are located.

(6) The Abstract. This is a summary of the contents of the report usually in one or two pages.

(7) The Introduction or Background. This is usually the first chapter and includes the aims
and objectives of the report, statement of the problem and hypotheses being investigated if any.

(8) The Literature Review. This is usually for academic reports. In this chapter, the reporter
briefly shows what he/she has read from other sources related to what he/she is researching and
reporting about.

(9) Methodology. In this chapter, the reporter outlines the methods used in gathering and
analyzing the data used in the study or investigation.

(10) Findings. This is the main chapter where the reporter documents his observations and
findings.

(11) Recommendations, Conclusions and Discussion. This is usually the last chapter where
the reporter gives this views and conclusions about the findings

(12) References. This is a list of books, articles and other sources that the reporter may have
referred to in the process of the research or investigation. These should be listed at the end of the
report following an appropriate format such as the APA (American Psychological Association)
format or as required by the authority to which the report will be submitted.

(13) Appendices. These are documents or information which may be relevant to the report but
too detailed to be included in the main report.

It is worth noting that not all reports will contain all the above elements. For instance, a student
end of term report will contain only the students’ particulars, marks and comments on his
discipline. A head teachers’ end of year report to the school Board of Governors may be
arranged according to the aspects he wishes to report about such as school achievements and
plans. The contents and nature of a report are therefore determined by the objectives and
purpose of the report.

THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

Industrial Training is an important exercise carried out at the end of every academic year for
purposes of enabling students to practice skills learned at the college in the field. During the
exercise of Industrial Training, the student is expected to record his/her experiences in a daily log
book. At the end of the exercise, a report is written and submitted for examination. The
following format is recommended for the log book records and the Industrial Training report.
 25

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT FORMART

The typed industrial training report should include the following information:

THE TITLE PAGE showing the Name of the Institution or Examination centre, Title of the
Report, Name of the Student and Programme of Study, Year and Period of Training, Name of the
Industry, Name and Signature of the Supervisor , Name and Signature of the Assessor.

TABLE OF CONTENTS showing Titles and Subtitles and corresponding pages

PRELIMINARY PAGES consisting of Abstract, Preface, Declaration and Acknowledgements

THE BODY consisting of

• The Introduction which should reflect the nature and scope of work covered

• The Organizational structure of the company

• The Process flow chart for the industry/company

• The Technical account of activities involved in as reflected in the log book

• Drawings and other relevant illustrations for the write up

• Statement of challenges and achievements

• Recommendations about issues ranging from placement, experiences and inspection

during the industrial training period.

• Conclusion

APPENDICES which comprise of;

• A letter of industrial attachment

• Drawings, charts and pictures that cannot be easily incorporated in the body.

• Letters of recommendation relevant to the training.

• Weekly log sheets.

The Log Book Format: The daily log sheet used by students during industrial training should
have provision for the following information:

• Week number, day and date

• Activities

• Lessons learnt
 26

• Challenges faced

• Recommendations

• At the end of the week, an evaluation should be made by both the trainee and immediate
supervisor copies of which should be inserted as appendices into the industrial training
report.

INTRA-OFFICE/INTER-OFFICE COMMUNICATION

Intra-office communication refers to communication within the same office or between different
departments of the same office while Inter-office communication refers to communication
between 2 separate offices in different organizations or offices.

Intra-office communication is necessary for purposes of follow up communication,

clarification, reminders, updates, announcements, etc. It is also important for better control
and ensuring smooth running of office routines. Intra-office communication is also
important for motivation of employees, providing up to date information and ensuring
better co-worker relations.

Common forms of Intra-office communication include face-to-face verbal communication,

Letters, Circulars, Notices, Bulletins and Announcements. Other forms include Internal
Memoranda (memos), Loose minutes, Telephone conversations, Emails, Sms (Short message
services), Telefax , Signals/ Non-verbal communication.

The Memo format

A Memorandum (often abbreviated as a memo) is like a letter but is less formal and is usually
used for intra-office communication. Unlike a letter, it may not have parts like full addresses,
salutation, closing etc. A memo should be brief and to the point and is more appropriate if it is
from a superior officer to a subordinate.

Example of a Memo Template

• Date…

• From…(Name and Title of author)

• To..(Name and Title of receiver)

• Subject..(Brief Heading; maybe optional)

• Content…( Precise description of request, information, directive etc.)

 27

• Formal/Official/Business Letter Writing

Letters are commonly used in intra and inter-office communication. As much as possible the
writer of an official letter should ensure the following:

• Use the correct format

• Keep it precise, concise and professional

• Present points or ideas logically

• Use polite language even when complaining or distressed

• Avoid use of informal language, non-standard abbreviations or slang

Format and key parts of an official letter

• The writer’s address. Includes the physical and or postal address, Telephone contact and
or email address. The writer’s address is always the first part of the letter. Its position
maybe in top right hand corner for the traditional format (usually indented) or across the
top of page when a letterhead is used or top left hand corner if block format is used.

• The date is next after address, usually on the line next to address. The most commonly
used format is (1st January 2012).

• The receiver’s address (left hand after date, separated by a blank line).

• The title of receiver comes after the receiver’s address. The name usually not required
unless the particular person to read the letter is known.

• Sometimes one may need to specify the title of the specific officer to attend to the letter.
e.g letter may be written to the Permanent secretary but for the attention of the Personnel
officer.

• Fill in Reference Numbers if necessary (Space is usually provided on letterhead templates

for Our Ref/Your Ref).

• ‘Our Ref’ is usually the writers reference number while ‘Your Ref’ is the receiver’s
reference number ( quoted if the writer is replying to an earlier letter).

• Salutation. Usually Dear Sir/ Madam. If the receiver is known personally, one may
address him/her as Dear…( Mr/Mrs/ Dr….Surname)

• Subject Heading or Re. This is a short phrase summarising the letter content to give the
reader an idea of what the letter is about. It should be bold or underlined and in capital
letters to give emphasis.
 28

• The body of the letter should be organised in logical paragraphs.

• The first paragraph is introductory and should clearly spell out the purpose of the letter e.
g I am writing to request, remind, reply, inform, inquire... etc

• The 2nd paragraph onwards include details of the letter subject. E.g in case of an
application for a job; details of applicant’s qualifications, work experience, abilities,
referees etc.

• The last paragraph should state what the writer expects from the recipient; e.g reply,
consideration, action etc. e.g I hope prompt action will be taken to solve this problem or I
look forward to hearing from you soon etc.

• Sometimes it may be necessary to number the paragraphs eg when you are describing
steps taken or to enumerate observations etc.

• The letter ending is usually with Yours Faithfully or Your Sincerely if the receiver is
familiar or same or lower calibre.

• When signing off, one should indicate the full name (First Name followed by Surname)

• Signature beneath the printed name

• The title or office held by the writer may also be indicated after the signature e.g
HEADTEACHER.

• The stamp/seal if necessary and applicable should be affixed.

Some Common Terms in Official Letter Writing

• CC. Carbon copy (list of persons or officers to whom letter is copied). Usually appears
after the signature section of letter. In the modern times where carbon is no longer used,
this section of the letter may be titled as Distribution List.

• Thru/Through: Used when letter needs to be endorsed by various officers e.g when you
write to The Principal Through the Head of Department. In such a case the various
persons through whom the letter is written should be included in the address section and
such people should endorse the letter before it is delivered. Usually all the people through
whom a letter is written should receive a copy of the letter.

• PP or For: (From Latin phrase per procuration). This is usually indicated at the sign off
section to indicate that you are signing on behalf of someone else.

• PS (Post script) Used when you want to add something after you have finished and
signed the letter. Note that this should be used sparingly as it may portray carelessness.
 29

• P.T.O (Please Turn Over). Used to alert the reader that letter continues on the next page

• RSVP. (Respondez Sil Vous Plait). This is used to solicit for responses, confirmations or
apologies. A list of names and contacts of people who can be contacted for any matters
related to the invitations is usually provided. This is commonly used (and often misused)
in invitations.

Curriculum Vitae/Resume writing

A resume is a brief account of one’s professional or work experience and qualifications,

often submitted with an employment application. A curriculum vitae on the other hand is a
longer (2 or more pages) summary of one’s academic background as well as occupational
experience/ background and includes some details of responsibilities held, achievements,
awards, honours, affiliations, etc. The basic parts of a resume include sections on
personal/biodata, academic background, professional/ occupational experience, languages
and proficiency level, hobbies, other abilities eg sports, acting, public speaking etc

Content of a CV

• Personal information/biodata which may include Name (specify Surname and First
Name)

• Address; including physical address, work address if different, telephone numbers

(specify mobile/ office)

• Date of birth, Nationality, Marital status, Gender, Number of children etc as may be
appropriate

• Objective: A short statement of what you intend to achieve ( if hired)

• Key Skills: A brief outline of skills possessed

• Professional experience: Give dates/periods, organisation, responsibilities held, job roles

attached to those responsibilities, specific achievements /honours while performing those
roles e.g improved production by xx%

• Referees and their addresses

 30

SAMPLE JOB APPLICATION LETTER

Uganda Technical College Bushenyi

P.O.Box 84

Bushenyi

Date: 3rd
April 2013

The Human Resource Manager

Umeme Ltd

P.O.Box 1213

Kampala

Dear Sir/Madam,

APPLICATION FOR THE POSITION OF ELECTRICIAN

I am writing to apply for the above position which was advertised in the New Vision of 13 th
March 2013.

I completed Diploma in Electrical Engineering at Uganda Technical College Bushenyi in 2012.

Currently, I am doing my final industrial training at Igara Tea Growers Company in Bushenyi
District. My detailed curriculum Vitae is enclosed.

Hoping for your favourable response,

Yours Faithfully

…………………………..

JOHN TUMUSIIME
 31

SAMPLE CURRICULUM VITAE

BIODATA AND PERSONAL INFORMATION

• SURNAME: TUMWIINE

• FIRST NAME: JOSEPH

• DATE OF BIRTH: 20TH June 2000

• MARITAL STATUS: SINGLE

• CONTACT: 0772100123/ 0701524532

• LANGUAGES SPOKEN: ENGLISH, LANGI

• Email: tumwine@gmail.com

EDUCATION

• STAGE/QUALIFICATION INSTITUTION
PERIOD

• NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN ELECTICAL UGANDA TECHNICAL

COLLEGE 2010—2012

• ENGINEERING 1ST CLASS BUSHENYI

• UGANDA ADVANCED CERTIFICATE ISHAKA VOCATIONAL SEC

SCHOOL 2008—2010

• OF EDUCATION (U.A.C.E)

• UGANDA CERTIFICATE OF EDUCATION KAMPALA HIGH SCHOOL

2003-- 2007

• (U.C.E)

• PRIMARY SCHOOL GULU PRIMARY SCHOOL 2000—

2007
 32

WORK/PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE

• 2010-2011 INDUSTRIAL TRAINEE- Worked under supervision as water pump

Attendant at National Water and Sewerage Corporation Bushenyi. Ensured constant
water supply to customers in Bushenyi Municipality.

• 2012—2014 ELECTRICIAN - Worked as an electrician in charge of rectifying faults

and wiring extension at Ishaka Victory Girls’ Secondary School.

HOBBIES & INTERESTS

• Football

• Charity work

• Reading Newspapers

REFEREES

1. Mr.Tom Okurut

Principal, Uganda Technical College Bushenyi.

P.O. Boxx 84

Bushenyi

Tel. 0773432197

2. Mrs. Mary Tumusiime

Head of Physics Department

Ishaka Vocational Sec. School

P.O. Box 1125

Ishaka Bushenyi

Tel. 0793345523
 33

SEMINAR/ WORKSHOP ORGANISATION AND PRESENTATION

A seminar is an educational event that features one or more subject matter experts delivering
information mainly via lecture and discussion. A workshop tends to be smaller and more
intensive than a seminar and involves participants practicing their new skills during an event
supervised by an instructor. Seminars usually tend to emphasize theory while workshops
emphasize skills.

Importance of workshops and seminars

• They provide an opportunity for interaction between groups and individuals.

• They are a time saving and cost effective method of sharing information and skills.

• They provide participants an opportunity to practice skills learnt.

• Workshops and seminars may be misused by bureaucrats as a money spending/ earning

avenue and often times is time wasting (accountability problems, officer’s absence away
from their posts/desks).

Preparing for a Seminar/workshop

1. The organizer should identify the need, the objectives and the participants, the venue and
other logistics such as funds, materials, equipment, time etc.

2. The organizer should pre- check media and equipment to ensure that they are in a good
working condition. e.g public address systems, computers, projectors, flip charts etc.

3. Materials and hand outs should be prepared in time, taking into consideration the number
of participants..

4. The seminar/ workshop objectives should be stated in clear and behavioural terms e.g
“By the end of the workshop, participants will be able to……”

5. Materials should be pre-circulated so that participants and presenters do ample research

and preparation.

6. Strategies for keeping the sessions lively should be selected e.g breaks, physical or
mental exercises, entertainment, etc.

7. A time schedule should be prepared specifying the order and timing of various activities.
A time keeper should be appointed to ensure that activities do not last longer or shorter
than planned.

8. The venue and seating arrangement should be prepared well in advance. Where possible,
the circular or round table arrangement is preferred because it facilitates interaction.
 34

9. The organizers should create opportunity for establishment of rapport among participants
through introductions and opportunities for interaction.

10. They should provide for skill practicing through exercises and allow for brainstorming,
demonstrations, discussions, questions and feedback.

Preparation by the Presenter

1. The presenter should carry out ample research about the subject.

2. He /She should arrive early to allow for time to settle, revise and familiarise with
equipment, people and venue.

3. He/She should review your presentation one more time just before the presentation.

4. He/She should talk slowly but confidently.

5. He/She should be reasonably loud but must avoid shouting.

6. He/She should use proper voice modulation and accent.

7. He/She should keep it simple, clear and interesting; keep time and do not exceed
allocated time.

8. He/She should pause to give time for listeners to digest what you are saying.

9. He/She should have soft and or hard copy of your presentation; some people may require
for it.

10. He/She should adopt a suitable posture and walk around if possible.

11. He/She should make use of body language, illustrations, demonstration, visual and audio
aids.
 35

MODULE III: ORAL COMMUNICATION

LISTENING

Listening is receiving language through the ears. Listening involves identifying the sounds of
speech and processing them into words and sentences. When we listen, we use our ears to
receive individual sounds and we use our brain to convert these into messages
that mean something to us.

Listening in any language requires focus and attention. It is a skill that some people need to work
at harder than others. People who have difficulty concentrating are typically poor listeners.
Listening in a second language requires even greater focus.

Like babies, we learn this skill by listening to people who already know how to speak the
language. This may or may not include native speakers. For practice, you can listen to live or
recorded voices. The most important thing is to listen to a variety of voices as often as you can

Active Listening:

The process of communication can’t be complete without the listening element. Listening
involves a deliberate effort to concentrate on what we hear in order to interpret information from
it. During the listening process, the listener decodes what they hear in order to make sense out of
it.

The following are key listening habits that an ensure effective listening;

 Maintaining eye contact with the speaker and avoiding doing other activities to show that
one is interested in what is being said (giving undivided attention to the speaker)
 Being attentive but relaxed (not stressed or tensed up)
 Keeping an open mind, even if you do not agree with the speaker
 Concentrate on what is being said and note key words, tone of voice etc
 Avoid interrupting or cutting short the speaker
 Wait for the speaker to pause before asking questions
 Ask questions to seek clarity and understanding (not to mock or challenge the speaker)
 Empathize with the speaker (put yourself in the speaker’s shoes
 Provide regular and appropriate feedback by regularly responding to encourage the
speaker to proceed (e.g by saying o.k, yes, proceed etc)
 Pay attention to non-verbal clues such as gestures, speaker’s posture, eye contact etc. as
these may say something about the speaker’s seriousness or lack of it, dishonesty etc.
 36

Why is listening important?

Listening skills are essential to many business roles and functions, including:

 managing, coaching, mentoring, facilitation

 sales, negotiation, arbitration, market research

 appraisal, interviewing, training, consultancy

Good listening is also a vital part of these activities:

 making decisions

 reaching agreements
 selling and influencing
 dealing with customer complaints
 getting and giving information (such as policy, instructions, feedback, marketing
information

So listening is important because:

 Without listening, no organisation can operate effectively, nor ultimately survive.

Effective listening provides the information required to enable organisations to adapt to
meet the changing needs of customers and keep up with market trends.

 Good listening and skilful questioning give a powerful message to those with whom you
interact. They hugely increase your capacity to influence, motivate, develop or serve
people effectively.
 Listening and questioning are an inherent part of most life skills, fundamental to human
interaction, and a major factor in the success of a good communicator.
 Good listening allows us to demonstrate that we are paying attention to the thoughts,
feelings and behaviours of the other person (seeing the world through their eyes). This is
crucial to maintaining productive relationships, and sometimes the only way to establish
communication.
 37

STAGES OF LISTENING

We hear about the importance of good listening skills all the time, but isn’t it strange that almost
no one ever actually teaches people how to listen? We learn to read, write, and speak effectively
in school, but classes on effective listening are extremely few and far between.

The following are the five stages of listening

Stage 1: Receiving

At this stage in the listening process, the one should focused on receiving the message. This
entails more than just hearing the words, however: one should try to receive what the caller is
actually saying, but also what their unspoken, underlying message is. It’s important to listen to
what is said and what is not said. Omitting certain things can be just as significant as talking
about them. It is also vital to listen to the caller’s/speaker’s tone of voice and other nonverbal
cues – they can be just as telling as words. There should be no distractions in the environment
around them, they should be sure not to interrupt the speaker, and should avoid trying to plan out
their response in advance, instead focusing all their attention on the speaker.

Stage 2: Understanding

Making sure you truly understand the speaker’s message is the next step. Train yourself not to
make assumptions or judgments about the speaker’s message before you hear it completely, as
that might cause them to misunderstand. The best way to ensure true understanding is to ask the
speaker questions if clarification is needed, and then restate the message back for verification.

Stage 3: Remembering

In order to be able to take action in response to a call, one must be able to remember the entire
message. Focus on finding the central idea or ideas in the speaker’s message, and organizing
information heard into easily remembered categories.

Stage 4: Evaluating

This stage can be the most difficult of all. Evaluating a caller’s message requires to be able to
distinguish fact from opinion, as well as whether the caller might have any bias or slant coloring
their perception of things. Train yourself to listen for certain words or statements that indicate
such a bias or personal interpretation of events might be in play.

Stage 5: Responding

It’s important to respond to the speakers throughout the conversation by giving small
affirmations to show they are listening, such as “I see,” or “mm-hmm.” But don’t give in to the
temptation to complete the person’s sentences for them. And finally, focus completely on the
other person in your final response, using what you have just listened to so effectively as the
guide for responding to the needs in the most appropriate way for their individual situation.
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SPEAKING

What is Speaking?

Speaking is the delivery of language through the mouth. To speak, we create sounds using many
parts of our body, including the lungs, vocal tract, vocal chords, tongue, teeth and lips.

Speaking can be formal or informal:

 Informal speaking is typically used with family and friends, or people you know well.
 Formal speaking occurs in business or academic situations, or when meeting people for
the first time.

Speaking is probably the language skill that most language learners wish to perfect as soon as
possible. It used to be the only language skill that was difficult to practise online. This is no
longer the case. English learners can practise speaking online using voice or video chat and
services like Skype. They can also record and upload their voice for other people to listen to.

PUBLIC SPEAKING

A Public Speaking Definition

It's a presentation that's given live before an audience. Public speeches can cover a wide variety
of different topics. The goal of the speech may be to educate, entertain, or influence the listeners.
Often, visual aids in the form of an electronic slideshow are used to supplement the speech. This
makes it more interesting to the listeners.

Because speaking in public is done before a live audience, you need to consider some special
factors. Now you've got an understanding of the meaning of public speaking so let's take a quick
look at the history of (and the importance of) public speaking. Public speaking is important in
both business, education, and the public arena. There are many benefits to speaking in public
whether you're an individual or a business

Characteristics Of A Good Speech

If you want to make a good speech that leaves a lasting impression, focus on what you’re going
to speak and how. A good speech isn’t only about your words but also how you present yourself.
Body language and gestures play a critical role in transforming an average speech into a
memorable one.

1. Clear Message And Key Ideas

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A good speech always starts with a key idea and a well-defined message. Many people make the
mistake of burying their ideas in the middle or at the end. That’s a mistake. The audience may
get distracted halfway into your speech, and leave without even knowing what you’re talking
about. If you want people to understand your big idea, present it right at the start. That will set
the context for the rest of the speech.

2. Impactful Oral Delivery

Remember to consider every aspect of the speech. Your oral delivery—pitch, pause and pace—
also influences the audience’s response. Modulate your voice and pace to keep your listeners
interested in your words. You should be also prepared to make impromptu adjustments to your
delivery if you sense the audience drifting away. For instance, if you’re talking about statistical
data, make it interesting by asking questions or engaging in a dialogue with the audience. This
way, you keep them involved.

3. Sprinkled With Personal Anecdotes

Don’t rely only on facts and figures. If you can support your claims with personal experiences,
it’ll make it more interesting. Start with a personal anecdote that’s linked to your big idea and
that your audience can relate to. Humor is also a fun way to break the ice and put everyone at
ease.

4. Informative, But Not Repetitive

Your speech needs to be informative and packed with fresh and new information to have an
impact. Be careful not to recycle old ideas packaged in fancy words. . Being original and sharing
relevant, critical and helpful information will make your speech memorable. Edit your speech
carefully to ensure there are no repetitions or data gaps. You can also add inspiring quotes for
a good speech.

5. Powerful Nonverbal Cues

One of the most important qualities of a good speech is nonverbal communication. You may
believe that your words do all the work. But your posture, facial expressions and gestures are
equally, if not more, important. Imagine someone making a speech with a blank expression on
their face or just reading their words off a page without emotion. That doesn’t make for a good
speech. It’s about building tension, asking provoking questions and engaging with the audience.
There’s power in using nonverbal cues, like making eye contact with someone in the audience.
Using these cues well can greatly improve the quality of your speech.

PROFILE OF A GOOD SPEAKER

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Public speaking can be terrifying, but when you care about your career progression you need to
find a way to get your voice out.

Public speaking is how you can share your ideas with a large number of people, stand out from
the corporate crowd, and get visibility in your field.

Unfortunately, if you’re public speaking skills are not up to par, it’s likely that no one will be
focused enough on your presentation to really receive your message.

Here are 9 scientifically-proven characteristics of effective public speakers that you should
emulate to become an influential and inspiring leader.

Confidence

A highly confident speaker is viewed as being more accurate, competent, credible, intelligent,
knowledgeable, likable, and believable than the less confident uncertain speaker.

When it comes to public speaking, confidence is key (not the only key mind you). When
speaking in public, it’s only natural to be nervous. As you speak, make sure you present yourself
as confident as you can.

Authenticity: Be yourself. If you have to deviate a little from your meticulously written
presentation, do so! Although you should practice your speech as often as possible, you don’t
want to memorize it! Memorizing a speech can cause you to fumble over a section if you didn’t
say it just right.

To excel at public speaking you must do more than just defeat your nervous jitters. You must
also have confidence in your subject and be yourself while you are on stage.

Passion: In order to really communicate to people through speech, you need to have passion
about your subject. Without passion, your speech is meaningless. You need to exude a level of
sincerity in your emotion when communicating to your audience if you want them to be moved
by your presentation.

There’s no need to attempt to practice sincerity by practicing your speech with a raised voice and
waving arms. Simply focus on how you feel about your topic and those that you are
communicating with.

Be Yourself - You don’t have to be someone else on stage, all you have to do is just be yourself.
Sometimes, no matter how much you believe in your message or how well you’ve rehearsed, if
you don’t act like yourself in front of the group, your audience may view your speech as
insincere or calculated.

If a political candidate doesn’t seem authentic, it’s not likely they’ll win an election. If a
company’s social marketing strategy appears inauthentic, their sales will not go up. If you create
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a page on a dating website but what you write is not authentic, the people reading are likely to
pick up on this inauthenticity and never contact you. Speaking is the same way.

Practice, not memorization In order to be yourself in a presentation, you shouldn’t memorize

your speech in absolutes. Practice your speech as often as possible, but be willing to change up
the wording. This makes it easier to change it up during the actual presentation if things aren’t
going exactly as planned. Memorization can set up a barrier between you and your audience.

Speak in a natural voice Any connection you’ve made with your audience could be broken by
tones that seem fake or too perfect. In general, you should try to speak in a conversational tone.

Voice Modulations

If you want to be more engaging as a speaker, then avoid talking in a tone that seems too well
rehearsed, but you still want to take the speed and inflection of your delivery into account when
you practice your speech.

To practice proper cadence, record yourself giving your speech and listen to it later. You’ll be
able to tell exactly when and where you start to sound inauthentic. You can still use effective
voice modulations while employing your natural voice.

Keep it Short and Sweet

If you’re only given 30 minutes to give a speech, don’t force yourself to fill the entire time
allotted. Say what you need to say and use any remaining time for questions or to let your
audience out a little early.

The main purpose of delivering a speech is to attempt to get your point across, and that might not
require a whole hour. You want to make sure that your presentation is easily digestible for those
listening to you. If you can complete your speech in 15 minutes, do so, and leave any remaining
time open for questions and comments.

Connect with your Audience

A speech is just like a conversation, which means you need to communicate your message to
someone else. In this sense, there is no difference between talking to one person or a thousand.

While you’re speaking people are likely on their phones, tablets, or laptops, reading emails,
surfing the web, researching who you are, or maybe taking notes on your speech. It’s your job to
make them put their devices down and pay attention to what you have to say.

You can’t ask them to turn off their phones, but you can make them set their phones down by
creating an atmosphere that excites and engages the listeners.

The best ways to connect with your audience are;

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 Tell stories
 Be aware of your target audience
 Know the energy in the room
 Be Willing to poke fun at yourself
 Work on your non-verbal body language

Paint a Picture Through Storytelling

One of the best ways to really engage your audience is by becoming a good storyteller. This
aspect of public speaking is so important.

Storytelling is a powerful tool used by the best speakers. By employing context into your speech
for your audience to connect with, you’re creating an easy to listen to the atmosphere in which
you are not simply shoving information at them in the hopes that they’ll retain that information.

The best presentations don’t feel like presentations, they are simply stories told by people with
interesting experiences.

You can include stories of your own experiences, or use classic stories to bring context to your
speech. Martin Luther King was a master at establishing a historical context for his message.
Take a look at some of the most inspirational TED Talks. TED Talks, in general, are extremely
story driven, and that is one of the reason they’re so popular.

When writing your speech, think about what you need to say in order to establish a context that
your audience will understand and be able to engage with.

Repetition

Repetition can help ensure your audience takes the main points away from your presentation. It
promotes clarity and helps to encourage acceptance of an idea.

In order to employ repetition in your presentations, determine what you want your audience to
take away from your speech. Say it. Say it again. And then say it a third time just in case anyone
missed it the first couple of times.

Don’t Just Practice, Practice, Practice

Have you ever heard someone say that they want to seem authentic on stage, so they didn’t
practice their speech? Although it may seem contradictory, the more you practice a presentation,
the more spontaneous it will actually sound!

Of course, you have to practice it the right way though.

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Take into account your environment when you practice and always practice as if you’re giving
your presentation to a group of people. Speeding through your presentation on the bus in a
hushed voice is more likely to hurt you than help you.

Practicing will help to make you feel more confident, and appear more authentic, thus creating a
better opportunity to connect with your audience. Which, in the end, is the ultimate goal of
public speaking.

MEETINGS
Meetings are an essential practical aspect of running any organisation. Used as management
tools they can be very beneficial but all too often they do not achieve the results intended.
Holding effective meetings does not depend on intuition and good fortune but on effective
management skills.

Reasons for holding meetings

Meetings are usually held

• to share information
• to plan future programmes and actions
• to co-ordinate actions of individuals or units
• to solve problems or for making decisions on a plan of action to deal with a problem
• to gather information, get feedback and review past actions
• to determine policy
• to motivate, inspire
• to train, instruct
• to provide support, build cohesion.

Attitudes to meetings
The success of every meeting depends on the co-operation and support the chairperson receives
from the participants. Meetings should therefore be organized and conducted in such a way that
makes them worth attending.

Some reasons why some people may have a negative attitude towards meetings

Poor leadership: Sometimes the leader does not keep the discussion on the subject and so fails
to keep things moving in the appropriate direction and to engage in those aspects of the
discussion that are stimulating and motivating to the members.

Unclear goals: Sometimes members are not really sure what they are trying to accomplish.
 44

Lack of commitment: Sometimes assignments are not taken seriously by committee members.
This may result in poor or no implementation of resolutions which discourages members from
attending or contributing in future meetings.
Recommendations ignored: Management needs to be responsive to the recommendations of a
committee.
Inconclusive discussion: When problems are discussed but no conclusions are reached or no
resolutions are made, members will consider the meeting as a waste of time.
Lack of follow-through: Sometimes members are not given specific assignments. This results in
a situation where good resolution and plans are made but no one in particular takes responsibility
to implement or follow up.
Domination: Often one person or clique dominates a meeting, talking and pushing for their
positions while others wonder why they are there.
Lack of preparation: Sometimes the agenda is not prepared and materials that really need to be
there are not available. This usually happens because someone has not done his or her
homework.
Hidden agendas: Some participants may have personal axes to grind selfish
interests, promoting discussions that only they think are important.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE MEETING

Clear definition of purpose: What the committee and its members are supposed to do and what
their goals are should be clearly set out.
Careful time control: Meetings should start and end on time, with enough time allowed to get
the work done and no more.
Opinions respected: Members should listen and be sensitive to each other's needs and opinions.
Informal atmosphere: Participants should be encouraged to contribute to the discussion when
the atmosphere is informal rather making the entire meeting a formal exchange. However, rules
of procedure and courtesy must be exercised.
Good preparation: Members should be well prepared and any materials required should be
available.
Commitment: The members should be qualified and interested and have willingness to be a part
of the meeting.
No distractions: Interruptions should be avoided or held to a minimum. Phones should be
switched off and movements minimized.
Record keeping: Good minutes or records should be kept so that decisions are not lost.
Assessment of performance: Periodically, the meeting should stop and assesses its own
performance, with any necessary improvements being implemented.
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Recognition of effort: Members should feel that they receive some kind of reward for their
efforts, when their contributions are recognised and appreciated.
Management response: The resolutions of the meeting should be accepted and used, making a
real contribution to the organisation.
PARTICIPANTS’ ROLES
In any meeting there are a number of defined roles.

The chairperson
The role of the chairperson is to:
• co-ordinate the work of the committee
• ensure that rules and procedures are kept to
• run meetings so that all members have a chance to air their views
• act as an 'umpire' over disagreements, steering the meeting along avenues of decision-making
• ensure that documents and records are efficiently kept
• foster good will and working relationships among staff members
• act as the meeting's leader and guide.

The secretary
The secretary's duties are to:
• carry out the administrative work of the meeting
• organise meetings and record the minutes
• liaise with the chairperson regarding the general running of the meeting
• keep meeting members and associated parties informed
• act as the chairperson's 'right hand'.

The treasurer
The role of the treasurer is to:
• monitor the organization’s financial activities
• record all its money transactions, submitting regular reports to the meeting as well as annual
balance sheets
• liaise with an external auditor who scrutinises the books
• advise the committee in matters of financial expenditure.

The committee member

Among the duties of the committee member are to:
• participate at meetings and do the work delegated to him or her in the process of advising or
decision-making
• attend meetings regularly, offering information, views and responses either by means of voting
or making views known to the chairperson
• keep staff or interested parties he or she represents informed of the work the committee is doing
and the decisions it has reached.
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 Organising and preparing meetings

To prepare for a meeting, one should identify the activities that need to be done:
- well in advance of a meeting; e.g identification of the agenda, preparing and sending
invitations, identification and preparation of venue, procurement of materials and
resources.
- the day before a meeting; e.g Reminders for attendance, crosschecking availability of
resources and materials, reading through previous minutes, preparing answers for
possible questions, crosschecking and confirming arrangements for transport, feeding and
other services
- on the day of a meeting; e.g arriving on time, ensuring that all that is required is readily
available
- during a meeting; e.g being attentive, constructive participation
- after the meeting. e.g follow up and implementation of resolutions

CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS

PREPARATION AND IMPLEMATATION BY THE INTERVIEWER (EMPLOYER)

Interviews are a critical part of the hiring process. The Human Resource personnel need to;

 Prepare in advance by creating an agenda and a structure for the interview, including time
limits. A set of questions and topics.
 Come up with questions in four categories: fact-finding, creative-thinking, problem-
solving and behavioral. Fact-finding questions seek to identify the candidate’s
experience, skills and credentials. Some examples of fact finding questios are; How large
was your team at your previous employer? What were the working conditions like? What
did you like or dislike about the environment? Can you describe your excel skills?
Creative thinking questions are broader queries that ask the candidate to demonstrate a
grasp of wider business trends. Some examples are; Where do you see the movie industry
growing? What are the pitfalls ahead for our business? Problem-solving questions ask
the candidate to solve problems. Examples include technical, skills-oriented puzzles
where you ask the candidate to solve a technical conundrum or task. Other questions
might concern processes, such as: “You see that project is behind schedule, how you
would accelerate the team?” Behavioral questions, which many experts say are the most
important, get at how an employee acts in certain situations. Some examples are;
Describe a situation when you made a major mistake and how you reacted? How did you
defend your position? Or when you feel like management has made an unfair decision,
how do you react? How do you handle a crisis situation? What do you consider to be a
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crisis? Hiring experts say behavioral questions reveal the most about how a candidate
would fit into the company culture. Another way to get this is through role-playing. You
might set up a scenario in which you are a potential new client, and ask the candidate to
deliver a presentation about a product that the company is selling. Or if the job you are
filling is managerial, you may play the role of an underperforming employee and ask the
candidate to coach you.
 Interview the candidate in person whenever possible. If you must do it over the phone, try
using a video-conferencing service that allows you to see the person while you talk.
 Create an agenda for the candidate’s visit. The agenda might include these elements:
Start time, Introduction, Position details, Company information / overview, interview
with manager, interview with manager B, tour, lunch, closing. Give the candidate the
agenda so they know what to expect,
 Take notes during the interview. You don’t need to write down everything, but note
highlights and things you want to follow-up on later. Pay attention to whether the
employee is taking notes as well.
 Pay attention to the candidate’s non- verbal cues during the interview and how the
employee acts before and after the questioning. Try to discreetly observe the front desk or
reception area when the employee arrives. How does he treat the reception staff, is he
confident or panicky? If you can’t be there to observe, ask the receptionist or anyone else
who came in contact with the candidate.
 Consider taking the candidate off campus for lunch or drinks once the formal questioning
is done, perhaps inviting some of your co-workers as well. This can be a great way to see
how the candidate transitions from formal office settings to social and informal
situations. Candidates will tend to let their guard down over lunch or drinks and will
reveal more of their personality.
 After the interview, follow-up with any fact-checking or background items you noted
during the interview. If necessary, you may schedule a second interview or draft an offer
letter. Also, watch for the candidates’ follow-up. They should send a note thanking you
for the opportunity and offering to provide any additional information you might need.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

1. Structured Interview.
Here every single detail of the interview is decided in advance. The question to be asked,
the order in which the questions will be asked, the time given to each candidate, the
information to be collected from each candidate etc, are all decided in advance. A
structured interview is also called standardized, patterned, directed or guided interview.
Structured interviews are preplanned. They are accurate and precise. All the interviews
will be uniform (same). Therefore, there will be consistency and minimum bias in
structured interviews.
 48

2. Unstructured Interview.
This kind of interview is not planned in detail; hence it is also called as Non-Directed
interview. The question to be asked, the information to be collected from the candidates,
etc, are not decided in advance. These interviews are non-planned and therefore, more
flexible. Candidates are more relaxed in such interviews. They are encouraged to express
themselves about different subjects, based on their expectations, motivations,
background, interests etc. here the interviewer can make a better judgment of the
candidate’s personality, potentials, strengths and weaknesses. However, if the interviewer
is not efficient then the discussions will lose direction and the interview will be a waste of
time and effort.

3. Group Interview.
Here, all the candidates or small groups of candidates are interviewed together. The time
of the interviewer is saved. A group interview is similar to a group discussion. A topic is
given to the group, and they are asked to discuss it. The interviewer carefully watches the
candidates. He tries to find out which candidate influences others, who clarifies issues,
who summarizes the discussion, who speaks effectively etc. He tries to judge the
behavior of each candidate in a group situation.

4. Exit Interview.
When an employee leaves the company, he is interviewed either by his immediate
superior or by the Human Resource Manager. This interview is called an exit interview.
The exit interview is taken to find out why the employee is leaving the company.
Sometimes, the employee may be asked to withdraw his resignation by providing some
incentives. Exit interviews are taken to create a good image of the company in the minds
of the employees who are leaving the company. They help the company to make proper
policies, to create a favorable work environment, to create employee loyalty and to
reduce labour turn over.

5. Depth Interview.
This is a semi-structured interview. The candidate has to give detailed information about
his background, special interest etc. The depth interview tries to find out if the candidate
is an expert in his subject or not. Here the interviewer must have a good understanding of
human behavior.

6. Stress Interview.
The purpose of this interview is to find out how the candidate behaves in a stressful
situation. That is, whether the candidate gets angry or gets confused or gets frightened or
gets nervous or remains cool in a stressful situation. The candidate who keeps his cool in
a stressful situation is selected for the stressful job. Here, the interviewer tries to create or
 49

simulate a stressful situation during the interview. This is done purposely by asking the
candidate rapid questions, criticizing the answers, interrupting him repeatedly etc.

7. Individual Interview.
This is a One-To-One Interview. It is a verbal and visual interaction between two people,
(the interviewer and the candidate) for a particular purpose. The purpose of this interview
is to match the candidate with the job. It is a two way communication.

8. Informal Interview.
Informal interview is an oral interview which can be arranged at any place. Different
questions are asked to collect the required information from the candidate. Specific rigid
procedure is not followed. It is a friendly interview.

9. Formal Interview.
Formal interview is held in a more formal atmosphere. The interviewer asks pre-planned
questions. Formal interview is also called planned interview.

10. Panel Interview.

Panel means a selection committee or interview committee that is appointed for
interviewing the candidates. The panel may include three or five members. They ask
questions to the candidates about different aspects. They give marks to each candidate.
The final decision will be taken by all members collectively by rating the candidates. A
panel interview is always better than an interview by one interviewer because in a panel
interview, collective judgment is used for selecting suitable candidates.
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SUB-MODULE 4: TRADE SPECIFIC COMMUNIATION

Communication between parties in a job contract

A job contract is an agreement between a client (the owner of a project) and the contractor ( an
individual or company that is hired to work on a project). While some contracts may be verbal
and informal, for avoidance of doubt or conflict, it is always advisable that contracts are well
designed professionally and in details in order to ensure orderly execution of the contract.

While the client and the contractor are usually the key parties to a contractor, there are usually
other parties that may be part and parcel of a contract such as;
 Consultants; these are specialists like architects, electrical engineers, environmentalists
etc who may be hired by either the client or the contractor so as to offer specialized
advice or services
 Sub-contractors; these are companies or individuals who may be hired to execute part of
the activities in the contract e.g transport, catering services etc
 Local authorities; These are persons or officers with responsibilities to approve or
supervise work in a particular area as mandated by government or by virtue of their job
description e.g District Engineer, College Principal, DC etc

 Local Community; These are the people living around the area where a project is being
done e.g Students in a college where government is constructing buildings

During execution of a contract, it is always important to maintain effective, regular and timely
communication between all parties in the contract.

Key Communication documents to be shared between parties in a contract

Bid Notice/Advert/ Invitation to Bidders

This is a notice that is usually put in an accessible medium such as a newspaper, giving
information about the availability of a job/project and inviting suitably qualified persons or
companies to express their interest in doing the job.

Key components of a bid advert include

 the address of the client
 description of the job on offer
 an invitation to bidders
 description of the nature and qualifications of the eligible bidders
 description of the bidding process and requirements
 time and venue where bid documents can be picked and delivered back
 amount to be paid and mode of payment, information on time and venue for opening of
bids etc

Attached is an example of a Bid Advert

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In addition to the bid advert, the client is obliged to provide detailed instructions to bidders
which are always contained in bid documents that are availed or sold to prospective bidders.
These contain a detailed scope of works among other things to enable the contractor to
understand the nature of work and likely cost. They may also specify a time frame within which
work is expected to be completed.

Bid Submission Documents

Once a company or individual has seen a bid advert and is convinced that they have the capacity
to bid for such a job, they are usually required to submit a bid.
Key components of a bid submission depend on the requirements set by the client but the most
common ones include the following:
 Submission letter specifying the address of the company, TIN, date, specific job/project,
total price of bid offer, validity period of the bid etc
 Performance security (e.g bank guarantee)
 Detailed company profile that includes company name, directors’ names ,TIN/VAT
registration, company history and objectives etc
 Details of proposed sub-contractors if any
 Declaration of no conflict of interest
 Details of statutory payments made eg payment for bid documents, evidence of tax
clearance, payment of trading license and other professional licenses etc
 Details of qualifications of personnel
 Evidence of experience of other projects executed
 Scope of Works ( a detailed description of the nature and amount of work to be carried
out. This also includes the construction period, description of access to the site,
description of quality of materials and quality control measures, source of water, use of
drawings, site facilities, security, cleanliness requirements etc.
 Bills of quantities specifying the activities and cost attached to them
 Schedule of equipment owned by or available to the company that would enable them the
execute the works
 Company/site organization chart showing how key personnel relate and report to each
other
 Financial statements, bank statements and auditor’s reports showing financial status of
the contractor
 Tax clearance issued by relevant authorities such as URA

Bid Security: This is a document issued by the bankers of a contractor certifying that the
contractor has the financial capacity to execute the contract.

Bills of Quantities (BOQs)

This is a document that includes a clear description of the items, nature of activity, units,
quantities, rates, amounts, sub totals, and totals of the cost of various activities or items.

Notification of Contract Award

This is a letter written by the client officially and formally informing the contractor that they
have won the contract. The letter specifies the work to be done and the amount. It also requests
the contractor to write back in acceptance.
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Acceptance of Contract Offer

Once a contractor receives an offer letter, they are expected to write back to indicate that they
accept the offer and the conditions attached to the offer.

Contract Agreement
This is a document comprised of an agreement between the client and the contractor for the
execution of a specified project at a specified cost during a specified amount of time. The
agreement is usually signed by a representative of either party and witnessed by a third party
such as the lawyers or friends of either party or other project beneficiaries. For example if the
project is a classroom block and the client is Government of Uganda and the contractor is a
private building company, the agreement may be witnessed by the Headmaster of the school
where the building is to be put up.

Certificate of Completion of Works

This is a document issued by the representative of the client, expressing satisfaction that the
work was completed satisfactorily and authorizing payment. A certificate of completion may
include mention of a defects liability period during which any defects must be put right by the
contractor at their own cost.

Communication in the Workplace

A lot of communication goes on at the workplace between clients and contractors, amongst
workers, between workers and supervisors etc
In all cases, the following are important things to be observed during communication
 Mutual respect
 Clarity
 Constructive criticism
 No rumor mongering
 Effective listening
 Friendliness
 Open mindedness and no bias
 Empathy
 Emotional intelligence ( ability to understand and handle our emotions and those of
others e.g anger management)
 Confidence
 Honesty and transparency
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SAMPLES OF COMMON DOCUMENTS USED IN COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CONTRACTOR AND

CLIENT ATTACHED BELOW