PYC1501/Cognition/OER/2024

Unit 3: Cognition: thinking, reasoning,

and problem-solving
Learning objectives
This learning unit will help you to:

• define cognition.
• describe some methods people use to solve problems and make decisions.
• identify the common barriers to successful problem-solving and decision-making.
• define language and identify its different elements and structure.
• evaluate whether or not language influences how people think.

3.1 Introduction
One of the purposes of thinking is to guide behaviour. In particular, thinking helps us deal with many types
of problems that we face daily (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). Thinking involves manipulating information,
as when we form concepts, solve problems, think critically, reason, and make decisions (Santrock, 2003).
Reasoning is, therefore, part of the equation to thinking and problem-solving. To understand how we do
any of the things we do (such as learning, remembering, and behaving), we need to understand how we
think, how we organise our thoughts, and how we communicate those thoughts to others.

This unit deals with the topic of thinking. Firstly, it starts by defining the concept of cognition and explores
the different types of mental representations. It looks at the types of reasoning that we engage in almost
on daily basis. It also looks at problem-solving and decision-making processes. Lastly, it explores the role
of language in thinking and whether language influences our thinking or vice versa.

3.2 Defining cognition

Cognition (or thinking) refers to the mental processes that take place inside a person’s mind in terms of
thinking, reasoning, perceptions, and so on (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). It involves organising,
understanding, and communicating information to others. When people think, they are not only aware of
the information in the brain, but they are also making decisions about it, comparing it to other information

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and using it to solve problems. Thinking also includes more than just a kind of verbal ‘stream of
consciousness.’ People often form images as well as words in their minds (Ciccarelli & White, 2017).
Cognition is, therefore, a form of mental representation that help us survive in our social environments.

3.3 Types of mental representations

3.3.1 Mental image - is a representation that stands in for an object or event in the mind and has a
picture-like quality (Shepherd & Metzler, 1971). Almost everyone has visual and auditory images. Many
people have imagery for movement, touch, taste, smell, and pain. Thus, mental images are sometimes
more than just ‘pictures.’ For example, your image of a bakery may include its delicious odor (Coon &
Mitterer, 2012). People are even able to mentally rotate, or turn, images in their mind (Shepherd &
Metzler, 1971). A very important aspect of the research on mental rotation is that people tend to engage
mental images in their mind much like they do with physical objects (Ciccarelli & White, 2017).

3.3.2 Concepts - are the categories of objects, events, or ideas that have common properties shared
by the members of that category. For example, the concept ‘bird’ includes properties such as having
feathers, laying eggs, and being able to fly (Bernstein et al., 2012). Concepts not only contain the
important features of the objects or events but, they also allow the identification of new objects and
events that may fit the concept. The ability to think in terms of concepts allows us to communicate with
each other. For example, if I mention a bird to you, you know what I am referring to, even if we are not
actually thinking of the same type of bird.

The concepts that are defined by specific rules or features are called formal concepts and are quite rigid.
For example, a square is an object that has two-dimensional figure with four equal sides and four angles
adding up to 360. Any object that does not have all these features is simply not a square. The concepts
that are not clearly defined by a set of rules are called natural concepts. These concepts share some
features of the formal concepts but not all features. For example, an ostrich fits the concept of a ‘bird’ (it
has feathers, it lays eggs) but it cannot fly. We call it a bird because it possesses enough of the other
characteristics features of a bird (Bernstein et al., 2012). People form natural concepts not as the result
of a strict set of rules, but as the result of their experiences with these concepts in the real world.
Therefore, formal concepts are well defined, but natural concepts are ‘fuzzy.’

According to Santrock (2003), concepts are important for several reasons:

1) Concepts allow us to generalise - If we do not have concepts, each object and event in our world
would be unique to us.
2) Concepts allow us to associate experiences and objects - Soccer, Rugby, Boxing are all sports. The
concept of sport allows us to compare these activities.
3) Concepts grease the wheels of memory, so that we do not have to ‘reinvent the wheel’ each time we
come across a piece of information - If you understand the concept of a snake, then you won’t have

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a problem to classify an anaconda as a snake, even if you see it for the first time.
4) Concepts provide clues about how to react to particular object or experience - For example, if we see
pizza, our concept of food let us know that it is okay to eat it.

3.3.3 Prototype - is a member of the natural concept that possesses all or most of its characteristic
features. Prototypes are the most basic examples of concepts. The more prototypical the member of a
concept is, the more quickly people can decide whether it is an example of the concept (Bernstein et al.,
2012). The process in which prototypes are used are quite similar; whatever standard you choose, you
compare new instances to a prototype to get a sense of ‘fit’. In other words, the more similar the new
objects are to the standard, there more likely you are to include them in your concept (Cacioppo &
Freberg, 2013).

People have different experiences with fruit and therefore, have different prototypes of fruit. Fruits are
sweet, have seeds, and mostly grow on trees. Lemons have seeds and grow on trees, but they are not
sweet. Therefore, lemons are not prototypical fruits (Ciccarelli & White, 2017). More than likely,
prototypes develop according to the exposure a person has to the objects in that category. So, someone
who grew up in an area where there are many bananas might think of bananas as more prototypical fruits
than apples (Aitchison, 1992).

Figure 3.1: Fruit basket. Image retrieved from https://pixabay.com/images/search/fruits/?pagi=2&

3.3.4 Proposition - is a mental representation that expresses a relationship between the concepts.
Propositions can be true or false. Suppose you hear that Susan broke up with James. Your mental
representation of the event would be like:

Susan dumped James

This proposition can be expressed in different ways to reflect the same meaning. For example, you can
say that ‘Susan is no longer dating James anymore’ or ‘James was dumped by Susan.’ If later you discover

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that it was James who initiated the break up, then your proposition about the event would change to
reflect this new information. Thus:

James dumped Susan

Propositions are part of the network of associations that form the basis for our knowledge of the world
around us (Bernstein et al., 2012).

3.3.5 Schemas - a schema is a set of propositions that are often closely associated with each other and
they form more complex mental representations. Schemas involve the generalisations about categories,
events, places, and people (Bernstein et al., 2012). If you know how to drive a car and you borrow your
friend’s car, you would be able to drive it because you have developed a schema about cars. Therefore,
schemas help us make sense of the world around us.

3.3.6 Scripts - these are schemas about familiar activities. Scripts include the actions we take to
perform specific activities (Bernstein et al., 2012). For example, your ‘restaurant script’ represents the
sequence of events that you can expect when you go out to eat. Therefore, a restaurant script (where
they do not have auto machines for orders) would include activities such as getting a table in the
restaurant, choosing the food from the menu, placing an order, eating, paying the bill, and exiting the
restaurant.

Before you continue with this unit, please do the following activities:

Activity 1: Which of the following does not fit a prototype of fruits?

A. Banana
B. Orange
C. Coconut
D. Apple

Answer: A prototype is a member of the natural concept that possesses all or most of its
distinguishing features. For example, fruits have specific features that distinguish them
from other plants thus, they grow on trees, they are sweet, they have peels, and seeds.
Although a coconut grows on trees, it is not a prototypical fruit because it lacks other
defining features of fruits. Therefore, option C is the correct answer.

Activity 2: Every day after work John goes to the gym. Then he goes home and take a shower before
having his supper. After having supper, he watches TV and then he goes to bed. This is an
example of a . . .

A. mental imagery
B. script

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C. concept
D. proposition

Answer: Thinking involves a number of processes that help us to survive in our environments. Most
of us, like John, have routine actions that we perform to fulfil a particular purpose. The
activities that John performs reflect the script of his life after work and at home.
Therefore, option B is the correct answer.

3.4 Reasoning

Reasoning refers to the process through which we generate and evaluate arguments, as well as reach
conclusions about them (Bernstein et al., 2012). It is a skill closely related to critical thinking (Santrock,
2003).

3.4.1 Types of reasoning

• Formal (logical) reasoning - refers to a process of following a set of rigorous procedures to reach valid
conclusions. Formal reasoning involves the rules of logic. These are the statements that provide a
formula for drawing valid conclusions about events or situations (Bernstein et al., 2012). One type of
formal reasoning is deductive reasoning, which involves reasoning from the general to the specific.
When you learn a general rule and then understand how it applies in some situations but not in others,
you are engaging in deductive reasoning (Santrock, 2003). Deductive reasoning is always certain in
the sense that, if the initial rule, premise, or assumption about something is logically true, then the
conclusion will also be logically true. For example, look at the following syllogism:

‘All angels are immortal.

Gabriel is an angel.
Therefore, Gabriel is immortal’

If it is true that ‘all angels are immortal’ (the first premise), and it is also true that ‘Gabriel is an angel.’
(the second premise), then it must also be true that ‘Gabriel is immortal.’ (the conclusion). In simple terms,
this means that if A is true, then it follows logically that B must also be true. Deductive reasoning is
therefore based on logical reasoning.

• Informal reasoning - it occurs when we try to assess the believability of a conclusion based on the
evidence available to support it (Bernstein et al., 2012). For example, judges in court use informal
reasoning to weigh the evidence for the guilt or innocence of a defendant. One type of informal
reasoning is inductive reasoning, which involves reasoning from the specific to the general. Therefore,
inductive reasoning is based on the probability (or likelihood) of an event occurring but, the conclusion
cannot be guaranteed - it is inconclusive (Santrock, 2003). For example, looking at the clouds forming

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in the sky, you might assume that it would rain later, but you cannot be certain. See the video on
deductive and inductive reasoning at: https://youtu.be/yAjkQ1YqLEE (Note: Video not for assessment
purposes).

• Critical reasoning - this type of reasoning involves thinking reflectively, productively and evaluating
evidence. People who think critically grasp the deeper meaning of ideas, keep an open mind about
different approaches and perspectives, and decide for themselves what to believe or do. Too often,
people take one side of an issue without really evaluating the issue or examining it from different
perspectives (Santrock, 2003). Very few schools teach students to think critically and to develop a
deeper understand of the concepts. For example, many high school students read Hamlet, a book by
William Shakespeare, but are not asked to think about how its notion of power, and greed apply to
their lives or the wider world.

3.4.2 Reasoning fallacies

Fallacies are errors in thinking processes that use irrelevant premises to support a conclusion. Errors in
thinking involve:
− Playing on someone’s sympathy to get something done: Some people may manipulate someone’s
sympathy to get what they want. For example, a student who fails a psychology test may use their
personal difficult circumstances as a basis for requesting a pass from the lecturer. This is done so even
though the student knows that personal circumstances are not part of the criteria for passing the test.

− Trying to discredit an issue by discrediting the person that supports the issue: This is common in the
courtroom. For example, the lawyer may discredit the witness’ testimony on the basis that the witness
has a criminal record. Logically, the criminal record does not render the testimony of the witness
untruthful and unreliable in this case.

− Relying on the characteristics of a group to gain support for a conclusion: Some advertisements are
based on this type of fallacious reasoning. For example, the advertisement that says ‘real men drink
king size beer’ is portraying the idea that if you are a real man, then you must be drinking the king size
beer. The premise is irrelevant to the conclusion (thus, if you drink king size beer, then you are a real
man). Therefore, the advertising company may rely on the characteristics of a group of men (i.e.,
those that drink beer) to support its conclusion that it is ‘manly’ to drink beer and hence, make more
beer sales.

− False analogy: This fallacious reasoning involves using a false analogy. It implies that things that are
similar, are considered to be identical. For example, Susan loves her husband, and she is happy to be
a housewife. If you would rather work than be a housewife, then you don’t love your husband. The
analogy is based on the comparison between you and Susan as wives and is false because there are
reasons why Susan’s situation is different to yours. Basically, you can work and still love your husband.

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− Changing someone else’s version slightly as a basis for reasoning: This is common fallacious
reasoning. For example, Susan is pregnant, and her friends are against Susan’s decision to have an
abortion. Gloria states that she understands why some women opt for abortion during difficult times
in their lives. Upon hearing this, Susan then claims that Gloria is in favor for abortion and Susan uses
this information as a basis for her decision to do abortion. In fact, Gloria is not in favor for abortion
but, she is simply expressing her empathy for women who opt for abortion. Cleary, Susan has slightly
changed Gloria’s version to support her decision to abort an unborn child.

3.5 Problem-solving and decision-making

Mental images, concepts, prototypes, and all other cognitive elements are mental tools that can be used
to solve problems and make decisions.

Figure 3.2: Problem solving (sites.bu.edu).

Problem-solving is an attempt to find an appropriate way of attaining a goal when the goal is not readily
available (Santrock, 2003). It occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain
ways.

Figure 3.3: Decision making (https://tinyurl.com/2dd5rzpe).

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Life is full of decisions. Some decisions are routine and require minimal effort and consideration, whilst
others may be more important and require serious efforts and thinking (Weiten & Hassim, 2016).
Decision-making is a process of identifying alternative courses of action and choosing the best option
(Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). Therefore, problem-solving is one aspect of decision-making.

3.5.1 Steps in problem-solving and decision-making

There are certain steps that one can take when solving a problem and hence, making a decision. Some
of these steps are explained below.

(a) Find and frame the problem - before the problem can be resolved, it has to be recognised. This
means that the problem should be clearly defined and understood.

(b) Develop good problem-solving strategies - this includes developing effective strategies such as
algorithms, and heuristic strategies.

(c) Evaluate solutions - until we put the solution to the test, we won’t know how effective it is.
Evaluating the solution helps to have a clear criterion for the effectiveness of the solution.

(d) Rethink and redefine the problem and the solution over time - people who are good at problem
solving tend to rethink and redefine the problem and solution to improve them (Santrock, 2003).

3.5.2 Strategies to problem-solving and decision-making

Think about these scenarios as you read on:

Scenario 1: A father and a son are involved in a car accident. The paramedics take the father and the son
to different hospitals. The doctor who comes to operate on the son says, ‘I cannot operate on this patient
because he is my son.’ How is this possible?

Scenario 2: Charlotte and Charlene were born on the same day of the same month of the same year to
the same parents yet, they are not twins. How is this possible?

There are some strategies or approaches that can be used to solve problems and hence, make decisions.

• Trial-and-error (mechanical solution) method - is the process of trying one solution after another
until finding the one that works (Ciccarelli & White, 2017). For example, if you are given a bunch of
keys and you don’t know which key opens the door, you could try all the keys until you find the one

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that opens the door. Mechanical solutions can also involve solving by rote, or a learnt set of rules. This
is how word problems were solved in school.

• Algorithms - are a learned set of rules that always leads to the correct solution of a problem (Coon &
Mitterer, 2012). Many puzzles have a set of steps that, if followed correctly, will always result in
solving the puzzle. Mathematical formulas are algorithms. When librarians organise books on
bookshelves, they use an algorithm. They arrange books in alphabetical order within each category
(Ciccarelli & White, 2017).

• Heuristic (rule of thumb) method - is an educated guess based on prior experience that helps narrow
down the possible solutions to a problem. It involves disregarding certain possible solutions to focus
solely on the ones that are more likely to succeed (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). Heuristic method
involves:

Representative heuristic – used for categorising objects and simply assumes that any object (or person)
that shares characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category
(Kahneman et al., 1982).

Availability heuristic - is based on our estimation of the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how
easy it is to recall relevant information from memory, or how easy it is to think of related examples
(Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). For example, because the Psychology previous examination papers are
readily available on myUnisa, you may decide to use them to prepare for your upcoming examination.

• Incubation - Sometimes, taking a break from a problem and revisiting it later would give insight into
other possible solutions that you may previously have overlooked. This is called incubation effect. The
incubation period differs according to the problem. The period could be few minutes or hours,
sometimes a few days, or even longer (Weiten & Hassim, 2016).

• Analogy - this involves finding similarities between a problem you are facing currently and others you
have encountered in the past. To successfully use an analogy, we must first recognise the similarities
between the current problem and previous problems and then recall the solutions that worked before
(Bernstein et al., 2012). For example, you may find that a solution that was used to settle a family
dispute at home, can be equally successful to settle a dispute at work between employees, if the
problems show some similarities.

Insight - insight is not a strategy that people consciously engage in to solve a problem. It is a sudden
mental reorganization of a problem that makes the solution obvious (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). Insight often
takes the form of an ‘aha’ experience as the solution seems to come in a flash, without any conscious
effort. What happens during insight is that the mind simply reorganises the problem and finds the solution
while the person is thinking about something else (Durso et al., 1994).

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Remember the problems mentioned earlier in the scenarios 1 and 2 above? The task in scenario 1 was to
figure out how it could be, that the father and a son were taken to different hospitals, yet the doctor at
the son’s hospital remarked, ‘I cannot operate on this patient because he is my son.’ The answer: the
doctor is the son’s mother. Aha!!!

The task in scenario 2 was to figure out why Charlotte and Charlene share the birthday and have the same
parents and yet, they are not twins. The answer: Charlotte and Charlene are two of a set of triplets. Aha!!!

3.5.3 Complexities associated with decision-making

When considering preferences, research highlights the following complexities that can influence the
decision-making process.

- Emotions can influence the choice of preference.

- Evaluations of options fluctuate more than expected.

- Uncertainty effect suggests that people would rather avoid having to deal with uncertainty and
therefore, not engage in decision-making process.

- Unconscious deliberation or ‘gut feeling’ can influence decision making, more so if the decision making
is proving to be difficult.

- For products, factors such as brand name and ingredients used in the product can influence preferential
judgement on a product, even if the comparative product is similar (Weiten & Hassim, 2016).

Thinking is a complex process involving the use of mental imagery and various types of concepts, and
prototypes to organise the events of daily life. Problem-solving is a special type of thinking that involves
the use of many strategies or methods to solve different types of problems. People are not always able to
solve their problems and make decisions. Sometimes a solution to a problem remains just ‘out of reach’
because the elements of the problem are not arranged properly or because people get stuck in certain
ways of thinking that act as barriers.

3.5.4 Barriers to problem-solving and decision-making

Based on studies on problem-solving, psychologists have identified a number of barriers that hinder a
person’s ability to effectively solve a problem. These common barriers are discussed below.

(i) Focus on irrelevant information

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This includes all the unnecessary information that can distract a person from solving a problem. Sternberg
(1986, in Weiten & Hassim, 2016) stated that people often assume that all numerical factors need to be
identified in a problem, even though they may not need this information to effectively solve a problem.
This can waste time. Therefore, effective problem-solving entails differentiating between relevant and
irrelevant information.

(ii) Functional fixedness

One barrier to solve a problem involves thinking about objects only in terms of their typical use (literally
‘fixed on the function’). Have you ever searched for a screwdriver to tighten a screw? whilst you are
unaware that there are several other objects that could be used to tighten a screw, such as butter knife,
a key, or even a coin in your pocket. Because we tend to think of these objects in terms of their typical
functionality, we sometimes ignore their less obvious possible uses (Ciccarelli & White, 2017).

(iii) Mental sets

Sometimes people are so blinded by one strategy that they continue to apply it even when better
alternatives are available (Bernstein et al., 2012). Functional fixedness is actually a kind of mental set - the
tendency of relying on problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past situations (Weiten &
Hassim, 2016). Solutions that have worked in the past tend to be the ones people try first. People are
often hesitant to think of other possibilities. It is a good idea to keep an open mind and monitor whether
your mental set is keeping you from trying something new (Santrock, 2003).

(iv) Confirmation bias

This is the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs, actions, or thinking while ignoring any
evidence to the contrary (Santrock, 2003). This is similar to a mental set, except that what is ‘set’ is a belief
rather than a method of solving problems. For example, if you believe that your partner is cheating on
you, then you are more likely to look for (and probably find) the evidence to support your belief, while
ignoring the evidence to the contrary. Confirmation bias is a form of restricted thinking, which is a
tendency to perceive issues only from one point of view, while ignoring others that may also be equally
relevant.

3.6 Language and thinking

The most familiar use of mental representations is found in language - both written and spoken. Language
involves a system of symbols to represent thoughts. It is used to communicate with other people based
on a shared system of meanings. It is also used when we talk to ourselves - inner speech (Van Deventer &
Mojapelo-Batka, 2013). The structures of languages all over the world share common characteristics. They
consist of the sounds that exist within a language, word meanings, word order, the rules for making words
into other words, the meanings of sentences and phrases, and the rules for practical communication with
others. The aspects of a language involve the following:

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3.6.1 Grammar - is the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language. According to
Chomsky (2006), people have an innate ability to understand and produce language through a device he
called Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This is an innate programme that contains a schema for human
language. Children match the language they hear against the schema within the LAD and language
develops in a specific sequence (Chomsky, 2006).

3.6.2 Phoneme - a phoneme is the basic unit of sound in a language that affects the meaning of speech.
Different languages have different phonemes. Changing a phoneme would change the meaning of a word,
as much as changing a letter in a printed word changes its meaning (Bernstein et al., 2012). For example,
the word tea has a different meaning from sea. Another example is the sound for a particular word. An
‘a’ in the word car is a different phoneme from an ‘a’ in the word day, even though it is the same alphabet.
The difference is how we pronounce the sound of ‘a’ in each word (Ciccarelli & White, 2017). Although
changing a phoneme affects the meaning of speech, phonemes themselves are not meaningful. We have
to combine them to form a higher level of organisation called morphemes.

3.6.3 Morpheme - is the smallest unit of language that has meaning. The words dog and run are
morphemes because they have meanings on their own. Prefixes such as un - and suffixes such as ed have
meanings too, even though they cannot stand alone (Bernstein et al., 2012). Words are made up of one
or more morphemes and are combined to form phrases and sentences according to a set of grammatical
rules called syntax.

3.6.4 Syntax - is a system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct
sentences. Syntax is important, as just a simple mix-up can cause the sentence to be completely
misunderstood (Lasnik,1990). For example, the sentence, ‘James disciplined the boy’ has a different
meaning from the sentence, 'James, the disciplined boy’ although all four words are present in the
sentences (Ciccarelli & White, 2017).

3.6.5 Semantics - are rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences. Sentences can have
the same semantic meaning but different syntax. For example, the sentence ‘James kicked the ball’ and
‘The ball was kicked by James.’ have the same semantic meaning but different syntax (Ciccarelli & White,
2017).

3.6.6 Pragmatic - the pragmatic of a language has to do with the practical aspects of communicating
with others. It involves aspects such as knowing how to take turns in a conversation, the use of gestures,
and the different ways in which one speaks to different people (Yule, 1996). Part of the pragmatics of
language includes knowing just what rhythm and emphasis to use when communicating with others. This
is called intonation. When speaking to infants, adults and children change the inflection when they use
the higher pitch and stress certain words differently from others.

3.7 The relationship between language and thinking

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Researchers have long debated the relationship between language and thought. Does language influence
thought, or thought influences language?

On one hand, Piaget (1962) believed that concepts (and thoughts) preceded and aided the development
of language. For example, a child has a concept or mental schema for ‘mother’ before being able to learn
the word ‘mama.’ Piaget also noticed that pre-scholars seem to spend a great deal of time talking to
themselves, even when playing with another child. Each child would be talking about something totally
unrelated to the speech of the other – this is called collective monologue. Piaget believed that this kind
of non-social speech was very egocentric (from the child’s point of view only, with no regard for the
listener) and that as the child became more socially involved and less egocentric, these non-social speech
patterns are reduced.

On the contrary, Vygotsky (1987) believed that language aid the development of concepts (and thoughts)
and that language could also help the child learn to control behaviour - including social behaviour. Once
a child has learned the word ‘mama’ the various elements of ‘mama-ness’ such as warm, food, and safety,
could come together around that word. Vygotsky also believed that the ‘egocentric’ speech of the pre-
school child was a way for the child to form thoughts and control actions. He also believed that children’s
private speeches actually increase as children become more socially active in the pre-school years.

3.7.1. The role of language in thinking

Many researchers and psychologists cannot deny the influence of language on problem-solving, cognition,
and memory. Memory is stored not only in the form of sounds and images but also in words. Language
helps us to think, make inferences, tackle difficult decisions, and solve problems. Language can be thought
of as a tool for representing ideas (Santrock, 2003). The hypothesis that language shapes and influences
thoughts was accepted by many theorists, with a few exceptions, such as Piaget. One popular version of
this view is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (also known as linguistic relativity hypothesis). This hypothesis
assumes that thought processes and concepts in a particular culture are controlled by (relative to)
language. In other words, the words that people use determine much of the way in which they think about
the world around them. In support of this hypothesis, Lucy and Shweder’s (1979) study found that a
language’s colour names would influence the ability of the people who grew up with that language to
distinguish amongst perceived colours. This idea confirms cognitive universalism - thus, that concepts are
universal and influence the development of language. Therefore, current thinking on cognitive
universalism would assume that even though Zulu-speaking people in South Africa use the phrase ‘luhlaza’
to denote either blue or green, (thus, luhlaza okotshani - as green as grass, or luhlaza okwesibhakabhaka
- as blue as the sky), the cognitive concepts for the colours blue and green are universal. Therefore,
differentiating between blue and green colour would not be a problem for Zulu speakers. However, this
hypothesis has been criticised and some studies (e.g., Rosch, 1973) have confirmed that language does
not necessarily determine thinking, but it can influence it (Ciccarelli & White, 2017). The influence of
language on problem solving is even more complicated in multilingual societies such as South Africa.

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3.7.2 The role of thinking in language

Researchers are also studying the possibility that cognition is an important foundation for language. If
language reflects cognition in general, then we expect to find a close relationship between language ability
and general intellectual ability. Researchers have found that mental retardation is not always
accompanied by poor language skills. For example, individuals with Williams syndrome are categorised as
mentally retarded in terms of intelligence but, their language abilities are well within the normal range
for communicative purposes (Santrock, 2003).

Other evidence that cognition is separate from language comes from studies of deaf children. On a variety
of thinking and problem-solving tasks, deaf children perform at the same level as children of the same age
who have no hearing impairment. Some of the deaf children in these studies do not even have command
of written or sign language (Furth, 1971, in Santrock, 2003). Although thought and language are likely to
influence each other, there is increasing evidence that language and thought seem to have evolved as
separate, biologically prepared components of the mind (Santrock, 2003).

GROUP ACTIVITY

In a discussion on myUnisa with your e-tutor and peers, reflect on the problem-solving
strategies that you often use and the barriers that you encounter when solving problems.

NB: Please note that it is compulsory for you to have this discussion.

3.8 Summary

Generally, cognition refers to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension.
These cognitive processes include, among others, thinking, reasoning, remembering, judging, problem-
solving and decision making. These are higher level functions of the brain and encompass aspects such as
language, imagery, perception, and planning. All the cognitive processes discussed above affect every
aspect of our lives, from school to work, to relationships. In a sense cognition involves not only the mental
processes that go in our minds but also how thoughts influence our actions. Our attention to the world
around us, memories of past events, understanding of language, judgements about how the world works,
and abilities to solve problems all contribute to how we behave and interact with our surrounding
environment.

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3.9 Glossary
Algorithms: a learned set of rules that always leads to the correct solution of a problem.

Analogy: involve finding similarities between two or more issues and using these similarities for reasoning
or problem-solving.

Cognition: the mental processes that take place inside a person’s mind in terms of thinking, reasoning,
perceptions, and so on.

Cognitive universalism: the idea that concepts are universal and influence the development of language.

Collective monologue: a form of egocentric, unsocialized speech in which children talk among themselves
without apparently communicating with each other in a meaningful way.

Concepts: are the categories of objects, events, or ideas that have common properties shared by the
members of the category.

Confirmation bias: is the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs, actions, or thinking while
ignoring any evidence to the contrary.

Critical reasoning: a complex type of reasoning that involves thinking reflectively, productively and
evaluating evidence.

Decision-making: is a process of identifying alternative courses of action and choosing the best option.

Deductive reasoning: a type of formal reasoning that involves reasoning from the general to the specific.

Fallacies: are errors in thinking processes that use irrelevant premises to support a conclusion.

Formal (logical) reasoning: is the process of following a set of rigorous procedures to reach valid
conclusions.

Formal concepts: the concepts that are defined by specific rules or features and are quite rigid.

Functional fixedness: a barrier to problem-solving that involves thinking about objects only in terms of
their typical use (literally fixed on the function).

Grammar: is the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language.

Heuristic (rule of thumb) method: a problem-solving method that involves disregarding certain possible
solutions to focus solely on the ones that are more likely to succeed.

Incubation: a period whereby the mind subconsciously keeps looking for a solution to a problem without
an awareness of an individual.

Inductive reasoning: a type of informal reasoning that involves reasoning from the specific to the general.
It consists of drawing conclusions about all members of a category based on observing only some
members.

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Informal reasoning: the reasoning process of assessing the believability of a conclusion based on the
evidence available to support it.

Insight: a sudden mental reorganization of a problem that makes the solution obvious. It often takes the
form of an ‘aha’ experience.

Intonation: part of the pragmatics of language that includes knowing just what rhythm and emphasis to
use when communicating with others.

Mental image: is a representation that stands in for an object or event in the mind and has a picture-like
quality.

Mental set: the tendency of relying on problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past situations

Morpheme: is the smallest unit of language that has meaning.

Natural concepts: the concepts that cannot be clearly defined by a set of rules. They share some features
of the formal concepts but not all the features.

Phoneme: is the basic unit of sound in a language that affects the meaning of speech.

Pragmatic: the pragmatic of a language has to do with the practical aspects of communicating with others.

Problem-solving: is an attempt to find an appropriate way of attaining a goal when the goal is not readily
available.

Proposition: is a mental representation that expresses a relationship between concepts. Propositions can
be true or false.

Prototype: is a member of the natural concept that possesses all or most of its features.

Reasoning: the process through which we generate and evaluate arguments, as well as reach conclusions
about them.

Schemas: a set of propositions that are often closely associated with each other. They are generalisations
about categories, events, places, and people.

Scripts: are the schemas about familiar activities. Scripts include the actions we take to perform particular
activities.

Semantics: are rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences. Sentences

Syntax: is a system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.

Trial-and-error (mechanical solution) method: is the process of trying one solution after another until
finding the one that works.

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3.10 References

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Bernstein, D.A., Clarke-Steward, A., Penner, L.A. & Roy, E.J. (2012). Psychology (9th ed.). Wadsworth.
Cacioppo, J.T. & Freberg, L.A. (2013). Discovering psychology: The science of mind. Wadsworth.
Chomsky, N. (2006). Language and mind (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Durso, F., Rea, C. & Dayton, T. (1994). Graph-theoretical confirmation of restructuring during insight.
Psychological Science. 5, 94-98.
Kahneman, D., Slovic, P. & Tversky, A. (1982). Judgement under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases.
Cambridge University Press.
Lasnik, H. (1990). Metrics and morphophonemics in early English verse. In University of Connecticut
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Lucy, J.A. & Shweder, R.A. (1979). Whorf and his critics: Linguistic and nonlinguistic influences on color
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Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. Norton.
Rosch, E. (1973). On the internal structure of perceptual and semantic categories. In T.E. Moore (ed.),
Cognitive development and the acquisition of language. (p.111-144).
Santrock, J.W. (2003). Psychology: Essentials (2nd). McGraw- Hill.
Shepherd, R.N. & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three dimensional objects. Science. 171, 701-
703.
Skosana, G.M. (2017). Learning. In Ciccarelli, S.K. & White, J.N. (eds.). Psychology- An exploration: Global
and Southern African Perspectives. Pearson.
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Cognitive Psychology. 5 (2), 207-232).
Van Deventer, V, & Mojapelo-Batka M. (2013). A Student’s A-Z of psychology. Juta.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1987). Thought and word. In R.W. Riebe & A.S. Carton (eds.). The collected works of L.S.
Vygotsky: Vol.1, Problems of general psychology (p.243-288). Plenum.
Weiten, W. & Hassim, J. (2016). Variations in psychology (2nd South African edition). Cengage learning.
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford University Press.

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