Lec 1 College of Dentistry, Al Mustansiriyah University ‫د ﺑﺎن اﻏﺎ‬

MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Structures of the respiratory system (Figure 1)

• The respiratory system brings oxygen into the body for transportation to the cells. It
also removes carbon dioxide and some water waste from the body. For descriptive
purposes, the respiratory system is divided into upper and lower respiratory tracts.
• The upper respiratory tract consists of the nose, mouth, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx,
and trachea.
• The lower respiratory tract consists of the bronchial tree and lungs. These structures
are located within, and protected by, the thoracic cavity which is also known as the
rib cage.

Figure 1. Respiratory system

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Suffixes for Respiration

Suffix Meaning Example Definition of Example

-pnea breathing orthopenia difficulty that is relieved by

Or-THOP-nē-a assuming an upright (ortho-)
position
-oxia* level of oxygen hypoxia decreased amount of oxygen in the
hī-POK-sē-a tissues
- level of carbon hypercapnia increased carbon dioxide in the
capnia* dioxide hī-per-KAP-nē-a tissues
-phonia difficulty in dysphonia difficulty in speaking
speaking dis-FÕ-nē-a
*When referring to levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, the suffix -emia is used, as in
hypoxemia, hypercapnemia.

Roots for respiratory passageways

Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

nas/o nose intranasal within the nose

in-tra-NĀ--zal
rhin/o nose rhinoplasty plastic repair of the nose
RĪ-nō-plas-tē
pharyng/o* pharynx Pharyngeal pertaining to the pharynx
fa-RIN-jē-al
laryng/o larynx laryngospasm spasm (sudden contraction) of
la-RIN-gō-spazm the larynx
trache/o Trachea Tracheotome instrument used to incise the
TRĀ-kē-ō-tōm trachea
bronch/o, Bronchus Bronchogenic originating in a bronchus
bronch/i brong-kō-GEN-ik
bronchiol Bronchiole Bronchiolectasis dilatation of the bronchioles
brong-kē-ō-LEK-ta-sis
*
An e is added to the root before the adjective ending -al.

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Roots for the Lungs and Breathing
Root Meaning Example Definition of Example
phrenic
phren/o diaphragm pertaining to the diaphragm
FREN-ik
phrenicectomy partial excision of the
phrenic/o phrenic nerve
fren-i-SEK-tō-mē phrenic nerve
pleurodesis
pleur/o pleura fusion of the pleura
plū-ROD-e-sis

pulm/o, extrapulmonary
lung outside the lungs
pulmon/o EKS-tra-pul-mō-ner-ē

pneumonitis inflammation of the lung;

pneumon/o lung
nū-mō-NĪ-tis pneumonia
pneum/o, air, gas; also pneumothorax presence of air in the thorax
pneumat/o respiration, lung nū-mō-THÕ-raks (pleural space)
spirometer instrument for measuring
spir/o breathing
spī-ROM-e-ter breathing volumes

Symptoms, Conditions and Disorders

Key terms Definition

dyspnea Difficult or labored breathing, sometimes with pain; “air hunger”
disp-NĒ-a
anoxia Lack or absence of oxygen in the tissues; often used incorrectly to mean
an-OK-sē-a hypoxia
asphyxia Condition caused by inadequate intake of oxygen; suffocation (literally
as-FIK-sē-a “lack of pulse”)
aspiration The accidental inhalation of food or other foreign material into the lungs.
as-pi-RĀ-shun Also means the withdrawal of fluid from a cavity by suction
asthma A disease characterized by dyspnea and wheezing caused by spasm of the
AZ-ma bronchial tubes or swelling of their mucous membranes
cyanosis Bluish discoloration of the skin caused by lack of oxygen in the blood
sī-a-NŌ-sis (adjective: cya- notic)
sleep apnea Intermittent periods of breathing cessation during sleep. Central sleep
AP-nē-a apnea arises from failure of the brain stem to stimulate breathing.
Obstructive sleep apnea results from airway obstruction during deep
sleep, as from obesity or enlarged tonsils

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Symptoms, Conditions and Disorders: continue

Key terms Definition

empyema Accumulation of pus in a body cavity, especially the pleural
em-pī-Ē-ma space; pyothorax
hemothorax Presence of blood in the pleural space
hē-mō-THOR-aks
hydrothorax Presence of fluid in the pleural space
hī-drō-THOR-aks
hyperventilation Increased rate and depth of breathing; increase in the amount of
hī-per-ven-ti-LĀ-shun air entering the alveoli
hypoventilation Decreased rate and depth of breathing; decrease in the amount
hī-pō-ven-ti-LĀ-shun of air entering the alveoli
influenza An acute, contagious respiratory infection causing fever, chills,
in-flū-EN-za headache, and muscle pain; “flu”
pneumonia Inflammation of the lungs generally caused by infection. May
nū-MŌ-nē-a involve the bronchioles and alveoli (bronchopneumonia) or one
or more lobes of the lung (lobar pneumonia)

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Lec 2 College of Dentistry, Al Mustansiriyah University ‫د ﺑﺎن اﻏﺎ‬

MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY: CIRCULATION SYSTEM

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Blood circulates throughout the body in the cardiovascular system, which consists of the
heart and the blood vessels. This system forms a continuous circuit that delivers oxygen and
nutrients to all cells and carries away waste products. The lymphatic system also functions in
circulation. Its vessels drain fluid and proteins left in the tissues and return them to the
bloodstream. The lymphatic system plays a part in immunity and in the digestive process as
well.

1. The Heart
The heart is located between the lungs, with its point, or apex, directed toward the inferior
and left. The wall of the heart consists of three layers (Figure 1), all named with the root cardi,
meaning “heart.” Moving from the innermost to the outermost layer, these are the (Figure
2):
1. Endocardium—a thin membrane that lines the chambers and valves (the prefix endo-
means “within”).
2. Myocardium—the thick muscle layer that makes up most of the heart wall (the root my/o
means “muscle”).
3. Epicardium—a thin membrane that covers the heart (the prefix epi- means “on”).

A fibrous sac, the pericardium, contains the heart and anchors it to surrounding structures,
such as the sternum (breastbone) and diaphragm (the prefix peri- means “around”).
Each of the heart’s upper receiving chambers is an atrium (plural: atria). Each of the lower
pumping chambers is a ventricle (plural: ventricles).

The chambers of the heart are divided by walls, each of which is called a septum. The
interventricular septum separates the two ventricles; the interatrial septum divides the two
atria. There is also a septum between the atrium and ventricle on each side. The heart pumps
blood through two circuits. The right side pumps blood to the lungs to be oxygenated through
the pulmonary circuit. The left side pumps to the remainder of the body through the systemic
circuit (Figure 2).

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Figure 1. The heart

Figure 2. Circulatory system: pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit

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2. The Vascular System
The vascular system consists of:
1. Arteries that carry blood away from the heart
2. Arterioles, vessels smaller than arteries that lead into the capillaries
3. Capillaries, the smallest vessels, through which exchanges take place between the blood
and the tissues
4. Venules, small vessels that receive blood from the capillaries and drain into the veins
5. Veins that carry blood back to the heart

All arteries, except the pulmonary artery (and the umbilical artery in the fetus), carry highly
oxygenated blood. They are thick-walled, elastic vessels that carry blood under high pressure.
All veins, except the pulmonary vein (and the umbilical vein in the fetus), carry blood low in
oxygen. Veins have thinner, less elastic walls and tend to give way under pressure. Like the
heart, veins have one-way valves that keep blood flowing forward.

Root for the Heart

Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

cardi/o heart cardiomyopathy* any disease of the heart

kar-dē-ō-mī-OP-a-thē muscle

oatri/o atrium Atriotomy surgical incision of an atrium

ā-trē-OT-ō-mē

ventricul/o cavity, Supraventricular above a ventricle

ventricle sū-pra-ven-TRIK-ū-lar

valv/o, valve Valvulotome instrument for incising a valve

valvul/o VAL-vū-lō-tōm

Roots for the Blood Vessels

Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

angi/o vessel angiography x-ray imaging of a vessel

an-jē-OG-ra-fē

vas/o, vessel, duct vasospasm sudden contraction of a

vascul/o VĀ-sō-spazm vessel

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 Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

arter/o, artery endarterial within an artery

arteri/o end-ar-TĒ-rē-al

arteriol/o arteriole arteriolar pertaining to an arteriole

ar-tē-rē-Ō-lar

aort/o aorta aortoptosis downward displacement of

ā-or-top-TŌ-sis the aorta

ven/o, ven/i vein venous pertaining to a vein

VĒ-nus

phleb/o vein phlebotomy incision of a vein to

fle-BOT-ō-mē withdraw blood

Cardiovascular Disorders
Term Definition

arrhythmia Any abnormality in the rate or rhythm of the heartbeat

a-RITH-mē-a (literally “without rhythm;” note doubled r). Also called
dysrhythmia

arteriosclerosis Hardening (sclerosis) of the arteries, with loss of capacity

ar-tēr-ē-ō-skler-Ō-sis and loss of elasticity, as from fatty deposits (plaque), deposit
of calcium salts, or scar tissue formation

atherosclerosis The development of fatty, fibrous patches (plaques) in the

ath-er-ō-skler-Ō-sis lining of arteries, causing narrowing of the lumen and
hardening of the vessel wall. The most common form of
arteriosclerosis is hardening of the arteries. The root ather/o
means “porridge” or “gruel”

angina pectoris A feeling of constriction around the heart or pain that may
an-JĪ-na PEK-tō-ris radiate to the left arm or shoulder, usually brought on by
exertion; caused by insufficient blood supply to the heart

cerebrovascular accident Sudden damage to the brain resulting from reduction of

(CVA) or stroke blood flow. Causes include atherosclerosis, embolism,
ser-e-brō-VAS-kū-lar thrombosis, or hemorrhage from a ruptured aneurysm;
commonly called stroke

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Term Definition

shock Circulatory failure resulting in an inadequate blood supply to

the tissues. Cardiogenic shock is caused by heart failure;
hypovolemic shock is caused by a loss of blood volume;
septic shock is caused by bacterial infection

occlusion A closing off or obstruction, as of a vessel

ō-KLŪ-zhun

plaque A patch. With regard to the cardiovascular system, a deposit

plak of fatty material and other substances on a vessel wall that
impedes blood flow and may block the vessel; atheromatous
plaque

dyspnea Difficult or labored breathing (-pnea)

DISP-nē-a

embolism Obstruction of a blood vessel by a blood clot or other matter

EM-bō-lizm carried in the circulation

embolus A mass carried in the circulation. Usually a blood clot, but

EM-bō-lus also may be air, fat, bacteria, or other solid matter from
within or from outside the body

edema Swelling of body tissues caused by the presence of excess

e-DĒ-ma fluid. Causes include cardiovascular disturbances, kidney
failure, inflammation, and malnutrition

fibrillation Spontaneous, quivering, and ineffectual contraction of

fi-bri-LĀ-shun muscle fibers, as in the atria or the ventricles

hypertension A condition of higher-than-normal blood pressure. Essential

hī-per-TEN-shun (primary, idiopathic) hyper- tension has no known cause

infarct An area of localized tissue necrosis (death) resulting from a

in-FARKT blockage or a narrowing of the artery that supplies the area

ischemia Local deficiency of blood supply caused by circulatory

is-KĒ-mē-a obstruction (root: hem/o)

syanosis bluish discoloration of the skin caused by lack of oxygen

sī-a-NŌ-sis

phlebitis Inflammation of a vein

fle-BĪ-tis

Term Definition

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 deep vein thrombosis Thrombophlebitis involving the deep veins
(DVT)

bradycardia A slow heart rate, of less than 60 bpm

brad-ē-KAR-dē-a

tachycardia An abnormally rapid heart rate, usually over 100 bpm

tak-i-KAR-dē-a

myocardial infarction (MI) Localized necrosis (death) of cardiac muscle tissue resulting
mī-ō-KAR-dē-al in-FARK- from blockage or narrowing of the coronary artery that
shun supplies that area. Myocardial infarction is usually caused by
formation of a thrombus (clot) in a vessel

rheumatic heart disease Damage to heart valves after infection with a type of
rū-MAT-ik Streptococcus (group A hemolytic Streptococcus). The
antibodies produced in response to the infection produce
valvular scarring usually involving the mitral valve

septal defect An opening in the septum between the atria or ventricles; a

SEP-tal common cause is persistence of the foramen ovale (for-Ā-
men ō-VAL-ē), an opening between the atria that bypasses
the lungs in fetal circulation

heart failure A condition caused by the inability of the heart to maintain

adequate blood circulation

angina pectoris A feeling of constriction around the heart or pain that may
an-JĪ-na PEK-tō-ris radiate to the left arm or shoulder, usually brought on by
exertion; caused by insufficient blood supply to the heart

patent ductus arteriosus Persistence of the ductus arteriosus after birth. The ductus
PĀ-tent DUK-tus ar-tēr-ē- arteriosus is a vessel that connects the pulmonary artery to
Ō-sus the descending aorta in the fetus to bypass the lungs

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is a widely distributed system with multiple functions. Its role in
circulation is to return excess fluid and proteins from the tissues to the bloodstream.
Blind-ended lymphatic capillaries pick up these materials in the tissues and carry them into
larger vessels. The fluid carried in the lymphatic system is called lymph. Lymph drains from
the lower part of the body and the upper left side into the thoracic duct (left lymphatic duct),

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which travels upward through the chest and empties into the left subclavian vein near the
heart.
The right lymphatic duct drains the body’s upper right side and empties into the right
subclavian vein (Figure 1).

Lymphatic Circulation
Another major function of the lymphatic system is to protect the body from impurities and
invading microorganisms. Along the path of the lymphatic vessels are small masses of
lymphoid tissue, the lymph nodes. Their function is to filter the lymph as it passes through.
They are concentrated in the cervical (neck), axillary (armpit), mediastinal (chest), and
inguinal (groin) regions (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Lymphatic system

Other protective organs and tissues of the lymphatic system include the (Figure 3):
1. Tonsils, located in the throat (pharynx). They filter inhaled or swallowed materials and
aid in immunity early in life.
2. Thymus in the chest, above the heart. It processes and stimulates lymphocytes active
in immunity.
3. Spleen in the upper left region of the abdomen. It filters blood and destroys old red
blood cells.
4. Appendix, attached to the large intestine. It may aid in the development of immunity.

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 5. Peyer patches, in the lining of the intestine. They help protect against invading
microorganisms.
A final function of the lymphatic system is to absorb digested fats from the small intestine.
These fats are then added to the blood with the lymph that drains from the thoracic duct.

Figure 2. Lymphatic circulation: Arrows show direction of flow of lymph and blood

Figure 3. Protective organs and tissues of the lymphatic system

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Roots for the Lymphatic System
Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

lymph/o lymph, lymphoid resembling lymph or lymphatic

lymphatic LIM-foyd tissue
system

lymphaden/o lymph node lymphadenitis inflammation of a lymph node

lim-fad-e-NĪ-tis

lymphangi/o lymphatic lymphangiogram x-ray image of lymphatic vessels

vessel lim-FAN-jē-ō-gram

splen/o spleen splenalgia pain in the spleen

splē-NAL-jē-a

thym/o thymus athymia absence of the thymus

a-THĪ-mē-a

tonsil/o tonsil tonsillar pertaining to a tonsil

TON-sil-ar

Key Clinical Terms

Term Definition

lymphedema swelling of tissues with lymph caused by obstruction or excision of

lim-fe-DĒ-ma lymphatic vessels

lymphoma any neoplastic disease of lymphoid tissue

lim-FŌ-ma

Lymphangitis is inflammation of lymphatic vessels. Note the linear red streak proximal
lim-fan-JĪ-tis to a skin infection

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Lec 3 College of Dentistry, Al Mustansiriyah University ‫د ﺑﺎن اﻏﺎ‬

MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous System
For study purposes, the nervous system may be divided structurally into two parts (Figure
1):
§ The central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord
§ The peripheral nervous system (PNS), consisting of all nervous tissue outside the brain
and spinal cord
Functionally, the nervous system can be divided into the:
§ Somatic nervous system, which controls skeletal muscles
§ Visceral or autonomic nervous system (ANS), which controls smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands. The ANS regulates responses to stress and helps to maintain
homeostasis.

Figure 1. Anatomic divisions of the nervous system.

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Neurons

Two types of cells are found in the nervous system. Neurons, or nerve cells, make up the
conducting tissue of the nervous system. Neuroglia are the cells that support and protect
nervous tissue. The neuron is the nervous system’s basic functional unit. Each neuron has two
types of fibers extending
from the cell body:
■ The dendrite carries impulses toward the cell body.
■ The axon carries impulses away from the cell body.
Some axons are covered with myelin, a whitish, fatty material that insulates and protects the
axon and speeds electric conduction. Axons so covered are described as myelinated, and they
make up the white matter of the nervous system. Unmyelinated tissue makes up the nervous
system’s gray matter.
Each neuron is part of a pathway that carries information through the nervous system. A
neuron that transmits impulses toward the CNS is a sensory, or afferent, neuron; a neuron
that transmits impulses away from the CNS is a motor, or efferent, neuron. There are also
connecting cells within the CNS called interneurons.
A synapse is the point of contact between two neurons. At the synapse, energy is passed from
one cell to another, usually by means of a neurotransmitter and sometimes by direct transfer
of electric current.

Figure 2. A motor neuron. The break in the axon denotes length. The arrows show the direction of
the nerve impulse.

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The Brain
The brain is nervous tissue contained within the cranium. It consists of the cerebrum,
diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain; it is
composed largely of white matter with a thin outer layer of gray matter, the cerebral cortex.
It is within the cortex that the higher brain functions of memory, reasoning, and abstract
thought occur (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Brain, sagittal section. The main divisions are shown.

Protecting the Brain

Within the brain are four ventricles (cavities) in which cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is formed. This
fluid circulates around the brain and spinal cord, acting as a protective cushion for these
tissues.
Covering the brain and the spinal cord are three protective layers, together called the
meninges. All are named with the Latin word mater, meaning “mother,” to indicate their
protective function (Figure 2). They are the:
1. Dura mater, the outermost and toughest of
the three. Dura means “hard.”
2. Arachnoid mater, the thin, web-like middle
layer. It is named for the Latin word for spider,
because it resembles a spider web.
3. Pia mater, the thin, vascular inner layer,
attached directly to the tissue of the brain and
spinal cord. Pia means “tender.”

Figure 2. The meninges. The three protective layers

and adjacent tissue are shown in a frontal section of
the head

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THE CRANIAL NERVES

Number Name Function

olfactory
I carries impulses for the sense of smell
ol-FAK-tō-rē
optic
II carries impulses for the sense of vision
OP-tik
oculomotor
III controls movement of eye muscles
ok-ū-lō-MŌ-tor
trochlear
IV controls a muscle of the eyeball
TROK-lē-ar
Trigeminal carries sensory impulses from the face; controls
V
trī-JEM-i-nal chewing muscles
abducens
VI controls a muscle of the eyeball
ab-DŪ-sens
controls muscles of facial expression, salivary
Facial
VII glands, and tear glands; conducts some impulses for
FĀ-shal
taste
vestibulocochlear
conducts impulses for hearing and equilibrium; also
VIII ves-tib-ū-lō-KOK-
called auditory or acoustic nerve
lē-ar
glossopharyngeal conducts sensory impulses from tongue and
IX glos-ō-fa-RIN-jē- pharynx; stimulates parotid salivary gland and
al partly controls swallowing
vagus supplies most organs of thorax and abdomen;
X
VĀ-gus controls digestive secretions
spinal accessory
XI controls muscles of the neck
ak-SES-ō-rē
hypoglossal
XII controls muscles of the tongue
hī-pō-GLOS-al

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THE SPINAL NERVES

Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves connect with the spinal Cord. These
nerves are grouped in the segments of the cord as follows (Figure 3):
• Cervical: 8
• Thoracic: 12
• Lumbar: 5
• Sacral: 5
• Coccygeal: 1

Figure 3. Spinal cord, lateral view. The divisions of the spinal nerves are shown.

Roots for the Nervous System and the Spinal Cord

Root Meaning Example Definition of Example
neur/o, nervous system, Neurotrophin factor that promotes nerve
neur/i nervous tissue, nū-rō-TRŌ-fin growth (troph/o means
nerve “nourish”)
gli/o neuroglia glial pertaining to neuroglia
GLĪ-al
gangli/o, ganglion ganglioma tumor of a ganglion
ganglion/o gang-glē-Ō-ma
mening/o, meninges meningocele hernia of the meninges
meninge/o me-NING-gō-sēl
myel/o spinal cord (also hematomyelia hemorrhage into the spinal
bone marrow) hē-ma-tō-mī-Ē-lē-a cord
radicul/o spinal nerve root radiculopathy Any disease of a spinal nerve
ra-dik-u--LOP-a-the root

Roots for the Brain

Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

encephal/o brain Anencephaly absence of a brain

an-en-SEF-a-le

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 Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

cerebr/o cerebrum (loosely, infracerebral below the cerebrum

brain) in-fra-SER-e-bral

cortic/o cerebral cortex, corticospinal pertaining to the

outer portion kor-ti-ko--SPI--nal cerebral cortex and
spinal cord

cerebell/o cerebellum supracerebellar above the cerebellum

su--pra-ser-e-BEL-ar

thalam/o thalamus thalamotomy Incision of the thalamus

thal-a-MOT-o—me

ventricul/o cavity, ventricle intraventricular within a ventricle

in-tra-ven-TRIK-u--lar

medull/o medulla oblongata medullary pertaining

(also spinal cord) MED-u--lar-e to the medulla

medull/o medulla oblongata medullary pertaining

(also spinal cord) MED-u--lar-e to the medulla

psych/o mind psychogenic originating in the mind

sī-kō-JEN-ik

narc/o stupor, narcosis state of stupor induced

unconsciousness nar-KŌ-sis by drugs

somn/o, sleep somnolence sleepiness

somn/i SOM-nō-lens

Suffixes for the Nervous System

Suffix Meaning Example Definition of Example
-phasia speech heterophasia uttering words that are different
het-er-ō-FĀ-zē-a from those intended
-lalia speech, babble coprolalia compulsive use of obscene words
kop-rō-LĀ-lē-a (copro- means “feces”)
-lexia reading bradylexia slowness in reading
brad-ē-LEK-sē-a
-plegia paralysis tetraplegia paralysis of all four limbs
tet-ra-PLE--jē-a

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 Suffix Meaning Example Definition of Example
-paresis* partial hemiparesis partial paralysis of one side of the
paralysis, hem-i-pa-RĒ-sis body
weakness
-lepsy seizure narcolepsy condition marked by sudden
NAR-kō-lep-sē episodes of sleep
-phobia* persistent, agoraphobia fear of being in a public place (from
irrational fear ag-o-ra-FŌ-bē-a Greek agora, meaning
“marketplace”)
-mania* excited state, megalomania exaggerated self-importance;
obsession meg-a-lō-MĀ-nē-a “delusions of grandeur”

Key Terms
Term Definition
afferent Carrying toward a given point, such as the sensory neurons and nerves
AF-er-ent that carry impulses toward the CNS (root fer means “to carry”)
efferent Carrying away from a given point, such as the motor neurons and
EF-er-ent nerves that carry impulses away from the CNS (root fer means “to
carry”)
axon The fiber of a neuron that conducts impulses away from the cell body
AK-son
gray matter Unmyelinated tissue of the nervous system
white matter Myelinated tissue of the nervous system
synapse The junction between two neurons; also the junction between a motor
SIN-aps neuron and a muscle or gland
concussion Injury resulting from a violent blow or shock; a brain concussion usually
kon-KUSH-un results in loss of consciousness
confusion A state of reduced comprehension, coherence, and reasoning ability
kon-FŪ-zhun resulting in inappropriate responses to environmental stimuli
seizure A sudden attack, as seen in epilepsy. The most common forms of
SĒ-zhur seizure are tonic–clonic, or grand mal (gran mal) (from French,
meaning “great illness”); absence seizure, or petit mal (pet-Ē mal),
meaning “small illness;” and psychomotor seizure
epilepsy A chronic disease involving periodic sudden bursts of electric activity
EP-i-lep-sē from the brain, resulting in seizures

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Term Definition
convulsion A series of violent, involuntary muscle contractions. A tonic convulsion
kon-VUL-shun involves prolonged muscle contraction; in a clonic convulsion, there is
alternation of contraction and relaxation. Both forms appear in grand
mal epilepsy
encephalitis Inflammation of the brain
en-sef-a-LĪ-tis
dementia A gradual and usually irreversible loss of intellectual function
dē-MEN-shē-a
hemiplegia Paralysis of one side of the body
hem-i-PLĒ-jē-a
meningitis Inflammation of the meninges
men-in-JĪ-tis
narcolepsy Brief, uncontrollable episodes of sleep during the day
NAR-kō-lep-sē

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Lec 4 College of Dentistry, Al Mustansiriyah University ‫د ﺑﺎن اﻏﺎ‬

Medical Terminology: Cell, Tissue, and Organs

Body organisation
All organisms are built from simple to more complex levels
(Figure 1). Chemicals form the materials that make up cells,
which are the body’s structural and functional units. Groups
of cells working together make up tissues, which in turn
make up the organs, which have specialized functions.
Organs become components of the various systems, which
together comprise the whole organism.

The Cell
The cell is the basic unit of living organisms (Figure 2). Cells
accomplish all the activities and produce all the components
of the body. They carry out metabolism, the sum of all the
body’s physical and chemical activities. They provide the
energy for metabolic reactions in the form of the chemical
ATP (adenosine triphosphate), commonly described as the
energy compound of the cell.

Figure 1. Levels of organization. The organ shown is

the stomach, which is part of the digestive system.

The main categories of organic compounds contained in cells are:

1. Proteins, which include the enzymes, some hormones, and structural materials.
2. Carbohydrates, which include sugars and starches. The main carbohydrate is the sugar
glucose, which circulates in the blood to provide energy for the cells.
3. Lipids, which include fats. Some hormones are derived from lipids, and adipose (fat) tissue
is designed to store lipids.
Within the cytoplasm that fills the cell are subunits called organelles, each with a specific
function. Diseases may affect specific parts of cells. Cystic fibrosis and diabetes, for example,
involve the plasma membrane. Other disorders originate with mitochondria, the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), lysosomes, or peroxisomes.

22
Figure 2. Generalized animal cell, sectional view. The main organelles are shown.

The nucleus is the control region of the cell. It contains the

chromosomes, which carry genetic information.
Each human cell, aside from the reproductive (sex) cells,
contains 46 chromosomes.
These thread-like structures are composed of a complex
organic substance, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which is
organized into separate units called genes.
Genes control the formation of proteins, most particularly
enzymes, the catalysts needed to speed the rate of metabolic
reactions. To help manufacture proteins, the cells use a
compound called RNA (ribonucleic acid), which is chemically
related to DNA. Changes (mutations) in the genes or
chromosomes are the source of hereditary diseases.
When a body cell divides by the process of mitosis (Figure 3),
the chromosomes are doubled and then equally distributed to
the two daughter cells. When a cell is not dividing, it remains
in a stage called interphase.
In cancer, cells multiply without control causing cellular
overgrowth and tumors.
Reproductive cells (eggs and sperm) divide by a related
process, meiosis, that halves the chromosomes in preparation
for fertilization.
The study of cells is cytology (sī-TOL-ō-jē), based on the root
cyt/o, meaning “cell.
Figure 3. Mitosis, the stages in cell division

23
Tissues
Cells are organized into four basic types of tissues that perform specific functions (Figure 4 &
5):
1. Epithelial (ep-i-THĒ-lē-al) tissue covers and protects body structures and lines organs,
vessels, and cavities. Simple epithelium, composed of cells in a single layer, functions to
absorb substances from one system to another, as in the respiratory and digestive tracts.
Stratified epithelium, with cells in multiple layers, protects deeper tissues, as in the mouth
and vagina. Most of the active cells in glands are epithelial cells.
2. Connective tissue supports and binds body structures. It contains fibers and other non-
living material between the cells. Included in this category are blood, adipose (fat) tissue,
cartilage, and bone.

Figure 4. Epithelial tissue.

3. Muscle tissue (root: my/o) contracts to produce movement. There are three types of
muscle tissue:
a. Skeletal muscle moves the skeleton. It has visible cross-bands, or striations, that are
involved in contraction. Because it is under conscious control, it is also called voluntary
muscle.
b. Cardiac muscle forms the heart. It functions without conscious control and is described as
involuntary.
c. Smooth or visceral muscle forms the walls of the abdominal organs; it is also involuntary.
The walls of ducts and blood vessels also are composed mainly of smooth muscle.

24
4. Nervous tissue (root: neur/o) makes up the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It coordinates
and controls body responses by the transmission of electrical impulses. The basic cell in
nervous tissue is the neuron, or nerve cell.

Figure 5. Types of tissue

Roots for Cells and Tissues

Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

morph/o form polymorphous having many forms

pol-ē-MOR-fus

cyt/o, - cell cytologist one who studies cells

cyte sī-TOL-ō-jist

nucle/o nucleus nuclear pertaining to a nucleus

NŪ-klē-ar

kary/o nucleus karyotype picture of a cell’s chromosomes

KAR-ē-ō-tīp organized according to size

hist/o, tissue histocompatibility tissue similarity that permits

histi/o his-tō-kom-pat-i-BIL-i-tē transplantation

fibr/o fiber fibrosis abnormal formation of fibrous

fī-BRŌ-sis tissue

25
Roots for Cells and Tissues
Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

reticulum
reticul/o network a network
re-TIK-ū-lum

aden/o gland ad-e-NŌ-ma tumor (-oma) of a gland

papilla
papill/o nipple projection that resembles a nipple
pa-PIL-a

myxadenitis inflammation (-itis) of a mucus-

myx/o mucus
miks-ad-e-NĪ-tis secreting gland

Mucus, mucorrhea
muc/o increased flow (-rhea) of mucus
mucous mū-kō-RĒ-a

somat/o, Body, small hromosome small body that takes up color

-some body KRŌ-mō-sōm (dye) (chrom/o)

Roots for Cell Activity

Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

immature cell,
blast/o, - histioblast
productive cell, a tissue-forming cell
blast HIS-tē-ō-blast
embryonic cell

karyogenesis
gen origin, formation kar-ē-ō-JEN-e- formation of a nucleus
sis

Autophagy self (auto)-destruction of a cell’s

phag/o eat, ingest
aw-TOF-a-jē organelles

basophilic
phil attract, absorb attracting basic stain
bā-sō-FIL-ik

formation,
hyperplasia overdevelopment of an organ or
plas molding,
hī-per-PLĀ-zē-a tissue
development

chronotropic
trop act on, affect affecting rate or timing (chron/o)
kron-o-TROP-ik

feeding, growth, atrophy

troph/o tissue wasting
nourishment A-trō-fē

26
Suffixes for Body Chemistry
Suffix Meaning Example Definition of Example

-ase enzyme lipase enzyme that digests fat (lipid)

LĪ-pa-s

-ose sugar lactose milk sugar

LAK-to-s

Roots for Body Chemistry

Root Meaning Example Definition of Example

hydration addition of water, relative amount

hydr/o water, fluid
hī-DRĀ-shun of water present

glucogenesis
gluc/o glucose production of glucose
glū-kō-JEN-e-sis

normoglycemia
sugar,
glyc/o nor-mō-glī-SĒ- normal blood sugar level
glucose
mē-a

polysaccharide compound containing many simple

sacchar/o sugar
pol-ē-SAK-a-rīd sugars

amyloid
amyl/o starch resembling starch
AM-i-loyd

lipophilic
lip/o lipid, fat attracting or absorbing lipids
lip-ō-FIL-ik

adiposuria
adip/o fat presence of fat in the urine (ur/o)
ad-i-pō-SŪR-ē-a

steatorrhea
steat/o fatty discharge (-rhea) of fatty stools
stē-a-tō-RĒ-a

protease
prote/o protein enzyme that digests protein
PRŌ-tē-ās

27
Supplementary Terms
Key terms Definition

amino acids The nitrogen-containing compounds that make up proteins

a-MĒ-nō

anabolism The type of metabolism in which body substances are made; the
a-NAB-ō-lizm building phase of metabolism

catabolism The type of metabolism in which substances are broken down for
ka-TAB-ō-lizm energy and simple compounds

collagen A fibrous protein found in connective tissue

KOL-a-jen

cortex The outer region of an organ

KOR-tex

glycogen A complex sugar compound stored in liver and muscles and broken
GLĪ-kō-jen down into glucose when needed for energy

interstitial Between parts, such as the spaces between cells in a tissue

in-ter-STISH-al

medulla The inner region of an organ, marrow (root: medull/o)

me-DUL-la

parenchyma The functional tissue of an organ

par-EN-ki-ma

parietal Pertaining to a wall, describes a membrane that lines a body cavity

pa-RĪ-e-tal

soma The body

SŌ-ma

stem cell An immature cell that has the capacity to develop into any of a
variety of different cell types, a precursor cell

visceral Pertaining to the internal organs, describes a membrane on the

VIS-er-al surface of an organ

28
Lec 5 College of Dentistry, Al Mustansiriyah University ‫د ﺑﺎن اﻏﺎ‬

ACADEMIC WRITING

Ten Principles of Academic Writing

1. Clear Purpose. The goal of your paper is to answer the question you posed as your
topic. Your question gives you a purpose. The most common purposes in academic writing
are to persuade, analyse/synthesize, and inform.
• Persuasive purpose In persuasive academic writing, the purpose is to get your readers
to adopt your answer to the question. So you will choose one answer to your question,
support your answer using reason and evidence, and try to change the readers’ point of
view about the topic. Persuasive writing assignments include argumentative and position
papers.
• Analytical purpose In analytical academic writing, the purpose is to explain and evaluate
possible answers to your question, choosing the best answer(s) based on your own
criteria. Analytical assignments often investigate causes, examine effects, evaluate
effectiveness, assess ways to solve problems, find the relationships between various
ideas, or analyse other people’s arguments. The “synthesis” part of the purpose comes
in when you put together all the parts and come up with your own answer to the
question. Examples of these assignments include analysis papers and critical analyses.
• Informative purpose In informative academic writing, the purpose is to explain possible
answers to your question, giving the readers new information about your topic. This
differs from an analytical topic in that you do not push your viewpoint on the readers,
but rather try to enlarge the readers’ view.

2. Audience Engagement. As with all writing, academic writing is directed to a specific

audience in mind. Unless your instructor says otherwise, consider your audience to be fellow
students with the same level of knowledge as yourself. As students in the field, they are
interested in your topic, but perhaps not so interested in reading a paper. So you will have to
engage them with your ideas and catch their interest with your writing style. Imagine that
they are also sceptical, so that you must use the appropriate reasoning and evidence to
convince them of your ideas.

3. Clear Point of View. Academic writing, even that with an informative purpose, is not
just a list of facts or summaries of sources. Although you will present other people’s ideas and
research, the goal of your paper is to show what you think about these things. Your paper will

29
have and support your own original idea about the topic. This is called the thesis statement,
and it is your answer to the question.

4. Single Focus. Every paragraph (even every sentence) in your paper will support your
thesis statement. There will be no unnecessary, irrelevant, unimportant, or contradictory
information (Your paper will likely include contradictory or alternative points of view, but you
will respond to and critique them to further strengthen your own point of view).

5. Logical Organization. Academic writing follows a standard organizational pattern. For

academic essays and papers, there is an introduction, body, and conclusion. Each paragraph
logically leads to the next one.
• The introduction catches the readers’ attention, provides background information, and
lets the reader know what to expect. It also has the thesis statement.
• The body paragraphs support the thesis statement. Each body paragraph has one main
point to support the thesis, which is named in a topic sentence. Each point is then
supported in the paragraph with logical reasoning and evidence. Each sentence connects
to the one before and after it. The readers do not have to work to find the connection
between ideas.
• The conclusion summarises the paper’s thesis and main points and shows the reader the
significance of the paper’s findings.
•
6. Strong Support. Each body paragraph will have sufficient and relevant support for the
topic sentence and thesis statement. This support will consist of facts, examples,
description, personal experience, and expert opinions and quotations.

7. Clear and Complete Explanations. This is very important! As the writer, you need
to do all the work for the reader. The reader should not have to think hard to understand
your ideas, logic, or organization. English readers expect everything to be done for them;
your thoughts and thought processes should be clearly and completely explained.

8. Effective Use of Research. Your paper should refer to a variety of current, high-
quality, professional and academic sources. You will use your research to support your
own ideas; therefore, it must be integrated into your writing and not presented
separately. That means that source material will be introduced, analysed, explained, and
then cited.

9. Correct APA Style. Some academic papers should follow the guidelines of the
American Psychological Association as found in Research and APA Style Guide 2010,

30
 regarding in-text citations, the reference list, and format. Follow your instructor’s
directions.

10. Writing Style. Because this is your work, you should use your own words whenever
possible. Do not try to write like a boring, overly formal scholarly article. Use the natural
conversational style that you would use in the classroom. Your writing should be clear,
concise, and easy to read. It is also very important that there are no grammar, spelling,
punctuation, or vocabulary mistakes in academic writing. Errors convey to the reader that
you do not care.
And finally, this rule will override all the principles: ALWAYS FOLLOW THE DIRECTIONS OF
YOUR INSTRUCTOR. Every instructor has a reason for giving you an assignment, and each
instructor's requirements may differ. Follow your instructor’s directions to get the most
from an assignment.

31
Lec 6 College of Dentistry, Al Mustansiriyah University ‫د ﺑﺎن اﻏﺎ‬

ACADEMIC WRITING

Key differences between a report and an essay

1. Purpose
Reports are the presentation and analysis of findings from practical research. They begin
with an aim (to investigate, to explore) and probably a hypothesis (a proposition that the
research will test). Depending on the guidelines or purpose, a report may make
recommendations.

Essays begin with a question and seek to answer that question based on research into existing
theories and through the writer’s own evaluation. An essay may include results of practical
research but only in so far as it may help support the writer’s conclusions.

2. Content
Reports are generally descriptive, reporting sequential events (experiments or fixed results
from surveys etc). However, they involve an evaluation in either the conclusion or
recommendations sections.

Essays can be descriptive, discursive, evaluative, etc. This is dependent on the process given
in the essay question. Content usually involves a synthesis of knowledge gained from existing
texts and from the author's own opinions and argument.

3. Format
Both essays and reports use an introduction and conclusion format. The main content,
findings, analysis etc. come inbetween.
A report generally has a fixed structure. The choice of sections will depend on the purpose
of your report and, while at university, the preferences of your tutor or department.

In an essay, the thought process taken from the question dictates the structure of the main
body of an essay.

32
Parts of a Report

• Title page
• Table of contents
• Executive Summary
• Introduction
• Findings
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• Bibliography
• Appendices Write this first before the rest
of the report

33
Differences between an academic Report and an Essay

Report Essay
The topic based on reading and/or based on reading and critical thinking
practical work May be:
May be: • a question
• a problem • a proposition
• a case study
• an experiment
The purpose to investigate, present and to articulate a well-argued response
analyse information
May be:
to make recommendations
The outcome presentation of findings conclusion drawn from evaluation or
may recommend action or argument
change may recommend action or change
The reader May be: lecturer
• lecturer
• client
• manager
The format • sections with headings • sections may include headings
• headings numbered • headings not numbered

The content • must include introduction, • must include introduction,

conclusion and references conclusion and references
• may include • choice of other sections depends
recommendation on structure of argument
• choice of other sections
depends on purpose

The style • impersonal • impersonal

• objective • can be subjective (based on
evaluation)

Assessment Success depends on: Success depends on:

• the demonstration of good • how well the proposition is
research skills established
• the objective presentation • how one point relates to the next
and analysis of relevant
information

34
Lec 7 College of Dentistry, Al Mustansiriyah University ‫د ﺑﺎن اﻏﺎ‬

ACADEMIC WRITING

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is taking the words, theories, creations or ideas of another person and passing
them off as your own.
Plagiarism can be deliberate – copying a passage from a book or journal or pasting something
from the internet into an assignment without referencing the original source.
You can also commit inadvertent plagiarism which is where you unintentionally repeat some
of the information you have read in the course of your research. You must ensure you
do reference ALL material that comes from another source so question yourself as to
whether you have read the information elsewhere and go back to your sources to locate the
reference.
Plagiarism can also result from not referencing correctly. You must ensure you know how to
reference your work using the style advised by your tutor.

Plagiarism can occur in lots of different ways:

• copying a chunk of text from someone else’s writing without citing the source
• paraphrasing what someone else said but not showing who said it or where the idea
came from
• putting your references into your bibliography , but not indicating in the text of your
paper where these sources are used
• copying anything that is created by someone else, such as images, tables, graphs, etc,
into your paper and not naming the source
• copying from another student’ s paper , or even from one of your own papers
• acquiring a complete essay from another source, such as buying it off the net. This
really is academic misconduct

Imprint it on your brain – Plagiarism is always wrong; there are no times when it is acceptable.
If you use someone else’s words or ideas, you must always reference them.

Consequences for plagiarism

Plagiarism is a serious issue that can result in failing an assignment, failing the year or even
having to leave the course.
To avoid plagiarism, make sure you include references within your assignment to all sources
you use and then include full details of all the sources in a reference list at the end of your
work.

35
Citing your source within the text
As the name suggests, the citation in the text normally includes the name(s) (surname only)
of the author(s) and the date of the publication. This information is usually included in
brackets at the most appropriate point in the text.

An example for citation within the text:

Heritable differences in craniofacial structures have been shown between OSA patients and
controls (Agha and Johal, 2017).
Bibliography (Reference list):
Agha B, Johal A. Facial phenotype in obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome: a
systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sleep Res 2017; 26: 122–131.

When a publication has several authors, It is usual to give the surname of the first author
followed by et al. (an abbreviation of the Latin for 'and the others') although for works with
just two authors both names may be given, as shown in the above example.
Research using techniques such as ICP-OES (optical emission spectrometry in inductively
coupled plasma) or ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) may provide
answers to questions related to the release of, for example, silver or zirconium ions from
composites containing S–P (Sleibi et al, 2019).

References in an essay or report

At the end of your essay or report you should include a list of references. Such a list
of references provides more details than just the name of the author and the year of
publication. It's this list that allows identifying the work cited. Each work you cited in the essay
or report is cited once, and listed in alphabetical order.

These details should include:

• surname(s) and initial(s) of the author(s);
• the date of publication;
• the title of the text;
• if it is a paper, the title of the journal and volume number;
• if it is a chapter of an edited book, the book's title and editor(s)
the publisher and place of publication;
• the first and last page numbers if it is a journal article or a chapter in an edited book.

For particularly important points, or for parts of texts that you might wish to quote word for
word, also include in your notes the specific page reference. There are different styles of
using references and bibliographies.

36
Referencing styles
There are many different referencing conventions in common use. Each department will
have its own preferred format, and every journal or book editor has a set of 'house rules’.
The commonly used formats, the 'author, date' system. The most popular styles are:

MLA style: Agha, Bahn, and Ama Johal. "Facial phenotype in obstructive sleep apnea–
hypopnea syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis." Journal of sleep research 26.2
(2017): 122-131.
APA style: Agha, B., & Johal, A. (2017). Facial phenotype in obstructive sleep apnea–
hypopnea syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of sleep
research, 26(2), 122-131.
Harvard style: Agha, B. and Johal, A., 2017. Facial phenotype in obstructive sleep apnea–
hypopnea syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of sleep
research, 26(2), pp.122-131.
Vancouver style: Agha B, Johal A. Facial phenotype in obstructive sleep apnea–hypopnea
syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of sleep research. 2017
Apr;26(2):122-31.

Book references
The simplest format, for a book reference, includes the following:
• the surnames and forenames or initials of both the authors;
• the date of publication;
• the book title;
• the place of publication;
• the name of the publisher.
Example:
Knapper, C.K. and Cropley, A. 1991: Lifelong Learning and Higher Education. London: Croom
Helm.

Lecture References
Full references to unpublished oral presentations, such as lectures, usually include the
speaker's name, the date of the lecture, the name of the lecture or of the lecture series, and
the location:
Agha, B. 2020 (7 July): Cell, Tissue and Organ Terminology, Lecture 4. College of Dentistry,
Al-Mustansiriyah University.

37
Web page or website Reference

Information on the internet changes rapidly and web pages move or are sometimes
inaccessible meaning it can often be difficult to validate or even find information cited from
the internet. When referencing web pages it is helpful to include details that will help other
people check or follow up the information.

An example:
Little, J.W. and Parker, R. 2010. How to read a scientific paper.
[http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~cainproj/courses/HowToReadSciArticle.pdf]. Accessed
August 24, 2011.

*note that the "author" of a website often is an organization, a government or a university.

Sometimes the link is very long and then you may shorten the URL, but think of that you lose
useful information included in the original link i.e. the name of governmental body or
university responsible for the document.

38
Lec 8 College of Dentistry, Al Mustansiriyah University ‫د ﺑﺎن اﻏﺎ‬

Written Communications in Academia and Clinical Setting

Communications at Clinical Setting: Referral letters

A referral is essentially a request for assistance regarding a patient, from an appropriate

colleague. This may be a referral from primary care (health centres) to secondary care
(hospitals) or occasionally between clinicians in secondary care. Common principles apply to
both.
The referring dentist may require a second opinion, or in many cases, the referral may also
request that management of a patient be undertaken. Such a referral requires the transfer of
information between the referring dental surgeon and, in many cases, a specialist, and may
take a verbal, electronic or written form.
Often, the referral may be an elective process following discussion between the patient and
clinician regarding treatment options. However, on other occasions, the referral may require
the prompt attention of a specialist to deal with an urgent concern raised by the patient or
clinician. In order to facilitate the efficient referral of a patient, a few simple principles should
be followed and these are discussed later.

When to refer
You can work within your knowledge, professional competence and physical abilities. Refer
patients for a second opinion and for further advice when it is necessary, or if the patient
asks. Refer patients for further treatment when it is necessary to do so.
As such, the need for referral may be that the situation lies outside:
• the knowledge;
• the skill;
• the experience; or
• the facilities available to the referring dentist.

How to refer
Many attempts have been made to produce standard pro forma letters to simplify the process
of referral. Standard letters are also considered by some to improve the information, which
is provided by prompting the referrer for information.

39
Emergency referrals may also be made by telephone call. It is important to keep a record of
the telephone conversation, and best practice is to follow this up with a letter. The letter
should refer to the telephone conversation and provide the appropriate details expected in
any referral. The use of electronic mail or online referral of patients has yet to become
common practice, but many centres are now developing this service.

Minimum data to be included in the letter of referral

• Referring dentist’s name, address and a telephone number
• The patient’s name, date of birth, address and telephone number
• An indication of the urgency of the referral
• The presenting complaint
• History of the presenting complaint
• Clinical findings
• Relevant medical history
• Whether an opinion or management is sought

Reported information

Other than the essential demographic data required to contact the patient, the nature of the
problem is the next most important information. This should follow the order of a simple
patient assessment. Where appropriate, the patient’s presenting complaint and history of the
complaint should be given, along with the treatment history subsequent to presentation.

Clinical findings should be summarised as follows:

• Accurate description of site size and nature of lesion(s)
• A brief report of radiographic findings
• Results of other investigations

40
Referral Template

[Senders Name]
[Address line]
[Providence]

[Letter Date]

[Recipients Name]
[Address line]
[Providence]

[Subject: Normally bold, summarizes the intention of the letter]

Dear [Recipients Name],

Good day! I am Dr. Bahn Agha, an orthodontist under the consultancy Group of Al-
Mustansiriyah Dental Hospital.

I would like to refer to you Samih Mohammed, a 14-year old boy who I have treat him
since he was 12 years old. He is being recently suffering from dental pain in the upper left
region of the upper arch. I am confident that your clinic is very able to see to the health
needs of this child.

Please do accept him under your care.

Sincerely,

[Senders Name]
[Senders Title] -Optional-

[Enclosures: number] - Optional -

cc: [Name of copy recipient] - Optional -

41
Sample

Patient name: Medical health centre name:

Date of birth (DOB):
Address:
Telephone:

Dear Dr Agha
I am writing to refer the above named patient for assessment and subsequent treatment
of a grossly carious 46, the tooth is being unrestorable. The 46 has been dressed and the
patient is currently asymptomatic, as such an urgent appointment is not required.
Mr Ali had a laryngeal cancer treated in Al Amal Hospital, December 2015, managed with
surgery and subsequent radiation. No other medical problems were noted, the patient
currently taking no medications. Mr Ali smokes 29 cigarettes per day.
I enclose a recent periapical radiographs and would be grateful for its return on
completion of treatment.

Signed:
Print name:

Communication at University: Email etiquette

How do I write an effective email?

Email is a very common mode of communication at university, in the workplace and socially.
It's important to get the tone and style of your email right, as this will help you make a good
impression and hopefully get the response you're looking for.

Email template
Below is a template you can follow and adjust when you want to email a lecturer, tutor, or
coordinator. Each element is numbered and explained further underneath.

• (1) Subject: [Subject code] - [question about / request for etc.]

• (2) Dear (3) [Professor / Dr etc.] [insert name],
• (4) I am a student in your [insert subject name] lecture.

42
• (5) I have a question regarding the lecture presented last [insert day/date] which I
couldn't find the answer to.
• Should our essay draw only on readings listed on the syllabus or can I incorporate scholarly
articles I read on my own, as long as it fits with the subject of the assignment?
• I look forward to hearing from you.
• (6) Kind regards,
[Your name]

The fundamental components of an effective email:

1) Use a concise and direct subject line

Subject code + Problem/Enquiry
The subject line should be simple and reflect the content of your email. Something like
“Question about [Class Name] paper” or “Meeting request” is clear and appropriate.

2) Use an appropriate salutation

Start your email with a “Dear” or “Hello”, these are appropriate in formal situations.
“Hey” is ok when you're emailing friends, but would be too informal in this context.

3) Address the recipient appropriately (both title and name)

Double-check the spelling of your lecturer or tutor’s name and their title. Try to avoid
gendered addresses like ‘Mr.’ or ‘Mrs.’

4) Introduce yourself
Tell your lecturer who you are, especially if this is the first email you've written to
them. They may have hundreds of students across different subjects.

5) Keep the body short and straight to the point

Try to use one paragraph for each idea you want to address. Writing everything in one
long paragraph can be confusing for the reader.

6) End with a clear closing

It's good practice to sign off at the end of an email with a set phrase such as ‘Kind
regards’, ‘Best wishes’, or ‘Thanks’, followed by your name.

43