THIRD TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: ECONOMICS CLASS: SSS 1

WEEK ONE

DISTRIBUTIVE TRADE:
Distributive Trade-which is also known as the chain of distribution, refers to the various stages or channels
through which finished goods are moved from the manufacturers/producers to the final consumers .That is,
it is the process of getting goods from the producer to the final consumers. There are various channels
through which goods get to the final consumer commonly called channel of distribution. The common
channel through which the consumer get the goods is represented as:

Manufacturer /Producer Wholesaler Retailer Final consumer

PROCESS OF DISTRIBUTION
Process of Distribution- involves all human and physical means which aid the smooth transfer of goods
from the manufacturers to the final consumers. The process of distribution involves:
1. Middlemen- the middlemen or agents are human elements involved in the distribution of goods from the
producers to the final consumers, eg wholesaler and retailer
2. Transportation- is the medium through which the finished goods are moved by air, land or water from
the manufacturers to the final consumers
3. Advertisement- is the process of creating awareness in the mind of the public about the existence of a
product.
4. Warehousing- is a process through which the goods produced are stored until they are needed.

THE WHOLESALER
A wholesaler may be defined as the trader who buy goods in large quantity from the producer and sells in
small quantity to the retailer. The wholesaler is an essential and desirable element in the channel of
distribution and production. He is sometimes called a middleman because he is in-between the producer and
the retailer.

FUNCTIONS OF WHOLESALER TO THE PRODUCER

1. Bulk breaking: This is one of the most essential functions of the wholesaler as he is able to satisfy the
needs of purchasing in large quantity from the producer.
2. The wholesaler finances the producer by making prompt or advance payment for goods.
3. He also finances the retailer by giving credit facility to them.
4. He helps to make the prices of goods stable especially where production is irregular.
5. He provides warehousing or storage facilities for goods bought.
6. He gives vital information about market situation to the producer.
7. He completes the manufacturing of some goods by doing the packaging and branding.
8. Wholesalers help to create markets for producers and themselves through large scale advertising use
of sales representatives etc.

FUNCTIONS OF WHOLESALER TO THE RETAILER

1. He enables the retailer to stock variety of goods
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 2. He provides the retailer with credit facilities
3. He advices the retailer based on his expert knowledge of the product
4. He provides a link between the producer and the retailer
5. He helps to transport goods to the retailer’s shop

THE RETAILER
A retailer may be defined as the trader who buys goods in small quantity from the wholesaler or directly
from the manufacturer and sell in units to the final consumer.

He is essentially in the channel of distribution because he is the last link to the consumer, so he is also a
middleman.

Retail trade can be broadly classified into two types namely; 1. Small scale retail trade 2. Large scale retail
trade

Small scale retail trade comprises of kiosk, market or stallholder retailing, street or road side retailing, cycle
boys, mobile shops retailing, itinerant or hawking retailing etc.

Large scale retailing can be the form of department stores, multiple shops, supermarkets, mail–order
business, hyper markets, and retail co-operative societies.

FUNCTION OF THE RETAILER

1. The retailer stocks variety of goods in order to satisfy the taste of the consumer.
2. He brings goods to the consumer thus saving the consumer the inconvenience of going far.
3. He assist the producer and wholesaler in promoting lesser known goods
4. He advises the consumer and wholesaler on how to use certain products and about new development in
the market
5. He provides after-sales services especially for technical products like computer, television, typewriters
etc.
6. He finances the consumer by selling at time on credit.
7. He completes the distribution chain by making goods available to the consumer ; thus completing
production
8. He provides market information to buyers and sellers
9. He advertises the goods through fascinating window displays

WEEK TWO
THE MIDDLEMEN
The middlemen are the wholesalers and the retailers who are in-between the producers and the consumers.
They specialize in performing activities relating to purchase and sales of goods in the process of their flow
from the manufacturers to the final consumers. The presence of the middlemen in the distributive trade
cannot be overlooked as they play a vital role in linking the producers with the ultimate consumers for
effective trading activities.

ARGUMENT FOR OR SURVIVAL OF MIDDLEMEN

Sometimes, middlemen form organizations that are influential enough to control prices. The middlemen
have continued to wax stronger in spite of all the strong arguments for their elimination. The functions being
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performed by the middlemen to both the producers and ultimate consumers cannot be performed by either
the manufacturers or the consumers. In spite of all these criticisms, it becomes clear that middlemen will
continue to flourish because of the vital role they play in the distribution of goods between the producers and
the final consumers.

ARGUMENT AGAINST OR ELIMINATION OF MIDDLEMEN

The wholesaler is sometimes regarded as an unnecessary feature of the economics organization for the
following reasons
1. High prices of goods – he causes unnecessary price increase by adding to the cost of goods without
directly adding value to it.
2. Creating an artificial scarcity of products by hoarding part of their goods in order to earn higher
prices for themselves
3. Tax evasion: despite the fact that wholesaler earn a lot of profit, many of them evade tax.
4. Payment of low producer prices to farmers for their agricultural produce.
5. Disguised Unemployment: the presence of wholesaler encourages large scale disguised
unemployment. They are usually under-employed
6. Existence of middlemen makes the chain of distribution of goods longer
7. The middlemen, sometimes, misinform the consumers
8. The middlemen can cause price fluctuation of goods in the market

REASONS THAT MAY WARRANT BY-PASSING THE MIDDLEMEN

Some manufacturers by-pass the wholesaler and sell to retailer for the following reasons
1. Where perishable goods are involved
2. The establishment of warehouses by producer
3. Indiscriminate increase in prices of goods and services
4. When good are branded
5. When consumers combined to buy in bulk
6. When manufacturer open their retail stores
7. Their creation of artificial scarcity
8. Where the goods produced are highly technical or made to individual specifications

PROBLEMS OF DISTRIBUTING AND MARKETING OF GOODS IN WEST AFRICA

1. Poor and inadequate transportation facilities
2. Inadequate storage facilities
3. Too many middlemen
4. Administrative bottleneck in the collection and handling of goods
5. Inadequate credit facilities
6. Imperfect nature of the market due to inadequate information
7. The tendency to hoard goods in anticipation for higher prices
8. Inadequate infrastructural facilities
9. Inadequate dissemination of information

EFFICIENT WAYS OF DISTRIBUTING AND MARKETING OF GOODS IN WEST AFRICA

1. Good and efficient transportation network
2. Provision of good storage facility
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 3. Formation of consumer and wholesale co-operative societies
4. Goods rationing in case of essential commodities.
5. Provision of credit facilities to wholesale and retailers
6. Providing adequate information of the market situation
7. There should be legal action against hoarders
8. Establishment of more market places
9. Construction of good road network
10. Improvement in communication system

ROLES OF GOVERNMENT IN DISTRIBUTIVE TRADE

The government at whatever level has a major role to play in the distribution of goods through the
establishment of distributive agencies such as:
1. Establishment of the Nigeria National Supply Company (NNSC) Ltd
2. Marketing Board
3. The River Basin Authorities to encourage large production and distribution of agricultural produce
4. Provision of good transport system
5. Provision of better storage facilities
6. Government agencies help to stabilize prices in order to check inflation
7. Government agencies help to prevent artificial scarcity of goods
8. Government agencies also play the role of price control
9. Establishment of communication system

WEEK THREE
TOPIC: MONEY

TRADE BY BARTER
Before the invention of money, goods were exchange for goods. This system of exchanging good and
services for other goods and services is termed trade by barter. The rigidity of the system led to the
introduction of money

Therefore the barter system may be define as the direct system and practice of exchanging goods for goods
and service for services

PROBLEMS / DISADVANTAGES OF BARTER

1. Problem of double coincidence of wants
2. Problem of assessing the value of commodities
3. Problems of divisibility
4. It waste time and efforts
5. It discourages large scale production which is dependent on large market
6. Problem of storage or saving
7. Problem of no fixed rate of exchange
8. Problem of bulkiness of some goods
9. No room for deferred payment

DEFINITION OF MONEY
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Money maybe defined as anything that is generally acceptable as a medium of exchange for making
payments, settlement of debts or other business obligations within a defined territory. Legal definition of
money says, ‘It is what the law says it is’.

ORIGIN/HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MONEY

Money originated as a result of the problems of trade by barter. In the olden days, different commodities
have served as money in different countries of the world, such commodities as cattle, cowries, shell, tobacco,
salt and beads.

Later, precious metal like silver and gold were used. The use of paper money originated from the use of
‘Receipts’ issued by Goldsmiths in London in exchange for deposits of precious metal. The receipts became
bank notes and the Goldsmiths became the bankers.

In recent time, people started accepting inconvertible paper money as a medium of exchange. For anything
to serve as money, it must enjoy people’s confidence

CHARACTERISTIC / QUALITIES OF MONEY

1. Acceptability :- must be acceptable to people of a community or country
2. Homogeneity :- must be same in all parts of the countries where acceptable
3. Recognizable :-people should be capable of identifying original from counterfeit
4. Divisibility : ability to be divided into smaller units to facilitate small and big transactions
(#1000,#500,#200,#100,#50,#20,#10,#5,#1,50k etc.)
5. Portability : it must be easy to carry around to long and short distances
6. Scarcity : it must be relatively scarce but not too scarce e.g. Gold and silver
7. Durability : it must stand the test of time against wear and tear or suffer under mutilation
8. Stability : it must be stable to encourage lending and borrowing and make business to be predictable
9. Storability :-it must have the ability to be stored for a longtime without losing its value
10. Controllable supply : Supply must be controllable by the central bank to maintain its value

FUNCTIONS OF MONEY
1. As a medium of exchange: money facilitates the exchange of goods and services. Without money,
we will probably have the trade by barter with it problems.
2. As a unit of account: money serves as a common unit of account for easy and accurate calculation
of worth of goods
3. As a measure of value: money serves as a parameter used to measure the relative value of goods and
services.
4. As a store of value: money makes it possible to save now for later use. As a farmer cannot store his
perishable goods so also a teacher or doctor his service but by selling their services for money, the
value received can be stored for future use.
5. As a standard for deferred payment: money makes it possible for payment to be deferred from
now till a later date. It also facilitates future contracts to be carried out effectively.

KINDS / TYPES OF MONEY

1. Commodity Money: these are commodities that are generally acceptable as a medium of exchange.
They have two values --- the money value and an intrinsic value (commodity value) these
commodities include cowries, gold, diamond, silver, manilas etc while some still exist some have
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 gone out of use.
2. Metal Coin: this is metal money with definite amount and weight issued and stamped by the central
authority responsible for the issuance of money in a country. E.g. Nigeria has Kobo, Ghana has
Pesewa etc.
3. Bank Deposit: this is the money one keeps in his bank account for safe keeping which can be given
back to the owner on demand by cheques as a means of payment.
4. Representative Money:- are partial money which may not be legal tender, eg cheque, bank draft,
petrol voucher, ticket, etc.
5. Paper Money: is the bank note which is the slip of paper or currency issued by the central bank, eg
N50, N100, N200
6. Legal Tender: is any means in payment by which a trader is compelled by the law of a state to
accept in settlement of debt.
7. Token Money: is a form of money with a face value which is greater than the value of the metal
content
8. Fiat Money: is any money the government has declared to be legal tender, but is not backed by
reserve
9. Fiduciary Note: is an issued bank note not backed by gold but by government securities.
10. Plastic Money: are usually in the form of plastic hence it is sometimes called plastic money. They
serve as temporary medium of exchange but do not convey final settlement as it is done when money
is used, eg credit card, value card, debit card, cash card ( ATM card), E-purse (Smart card), Pos
(point of service or sales), etc.

WEEK FOUR
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS:
Financial Institutions- are all business organizations which hold money for individuals and institutions, and
may borrow from them in order to give loans or make other investments. Financial institutions which
represent the main channel or medium by which funds can flow from lenders to borrowers are very
important for the economic development of a nation.

TYPES OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Two major financial institutions are:
Banking Financial Institutions, (Central bank, Commercial banks, Merchant banks, Development banks, etc)
Non – Banking Financial Institutions, (Insurance companies, Hire purchase companies, Building societies,
etc). The major difference between the two is that the liabilities of the Banking Institutions are counted as
part of the total supply of money in circulation, while those of the Non-Banking Institutions are excluded
from the money supply.

COMMERCIAL BANK
A commercial bank is a financial institution which accepts deposits and other valuable from the public for
safe-keeping, lend money to people and perform other ancillary services with the sole aim of making profit.
A commercial bank is owned by private individual organizations or governments. It is a limited liability
company.

Characteristics of Commercial Banks

1. They are limited liability companies
2. They are established and owned by individual organizations or government
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3. The motive for its establishment is profit making
4. Commercial banks are incorporated under CAMD (1990)
5. They transact business with private individuals organizations and governments
6. They are members of the money market

Functions of Commercial Banks

(a) Accepting deposits from customers
(b) Lending to customers – i.e. they grant loans and overdrafts to their customers
(c) Acting as an agent for payment
(d) Discounting bills of exchange
(e) Safekeeping of valuable e.g. wills, jewelleries, certificates etc.
(f) Offering expert advice to customers
(g) Acting as executors or trustees
(h) Acting as business referees / granting of performance bond
(i) Funds transfer e.g. credit transfer services
(j) Issuing of letter of credit
(k) Buying and selling of foreign currencies
(l) Issuance of travelers cheque

CREATION OF CREDIT OR MONEY BY THE COMMERCIAL BANKS

Credit or Money Creation – refers to the process whereby commercial banks make it possible for more
deposits to be made through loans or overdrafts. Bank lending in form of loan or overdraft increases the
quantity of money in circulation, which in turn increases the purchasing power of the people. This is because
the bank credits the amount borrowed thereby creating new bank deposits.
The total purchasing power increases by the amount loaned out to members of the public and charging
interest on them. By so doing, more money is pumped into circulation and this increases the purchasing
power of the people.
This is why it is said that bank lending creates credit or money in the following ways:
i. By granting loans to members of the public and charging interests on them.
ii. By granting overdrafts to customers having current accounts with the bank, and charging interests on
them.
iii. By charging the percentage of Cash Ratio, or Liquidity Ratio, or Cash Reserve, which the
commercial banks are required by law to keep (% of their deposits) with the Central Bank in order to
protect customers’ accounts and prevent bank crisis.
iv. By purchasing treasury bills from the government and by discounting bill of exchange. These bank
transactions have a direct effect on the commercial banks ‘Excess Reserve’, and other banks’
reserves in determining the ability of the banks to create credit or money.

LIMITATIONS OF ABILITY OF COMMERCIAL BANKS TO CREATE

CREDIT / MONEY
1. The volume of its deposits
2. Central bank regulations – monetary policy dictates
3. The cash ratio / liquidity ratio
4. Availability of collateral security
5. Restrictions imposed by the clearing house
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6. Opportunities for investments

THE CENTRAL BANK

DEFINITION OF CENTRAL BANK

The central bank is the apex financial institution in a country which is responsible for the management,
supervision and control of monetary affairs and financial institutions of the country. Before independence of
most of the British colonized countries of West African (Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Gambia), the
West African Currency Board (WACB) with its headquarters in London was responsible for all monetary
matters. As soon as each country gained or approached political independence, it established her own central
bank. A central bank was established in Ghana in 1957, in Nigeria in 1959, in Sierra Leone in 1964 and in
Gambia in 1971.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CENTRAL BANK

1. It is owned by the government
2. I is established through Act of Parliament
3. It is the apex financial institution in a country
4. There is only one Central Bank in the country
5. It is not a profit oriented institution
6. It does not transact business with individuals
7. It is the only bank authorized by law to issue currencies

FUNCTION OF THE CENTRAL BANK

1. It serves as a Banker to the Government: The Central Bank keeps all the revenue accounts of the
government and makes payment out of it on behalf of the government. More importantly it leads to
the government and also manages the National Debt i.e. the government’s external and internal
borrowings.
2. Issuing of Currency: The Central Bank is the only authority empowered by law to issue all paper
money (banknotes) and coins in the country
3. It is a Bankers’ Bank: The Central Bank serves as a bank to commercial banks, meaning that by law,
the commercial banks are required to keep account (deposits) with the central bank
4. The Central Bank serves as the clearing house for the settlement of interbank debts
5. Lender of last resort: The Central Bank lends money to commercial banks in serious needs to enable
them satisfy or settle their customers demand for cash
6. Adviser to the Government: The Central Bank advises the government on monetary matters such as
on methods of raising loans particularly foreign loans.
7. Management of the National Debt: The arrangements for new borrowings as well as the servicing
and rescheduling of existing debts are handled by the Central Bank
8. Foreign Monetary Transactions: The Central Bank holds and manages the foreign exchange reserve
and advises government on the trends.
9. Carrying out or implementation of the government’s Monetary Policies
10. The Central Bank maintains close contact with other international financial institutions e.g. IMF,
IBRD (World Bank), ADB etc

MONETARY POLICY
Monetary Policy is mainly concerned with varying the money supply in the economy.
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The central bank uses some measures like the bank rate, open market operators, special deposits, directives,
cash ratio, etc, all to regulate the volume of money in the economy; thereby checking inflation or deflation
when necessary.

INSTRUMENTS OF MONETARY POLICY / OR HOW THE CENTRAL BANK CONTROLS THE

COMMERCIAL BANKS
The government carries out its monetary policy through the central bank. The central bank itself enforces the
monetary policy through the various way by which it controls the ability of the commercial bank to create
credit

The central bank controls the commercial bank to implement government monetary policy through the
following instruments
1. Bank Rate / Discount Rate: This is the rate of interest the central bank charges commercial banks
and other financial institutions for discounting their bills or the rate at which it lends money to them.
The bank rate influences the other interest rates in the economy. A higher bank rate leads to higher
interest rate. If there is inflation, the central bank will increase the bank rate. This will curtail the
lending power of the commercial banks by making the cost of borrowings by bank customers to be
very exorbitant
If there is deflation in the economy, the Central Bank will reduce the bank rate thereby allowing the
commercial banks to create more credit, thereby increasing the supply of money in the economy.
2. Liquidity Ratio / Cash Reserve Ratio: This is a requirement by law to the commercial banks to
keep certain percentage of their total cash / liquid assets or deposits with the central bank. In Nigeria
for example the Liquidity Ratio is 20%. The central bank uses this ratio in increasing or decreasing
the amount of money in circulation. Therefore the higher the cash reserve ratio, the lower the power
of commercial banks to grant credit / loans to their customers. This policy of increasing the cash
reserve ratio is therefore used to control inflation. The reverse is also true
3. Special Deposit: This is an instruction to the commercial banks to keep with the central bank special
deposits over and above their statutory requirements thereby, curtailing the ability of the commercial
banks to create credit. This instrument is used when the use of cash reserve ratio alone is not
adequate to keep down the rate of inflation
4. Open Market Operations (OMO): This is method of buying and selling of securities (Treasury
Bills) to the public and the commercial banks by the central bank to alter the volume of money in
circulation and also to vary the ability of the commercial banks to create credit.
If the Central Bank feels that the money circulation is too small and wants to increase it, it will buy
securities in the open market paying with its own cheques. On the other hand, if the volume of
money in circulation is too much and the Central Bank wants to reduce it, it will simply sell
securities in the open market to the general public and the commercial banks thereby withdrawing a
lot of money from the economy.
5. Special Directives: These are special instructions which the central bank gives to commercial banks
and other financial institutions regarding the size of loan to give and the areas (sectors of the
economy) to which it should direct bank lending e.g agriculture, manufacturing etc
6. Moral Suasion: This is persuasion based on moral grounds not with the use of force of law by the
central bank to the commercial bank as to the kind of lending policy they should adopt regarding the
expansion or contraction of money supply. Failures to comply can thereafter necessitate force of law.
Directives and moral suasions are widely used in developing countries
7. Funding: This is the conversion of short term government securities to long term securities. For
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 example Treasury Bills (of 91 days maturity) could be converted to bonds (long term securities). If
the central bank feels that the conditions of the economy has not yet improved for the short term
loans to be repaid e.g if there is inflation, the short term securities may be converted to long term
securities.

WEEK FIVE
CONCEPT OF DEMAND

DEFINITION OF DEMAND
Demand can be defined as the quantity of a commodity (goods and services) that consumers are willing and
able to buy at a given price and at a particular place and time. Demand is quite different from wants, need or
desire. ‘Effective Demand’ in economics must meet three conditions which are:
1. Ability to pay
2. Willingness to pay
3. Authority to buy a commodity
Demand must be related to price because to a great extent, price determines the quantity which consumers
are willing to buy.

LAW OF DEMAND
The law of demand states that, all things being equal (Ceteris Paribus), ‘The higher the price, the lower the
quantity of goods that will be demanded, or the lower the price, the higher the quantity of goods that will be
demanded’. This law is often regarded as the first law of demand and supply. It simply means that when the
price of a commodity, like yam for instance, is high in the market, very few quantity of it will be demanded
by the consumers and vice-versa.

DEMAND SCHEDULE
It is a table of value showing the relationship between prices and quantity of that commodity demanded.
This is a table, which shows the magnitude of demand at various prices. That is, the different quantities of a
commodity, which would be bought at various prices, at a particular time.

Example: The table below shows Mr. Tunde’s demand schedule for milk.
Price (₦) Quantity Demanded (Tin)
35 9
30 12
25 15
20 18
15 21
10 24
5 27
From the table we can observe that as price changes the quantity of milk demanded also changes.
The total of the individual demand schedule gives the market or aggregate demand schedule.

DEMAND CURVE
The demand curve is the graphical representation of the information contained in the demand schedule. The
price is plotted on the vertical axis and the quantity demanded is plotted on the horizontal axis. Normal
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demand curve slopes downwards from left to right. From Mr. Tunde’s demand schedule, a demand curve is
drawn as follows.

Price (₦) D

35

30

25

20

15
10
5
D
O 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Quantity Demanded
Both the demand schedule and the demand curve illustrate the law of demand which states that “the higher
the price of a commodity, the lower the quantity demanded and vice versa.

TYPES OF DEMAND
COMPLEMENTARY (JOINT) DEMAND: This is the demand that occurs when two or more goods are
needed or required together at the same time by a consumer, eg tea and sugar, car and petrol. Increase in the
demand for car will lead to increase in demand for petrol, vice-versa.

COMPETITIVE (SUBSTITUTE) DEMAND: This is the demand that occurs when two goods are close
substitute and serve the same purpose. In this case, when there is an increase in the price of one commodity
that has close substitute to another, its demand will fall as consumers will shift to the other close substitute
goods with lower price and the demand for the close substitute goods will increase, eg fish and meat, tea and
coffee, butter and margarine, pen and biro.

COMPOSITE DEMAND: This is the demand that occurs when the total demand for a single commodity
will serve many useful purposes. For example, cocoa beans is demanded for making cocoa beverages, cocoa
bread, cocoa wine and chocolate. Cassava is demanded for making foofoo, garri, starch and cassava powder
(Elubo)

DERIVED DEMAND: This is the demand that occurs when the demand for a commodity is not for its
immediate consumption but for the demand for another commodity. For example, there is a demand
(derived) for flour to satisfy the demand for bread and cake.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEMAND FOR A COMMODITY

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 1. Price of the commodity:-The higher the price of the commodity the lower the quantity demanded
and vice-versa.
2. Price of other commodities: This applies to commodities, which are complementary or are close
substitutes. If the price of a commodity is high, consumers may demand for the close substitutes.
3. Income of the consumer: As the income of the consumer increases, his demand for goods and
services will also increase
4. Change in taste and fashion: The demand of people changes according to the reigning fashion of
the day and their personal differing tastes.
5. Distribution of income: The pattern of demand of a population where income is evenly distributed
will be different from that of a population where income is concentrated in the hands of a few
6. Size of the population: - The level/size of the population determines the level of demand. The
structure of the population i.e. age distribution, sex distribution etc also determines the level of
demand for particular commodities
7. Weather: The weather condition prevailing at a particular time influences the demand for particular
commodities e.g. umbrella has a high demand during the rainy season.
8. Expectation of future changes in price: - If consumers expect that there will be high or low price of
goods in future, demand will increase or decrease.
9. Advertising:- A well packaged and convincing advertisement specifically targeting a product will
lead to increase in demand
10. Availability of credit facilities:- When there are avenues for consumers to buy goods and defer the
payment for the goods to a later time, demand will increase
11. The introduction of new commodities to replace old ones. This will increase the demand for the new
commodities and reduce the demand for the old commodities
12. Taxation on commodities:- Increase in taxes levied on goods will reduce their demand because the
goods will cost more. A decrease in tax levied on goods will have the opposite effect.

EXCEPTION TO THE LAW OF DEMAND

Exceptional or Abnormal Demand- is a demand pattern which does not abide by the law of demand, and
therefore gives rise to the reverse of the basic law of demand which states that the higher the price, the lower
the quantity demanded of a commodity, and vice-versa. In a case of abnormal demand, a higher price may
mean a higher demand or no change in demand, while a lower price may mean a lower demand or no change
in demand. Conditions for these exceptional cases are:
i. Goods of Ostentation (Prestigious Goods)
ii. Necessary but Cheap Commodity
iii. Inferior (Giffen) Goods
iv. Expectation of Future Change in Price

WEEK SIX
CONCEPT OF SUPPLY

DEFINITON OF SUPPLY
Supply may be defined as the quantity of goods and services which sellers are willing and able to offer for
sale at a particular price, and at a particular period of time. Supply does not mean the entire stock of a
commodity in existence or the total quantity of that commodity produced but rather it means only the
amount that is put into the market or offered for sale at a given price and at a particular period of time. This
is referred to as ‘Effective Supply’
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LAW OF SUPPLY
The law of supply states that, all things being equal, ‘The higher the price, the higher the quantity of a
commodity that will be supplied or the lower the price, the lower the quantity of the commodity that will be
supplied’. This law is often regarded as the second law of demand and supply. This law explains that when
the price of commodity is high in the market, more quantity of that commodity will be supplied by the
producer, and vice-versa.

SUPPLY SCHEDULE
Supply schedule is a table of value showing the relationship between the price and the quantity of that
commodity supplied. It is the table showing the relationship between the quantity supplied and price of a
commodity. Supply schedule is divided into two which are:
1. Individual Supply Schedul
2. Market Supply Schedule

The table below shows the individual supply schedule for bags of wheat.
Price per bag Quantity supplied
(₦) (No. of bag of
wheat)
100 50
80 40
60 30
40 20
20 10

The table below shows the market supply schedule for bags of wheat
Price Individual Suppliers Total
per bag Quantity Supplied by Quantity supplied by Quantity supplied by Quantity/Market
(₦) Mr. Segun Mrs. Jolaoso Mr. Ade Supplied
100 50 80 70 200
80 40 70 50 160
60 30 60 30 120
40 20 50 20 90
20 10 40 10 60

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SUPPLY CURVE
Supply curve is the graphical representation of the supply schedule. It shows the relationship between the
price and quantity of that commodity supplied by the producer. Supply curve is derived from a supply
schedule.
Price (₦) s

100

80

60

40

20
s
O 10 20 30 40 50 Quantity Supplied
Unlike the demand curve, the supply curve slopes upward from left to right. Both the supply curve and the
supply schedule illustrate the law of supply, which states “the higher the price of a commodity, the higher
the quantity supplied and vice versa.

TYPES OF SUPPLY
COMPLEMENTARY (JOINT) SUPPLY: This supply occurs when two or more commodities are
produced and supplied from one source. An increase in the production and supply of one will automatically
bring about increase in the production and supply of the other commodities that are produced from the same
source, eg an increase in production and supply of petrol from petroleum (crude oil) can lead also to an
increase in supply of kerosene and other products from crude oil.

COMPETITVE (SUBSTITUTE) SUPPLY: This supply occurs when many commodities are supplied for
the satisfaction of a particular want. In other words, it is the supply of two or more commodities that serves
as substitute or alternative to one another, eg meat and fish, omo blue detergent and elephant blue detergent,
margarine and butter.

COMPOSITE SUPPLY: This supply occurs when a certain commodity can serve two or more purposes. In
other words, the supply of the commodity for one purpose will greatly affect the supply of the same
commodity for another purpose, eg flour for production of doughnut will greatly affect the production of
cake, cassava for the production of starch will greatly affect the production of garri.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SUPPLY OF A COMMODITY

1. Price of the commodity: This is the most important factor influencing supply. The higher the price
of the commodity, the higher the quantity supplied and vice versa.
2. Cost of production: If the cost of producing a commodity falls, then more of that commodity could
be supplied at the existing price. It therefore means that a producer will be able to produce more
commodities with the existing raw materials, hence increase in supply.
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 3. Technological development: An improvement in the level of technology will equate to
improvement in the methods or techniques of production. This will encourage large scale production
at lower costs which in turn increases supply e.g. the use of modern farming techniques and
equipment.
4. Season:- The prevailing seasons will influence the supply of a particular commodity. E.g. More
umbrellas will be supplied during the rainy season and this also applies to agricultural products.
5. Government Policies: Government policies such as subsidies, restriction on importation affect the
supply of goods both in the long and short run.
6. Expectation of future change in prices: The expectation of suppliers about the future of the prices
of some goods may affect supply. E.g. If the supplier suspects reduction in prices in future, he or she
will reduce the quantity supplied of the commodity, so as to enjoy higher prices.
7. Taxation: Increased taxation on goods will raise the producer’s cost of production and by extension
affect the supply of the product.
8. The prices of other commodities: When the prices of some commodities are high, some producers
may switch over to the production of such commodities and stop producing the commodities with
lower prices.

EXCEPTION TO THE LAW OF SUPPL

Exceptional or Abnormal Supply: is the supply pattern which does not abide by the law of supply, and
therefore, gives rise to the reverse of the basic law of supply which states that the higher the price, the
higher the quantity of commodity that will be supplied by the producer, and vice-versa. An abnormal
supply also called a Regressive or Backward Sloping Supply Curve. Shows that at higher price, less
quantity will be supplied. That is a negative situation in which a fall in the price of a commodity leads to
an expansion of its supply

Abnormal supply curve (Labour)

s
Wage Rate

s
O Labour Supplied
Causes of abnormal supply are as itemized below:
i. Existence of some fixed assets whose prices increase without a corresponding increase in its
size, eg Land
ii. Rising wages of labour where a worker tends increase his leisure time and reduce his productive
working hours at high wage rate
iii. A producer with a particular target income may go on supplying the market with his
commodities even when prices fall.
iv. Monopolistic practices where a producer may hold back supply even when the prices are rising,
just to push the prices still higher up

WEEK SEVEN
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PRICE DETERMINATION IN A FREE MARKET ECONOMY
FREE MARKET ECONOMY
A free market is a market in which prices of goods and services are regulated by market forces. This means
that prices of commodities in a free market economy are fixed by the interaction (i.e. joint actions) of
demand and supply.

DETERMINATION OF PRICES IN A FREE MARKET

It is possible to compare demand with supply by drawing a schedule showing the quantity of goods
demanded and supplied. An example of a combined demand and supply schedule is shown below.
Price N Quantity Demanded (Units) Quantity Supplied (Units)
7 100 900
6 200 700
5 300 650
4 400 400
3 500 300
2 600 250
1 700 200

The schedule above can be graphically represented by the curve below.

Price (₦) D S
Excess Supply

N6
N4 e
N2

S Excess Demand D
O 200 400 700
Quantity Demanded

From the table and graph above, it is seen that at N4, 400 units of goods was demanded and 400 units of
goods was supplied. N4 is the equilibrium price, while 400 units is the equilibrium quantity and the point of
intersection between demand curve and supply curve is called the equilibrium point.

EQUILIBRIUM POINT, EQUILIBRIUM PRICE AND EQUILIBRIUM QUANTITY

Given a downward sloping demand curve and an upward sloping supply curve as in the diagram above, there
would occur a unique point of intersection indicating a price level at which quantity supplied will be equal to
the quantity demanded. Such point of intersection is called an equilibrium point and when such point is
traced to the price and quantity axis of the graph, we shall obtain the equilibrium price and equilibrium
quantity bought and sold respectively. From the graph above, the equilibrium point was established at point
A and when traced to the price and quantity axis, it showed the market equilibrium price and equilibrium
quantity bought and sold of N4 and 400 units respectively.The equilibrium price is the price at which the
quantity of goods demanded is equal to the quantity supplied. This price is determined by the interaction of
supply and demand
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At a price lower than the equilibrium price (say N2) demand will be greater than supply. This will lead to
shortage of goods in the market that is, excess demand. On the other hand, at a higher price than the
equilibrium price (say N6), producers will supply more than the consumers are willing to buy and this will
lead to an excess supply – i.e surplus of goods in the market.

Derivation of Equilibrium Price and Quantity from Demand and Supply Functions
Given the Demand and supply functions:
Qd = 42-2p and Qs =12+4p
Determine the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity
Solution
At equilibrium price
Qd = Qs
i.e. 42- 2p = 12+4p
42-12 = 4p +2p
30 = 6p
P= 30/6 = 5
Equilibrium price = N5
To obtain the equilibrium quantity
Substitute for p in
Qd = 42 –2p
Qd = 42 – 2 (5)
= 42 –10
= 32
Equilibrium Quantity = 32units

PRICE SYSTEM OR PRICE MECHANISM

MEANING OF A PRICE
A Price- is defined as a monetary unit of measurement or value that helps to facilitate the exchange of goods
and services in the market. That is, a price is the rate at which something can be exchanged for another thing.
For goods to command a price, it must have the attributes of usefulness (valuable) and relative scarcity.

PRICE SYSTEM OR PRICE MECHANISM

In a free market economy, prices of goods and services affect the behaviour of both the consumer and the
producer (supplier). Price system maybe defined as a system whereby prices of goods and services are
determined by the free interaction of the forces of demand and supply in a free market economy. That is, it is
a system of resources allocation based on a free movement of prices. It id described as a process by which
the monetary value of a commodity, service, or factor of production is determined by the inter-play of the
market forces of demand and supply.

FUNCTIONS/IMPORTANCE OF THE PRICE SYSTEM

1. The price system operates to allocate scarce resources
2. It regulates the flow of goods and services from producers to the consumer.
3. It determines the extent of demand and supply of goods and services.
4. It is used to encourage or discourage consumption of certain goods and services.
5. It helps to determine how the factors of production will be rewarded.
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FACTORS THAT DETERMINE PRICE OF COMMODITIES
a. The cost of production of the product
b. The level of profit desired by the seller
c. The level of competition in the market
d. Government policies e.g subsidies, taxation etc.
e. The activities of Trade Unions
f. The cost incurred on advertisement
g. Changes in demand and supply

PRICE FIXING METHODS

The prices of goods and services are often fixed by any of the following methods:
i. Through Bargaining System
ii. Through Sales by Auction
iii. Through Sales by Price Tags
iv. Through Market Forces of Demand and Supply

WEEK EIGHT

NATURE OF NIGERIA ECONOMY:

The study of the structure of an economy is in essence the study of the ‘Anatomy’ of that economy. The
structure of Nigerian economy is a system whereby the organizational framework of the economy are inter-
related, logically connected through which the activities of the economy are co-ordinated or aligned.
The structure of the Nigerian economy viewed from three major sectors of primary, secondary and tertiary
include the structure of production, financial system, factorial composition of value added, composition of
resources and uses of resources, demographic variable in forms of the population and the degree of
urbanization.

The outline of the structure of the Nigerian economy can be broadly classified into:
1. Production, which is made up of:
(a) Agriculture (cropping, livestock, forestry and fishery)
(b) Manufacturing
(c) Mining and quarrying
(d) Real estate and construction
2. General Commerce, which is composed of:
(a) Bill discounted
(b) Domestic trade
(c) External trade (import and export)
3. Services, which include:
(a) Public utilities
(b) Transport
(c) Communication, etc.
4. Others which are:
(a) Credit and financial institutions
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 (b) Government
5. Miscellaneous which are:
(a) Personal and professional
(b) Private sectors.

GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE NIGERIAN ECONOMY

Nigeria is a structurally imbalanced economy that completely depends on agriculture before the discovery of
oil boom.

Lack of diversification made the Nigerian economy to have the shape of a crooked glass, broad at the
bottom, thin at the middle, and broad again at the top. At the bottom is the primary sector made up mainly of
agricultural sector. Thin in the middle is the industrial sector largely under-developed, and broad again at the
top is the service sector consisting mainly of relatively under-trained self-employed artisans, some
professionals and civil servants.

In 1970, the emergence of oil distorted the attention paid to other sectors of the economy which brought an
era of economic downturn and massive importation. In 1981, oil prices fell drastically and Nigerian external
debt grew high.

Again, in 1986, the world oil market witnessed further fall in prices which made the economy to prone to
external disequilibrium with all sectors of the economy seriously affected.

Industrial capacity utilization fell, shortage of essential commodities arose, nation’s foreign reserves
depleted, external and domestic debts setting in, balance of payment problem became chronic,
unemployment, inflation and other socio-economic problems triggered off, as overseas banks stopped
confirming letters of credits for Nigerian banks.

The burden of economic management became a serious problem, and alternative approaches were introduced
to tackle the problem through the adoption of the, ‘Structural Adjustment Program me (SAP)’, in 1986. The
primary aim of the program me is to effectively alter and restructure the production and consumption pattern
of the economy, eliminate price distortions and reduce the heavy dependence on the export of crude oil and
import of consumer and producer goods.

NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRIES IN NIGERIA

An Industry- refers to a number of firms producing similar commodities. Thus, Industrialization is the
process of building up a nation’s capacity to convert raw-materials and other inputs to finished goods, and to
manufacture goods for other production or for final consumption. There are five main types of industry that
dominate the Nigerian economy, which are:
1. Processing Industry- is an industry which involves in beverages and semi-finished goods
2. Manufacturing Industry- is an industry which involves in transforming raw-materials into finished
goods.
3. Craft Industry- (ie Cottage industries) is an industry which involves in the metal and wood carving
work and constructive activities where the needed materials are sourced locally and the use of simple
tools
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 4. Mining Industry- is an industry which involves the extraction of raw-materials from the earth crust.
5. Service Industry- is an industry which involves in retail, transport, distribution, food service, as well
as other services-dominated business.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY SECTORS

Primary Sector- is a sector that involves in the extraction of raw – materials. This sector helps to provide
employment to Nigerian people and make raw – materials available to feed the nation’s industries. The
sector also provides food for the teeming population of Nigerian people, and income for the government.
Secondary Sector- is a sector that is involved in the conversion of raw-materials into finished goods. This
sector helps to provide employment to people, add value to materials, generate income for government,
enhance economic development, improve the standard of living of the people, etc.
Tertiary Sector- is a sector that is involved in the commercial activities and the rendering of direct and
indirect services. This sector helps to distribute goods to the consumers. It provides employment to people,
and render essential services to the people as well.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE SIX GEO-POLITICAL ZONES IN NIGERIA

The idea of six geo-political zones in Nigeria emanated and crept into the dictionary of the country from the
Late General Sanni Abacha, the former Military Head of State (1993-1998). Although, the categorization of
the entire notion into geo- political zones did not come as an official pronouncement, by 1997 this
classification had gained prevalence in the political language of the notion. The six major zones into which
Nigeria as a country is divided are:

NORTH – WEST ZONE: The states found in this zone include Sokoto, Zamfara, Kebbi, Katsina, Jigawa,
Kano and Kaduna States. The economic activities of this zone is majorly agriculture in terms of farming
and rearing of animals. They plant crops like cereals – maize, millet, soghium, corns, etc, both for local
consumption and exportation.. Also, they are involved industrial activities like mining of mineral resources
like lime-stone for the production of cement in Sokoto.

NORTH – CENTRAL ZONE: The zone represent the middle belt of Nigeria comprising of Benue, Kogi,
Nasarawa, Niger and Plateau States. The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja is also located in this zone.
The main activities in this zone are farming, weaving, blacksmithing, tying and dying, and mat making. The
main economic activities of this zone are farming and fishing as a result of their fertile nature of soil and the
presence of River Niger and Benue. They are equally involved in mining activities in Jos (tin and
columbite), gold and Iron- Ore in Kogi and limestone in Benue State. Hydro-electric power is also found in
this region, eg Kainji Dam.

NORTH – EAST ZONE: The states in this zone include Yobe, Borno, Bauchi, Gombe, Adamawa and
Taraba States. The major economic activities of this zone involves agriculture and livestock production
especially in cattle, sheep and goat. They are equally involved in minor mining activities. The zone is the
least endowed with mineral resources.

SOUTH –WEST ZONE: The zone is made up of the six Yoruba speaking states of the country. The states
are Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Ondo, Ekiti, and Osun States. The zone is endowed with both agricultural and
commercial activities. The region engaged in farming especially cash crops like cocoa, kola-nut, coffee,
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coconut, livestock activities like poultry and piggery, etc. Minerals like limestone at Ewekoro and Sagamu in
Ogun State, bitumen in Ondo State are mined with other commercial activities

SOUTH – EAST ZONE: The zone is made up of the five Igbo Speaking states which are Anambra, Imo,
Enugu, Abia and Ebonyi States. The main economic activities of this zone is agriculture of cash crops like
palm products, rubbers, food crops, etc. Minerals like lime-stone in Nkalagun in Anambra State, lead and
zinc mineral in Abakaliki in Ebonyi State and coal mining in Enugun. The zone is also noted for heavy
trading and local manufacturing in Abia and Anambra..

SOUTH – SOUTH ZONE: The zone comprises of the six oil-producing states of the Niger delta which are
Edo, Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa, Cross River and Akwa-Ibom States. The major economic activities of this zone
include the production of crude-oil (Petroleum), limestone in Edo and Iron-Ore in Delta. They are equally
involved in crop farming like cocoa, oil palm, kola, rubber, etc, fishing due to their location in Niger Delta.
Other economic activities are in trading and seaport activities.

WEEK NINE
AGRICULTURE

MEANING: Agriculture can be defined as the production of crops, animals, fishes and forest resources for
the consumption and other benefit of human. It is a dominant occupation which employs about 65-70% of
the total population of West Africa.

CONPONENTS OF AGRICULTURE:
Agriculture is made up of the following-
1. Live stock
2. Fishing
3. Crop production
4. Forestry

LIVE STOCK
This involves rearing of domestic animal, e.g pigs, cattle, horses, donkeys, goats, sheep, e.t.c. Most of these
animals are reared to satisfy domestic consumption.

FORESTRY
It concerns the preservation of economic trees or plant. Also, it involves the extraction of various forms of
resources associated with forest e.g furniture, plywood, boat, manufacturing of papers, electric pools, e.t.c.
these are some of the things we derive from plant preservation.

CROP PRODUCTION
It involves cultivation of various crops. Crops are divided into two categories: food crops and cash crops.
1. Food Crops: these are majorly for consumption e.g maize, rice, beans, coco yams, yam, tomatoes,
corn, millet e.t.c.
2. Cash Crops: these are meant for sale either locally or export. E.g cocoa, palm oil, rubber, palm
kernels, cotton, groundnut, e.t.c.

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FISHING
This involves breeding and catching of fishes from the rivers for human consumption. it constitutes major
occupation of people that reside in the riverine area.

SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURE
Systems of agricultural production include:
1. Plantation farming
2. Peasant farming
3. Cooperative farming
4. Mechanized farming

Plantation farming
It involves the use of large estate of land permanently planted with economic or commercial crops.
Examples of crops planted on plantation farming include: sugar, cotton, rubber, sugar cane, tobacco, e.t.c. In
plantation farming, land could be owned by the government, private individual, or corporate bodies.

Peasant farming
This is also known as subsistence agriculture. It involves cultivation on a small scale (acres of land). Land in
this situation is often owned communally and they employ mainly their own family labour. The size of
land used by peasant farmers is majorly determined by the size of their family members and their family
land. Rudimentary farming equipments such as cutlasses, axes, hoes, e.t.c.which are crude in nature are
usually used in peasant farming.

Cooperative farming
In this nature of farming, farmers come together to form a sort of association or union. This form of union is
adopted in other to obtain loans and aids from government, in order to hire or purchase farming equipments.

Mechanized farming
This involves the extensive use of machine and other types of advanced mechanical devices in agricultural
production. It ensures large scale production because the use of human labour is replaced with that of
machines. E.g. harvesters, ploughs, tractors. e.t.c. this form of farming has not been popularized in west
Africa.

IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN WEST AFRICA

1. Source of raw materials
2. Provision of food
3. Provision of employment
4. Creation of market for industrial product
5. Source of income
6. Source of Labour for industries

PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURE IN WEST AFRICA

1. Illiteracy/ignorance
2. Lack of medical facilities
3. Use of crude implement
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 4. Poverty
5. Lack of credit facilities
6. Lack of storage facilities
7. Poor transportation
8. Problem of land tenure system
9. Pests and diseases
10. Natural disaster

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURE

1. Granting of credit facilities to farmers
2. Improvement of transportation system
3. Discouraging migration
4. Mechanization of agriculture
5. Effective control of pest and diseases
6. Provision of medical facilities
7. Education
8. The use of research
9. Use of irrigation
10. Control of erosion

WEEK TEN

MINING
DEFINITION OF MININIG
Mining: is the process of getting coal, gold and other minerals from under the ground by making a deep hole
or holes where these minerals are dug. That is, it is an extraction of minerals from under the ground through
the process of digging deep holes into the grounds. Mining is one of the major occupations in Nigeria which
could be traceable to our forefathers. The arrival of the Europeans colonial masters in the early 19 th century
led to the decline of great participation in the industry. The decline in local participation was due to factors
such as the monopoly of exploitation by Europeans, inadequate technology on the part of the Nigerian
miners, the superiority and competition of European final products with those of the local mining industries.

COMPONENT OF NIGERIA MINING INDUSTRY

The components of the Nigerian mining industry consist of different mining industries set up for the
extraction of minerals in different locations within the country. Most of the mineral fuels, natural gas,
petroleum and coal are located in the Southern states namely: Rivers, Bayelsa, Cross-River, Akwa-Ibom,
Delta, Anambra, Ebonyi, while the major deposits of coal are located in Enugu and Imo states. On the other
hand, gold, columbite and tin are located mainly near Jos in Plateau state. There are deposits of tin, gold and
limestone in Osun state. Other minerals of less importance include lignite clay, marble, thorium, mica and
uranium which are either completely untouched or are exploited on a small scale by local enterprises. The
following mining industries are set up in Nigeria:
Petroleum Industry- It is for the extraction of crude oil in Port-Harcourt, and Niger Delta area.
Coal Mining Industry- It is for the mining of coal in Enugu and Benue States.
Iron And Steel Industry- It extracts iron ore and feed them into Iron and Steel Complex at Ajaokuta in
Kogi State and Aladja in Delta State
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Tin And Columbite Mining Industry- It mines tin and columbite in Jos in Plateau State.
Limestone Cement Industry- It turns limestone into cement in Ewekoro and Ishagamu in Ogun State,
Calabar in Cross-River State and Nkalagun in Anambra State.
Marble Mining Industry- Its main source of supply is at Jakuta in the Lokoja area of Kogi state. It is cut
and polished for the building industry and monuments.
Lead – zinc Mining Industry- It mines lead and zinc in Abakaliki in Ebonyi state.

TYPES OF MINERAL AND THEIR USES

1. Petroleum (crude oil)- is a liquid mineral called black gold from which petrol, kerosene, diseal and
other petrol chemical products are derived. It is originated from dead plants and animals matters
deposited and transformed over a period of time by heat and pressure into sedimentary matters.
2. Coal- is a major source of power from a sedimentary rock. It is suitable for the production of tar and
synthetic fertilizer, for ordinary steam raising purposes including the generation of electricity and
also for the manufacture of chemicals and liquid fuels as a result of its richness in hydrocarbons,
waxes and resins.
3. Iron – Ore –is a basement complex rock mineral fed into iron and steel complex to make iron and
steel.
4. Tin and Columbite- are basement complex rock minerals of silvery malleable element that resist
corrosion used for manufacturing heat resistant steel used in Jet engine.
5. Limestone- is a sedimentary mineral rock used for manufacturing of cement. It provides the
necessary raw materials for the country’s cement factories.
6. Lead and Zinc- are sedimentary mineral rocks used in industry locally.
7. Marble- is a hard crystalline metamorphic rock that takes a high polish used for sculpture, building
materials and for monuments.
8. Gold- is a soft yellow malleable ductile metallic element which occurs mainly as nuggets in rocks
and alluvial deposits. It is very valuable among the precious stones.
9. Natural Gas- is fossil fuel in the gaseous state produced during petroleum refinery used for cooking,
heating up homes and industrial purposes.

IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS TO NIGERIA

1. Mining of minerals helps to provide employment to the people
2. It serves as a source of revenue generation to the government
3. It provides raw-materials for our local industries.
4. It enhances economic growth and development
5. It helps to equip Nigerian people with the acquisition of technical skills
6. It makes laudable contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
7. It serves as source of foreign exchange earner to the government
8. It helps to enhance the standard of living of the people.
9. It helps to supply fuel and energy
PROBLEMS FACING MINING IN NIGERIA
1. Inadequate capital for exploration
2. Problem of poor transportation network
3. Inadequate technical personnel needed for mineral exploration
4. Problem of fluctuation in the world prices of minerals.
5. Problem of environmental pollution through oil spillage and degradation.
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