Math for Operators

A Guide to using the ABC/EOCP

Canadian Standardized Formula Handouts for
Wastewater Treatment, Wastewater Collection,
Water Treatment, Water Distribution
and Laboratory Exams
With solved examples of every formula in both US and Metric units
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Table of Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Glossary of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... 7
Units of Measure....................................................................................................................................... 8
United States Units ............................................................................................................................... 8
System Internationale Units (The Metric System) ................................................................................ 8
ppm and mg/L ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Units and Equivalents in the Metric System ........................................................................................... 10
Significant Figures and Rounding ............................................................................................................ 12
Zero – Is it significant or not?.................................................................................................................. 12
The Megalitre Shortcut ........................................................................................................................... 12
Things That Are Equal to One ................................................................................................................. 13
Exponents and Powers of 10............................................................................................................... 14
Basic Math Skills ...................................................................................................................................... 17
Order of Operation – BEDMAS ........................................................................................................... 17
Addition and Subtraction .................................................................................................................... 18
Multiplication and Division ................................................................................................................. 19
Pi (π) .................................................................................................................................................... 19
The constant 0.785 ............................................................................................................................. 20
Before we get started ............................................................................................................................. 21
Geometry – Perimeter, Circumference, Area and Volume..................................................................... 22
Linear Measurement............................................................................................................................... 23
Perimeter ............................................................................................................................................ 23
Circumference of a circle .................................................................................................................... 23
Circumference of an ellipse ................................................................................................................ 24
Area ......................................................................................................................................................... 24
Area of a Circle .................................................................................................................................... 24
Area of a Cone (lateral surface area) .................................................................................................. 25
Area of a Cone (total surface area) ..................................................................................................... 25
Area of a Cylinder (total and lateral surface area).............................................................................. 26
Area of a Square or Rectangle ............................................................................................................ 27
Area of a Right Triangle....................................................................................................................... 27
Area of a Trapezoid ............................................................................................................................. 27

1
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Area of a Sphere.................................................................................................................................. 28
Area of an Irregular Shape .................................................................................................................. 28
Volume .................................................................................................................................................... 28
Volume of a Cone ................................................................................................................................ 28
Volume of a Cylinder ........................................................................................................................... 29
Volume of a Prism ............................................................................................................................... 30
Amperes .................................................................................................................................................. 31
Average (arithmetic mean) ..................................................................................................................... 31
Median, Range, and Mode.................................................................................................................. 33
Average (geometric mean) ..................................................................................................................... 33
Basic Chemistry ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Molarity ............................................................................................................................................... 34
Normality ............................................................................................................................................ 34
Milliequivalents and Waste Milliequivalents ...................................................................................... 35
Number of Equivalent Weights ........................................................................................................... 35
Number of Moles ................................................................................................................................ 36
Alkalinity.............................................................................................................................................. 37
Hardness ............................................................................................................................................. 37
Basic Electrical Concepts – Amperes, Resistance, Voltage, Power ......................................................... 38
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (seeded, mg/L) ........................................................................................ 39
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (unseeded, mg/L) .................................................................................... 40
Blending .................................................................................................................................................. 40
Colony Forming Units (CFU) / 100 mL..................................................................................................... 40
Chemical Feed Pump Setting, % stroke .................................................................................................. 40
Chemical Feed Pump Setting, mL/min (see Caution Note)..................................................................... 41
Composite Sample Single Portion ........................................................................................................... 43
CT Calculation ......................................................................................................................................... 43
Cycle Time, minutes ................................................................................................................................ 44
Degrees Celsius ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Degrees Fahrenheit ................................................................................................................................. 45
Detention time (or Hydraulic Retention Time) ....................................................................................... 45
Feed Rate ................................................................................................................................................ 46
Feed Rate (Fluoride)................................................................................................................................ 47

2
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Feed Rate (Fluoride Saturator) ............................................................................................................... 47

Filtration.................................................................................................................................................. 48
Filter Backwash Rate ............................................................................................................................... 48
Filter Backwash Rise Rate ....................................................................................................................... 49
Filter Drop Test Velocity.......................................................................................................................... 50
Filter Loading Rate .................................................................................................................................. 50
Filter Yield (see Caution Note) ................................................................................................................ 51
Flow Rate ................................................................................................................................................ 52
Food / Microorganism Ratio ................................................................................................................... 53
Sludge Wasting Rate ........................................................................................................................... 54
Force and Pressure.................................................................................................................................. 55
Horsepower (Pumping Calculations) ...................................................................................................... 57
Horsepower, Brake ............................................................................................................................. 57
Efficiency Calculations............................................................................................................................. 59
Horsepower, Motor, hp ...................................................................................................................... 59
Horsepower, Water, hp ...................................................................................................................... 60
Wire to Water Efficiency, % ................................................................................................................ 60
Supplemental Equations ......................................................................................................................... 61
Loading rate - Hydraulic .......................................................................................................................... 62
Loading Rate – Mass ............................................................................................................................... 62
Hypochlorite Strength, % ........................................................................................................................ 64
Grams .................................................................................................................................................. 64
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) .............................................................................................................. 66
Leakage ................................................................................................................................................... 68
Mean Cell Residence Time / Solids Retention Time/Sludge Age ............................................................ 69
Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) ..................................................................................................... 69
Solids Retention Time ......................................................................................................................... 70
Sludge Age........................................................................................................................................... 70
Organic Loading Rate, Attached Growth Systems .................................................................................. 71
Rotating Biological Contactor ............................................................................................................. 71
Trickling Filter...................................................................................................................................... 72
Oxygen Uptake Rate ............................................................................................................................... 73
Population Equivalent, Organic .............................................................................................................. 74

3
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Recirculation Ratio .................................................................................................................................. 75

Reduction of Volatile Solids, % ............................................................................................................... 75
Percent Reduction in Flow ...................................................................................................................... 76
Percent Removal ..................................................................................................................................... 76
Percent Return Rate (Sludge Return Rate, %)......................................................................................... 77
Return Sludge Rate – Solids Balance....................................................................................................... 77
Slope, % ................................................................................................................................................... 78
Solids, mg/L ............................................................................................................................................. 79
Sludge Density Index (SDI) ...................................................................................................................... 79
Sludge Volume Index (SVI) ...................................................................................................................... 80
Percent Solids Capture (Centrifuge) ....................................................................................................... 81
Solids Concentration, mg/L ..................................................................................................................... 81
Solids Loading Rate ................................................................................................................................. 82
Solids Retention Time ............................................................................................................................. 83
Specific Gravity........................................................................................................................................ 84
Specific Gravity of Liquids ................................................................................................................... 84
Specific Gravity of Solids ..................................................................................................................... 84
Density ................................................................................................................................................ 85
Specific Oxygen Uptake Rate or Respiration Rate, mg/g/hr ................................................................... 85
Surface Loading Rate (aka Surface Overflow Rate) ................................................................................ 86
Two and Three Normal Equation ............................................................................................................ 86
Two normal equation.......................................................................................................................... 87
Three normal equation ....................................................................................................................... 87
Dilution Calculations ............................................................................................................................... 87
Dilution Box ......................................................................................................................................... 87
Dilution using water ............................................................................................................................ 88
Threshold Odour Number (TON) ............................................................................................................ 89
Total Solids, % ......................................................................................................................................... 89
Velocity ................................................................................................................................................... 90
Percent Volatile Solids (Percent (%) Removal Calculation)..................................................................... 91
Water Use ............................................................................................................................................... 92
Weir Overflow Rate................................................................................................................................. 92

4
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Introduction
This manual was written to provide operators with a guide to the use of the formulas found in the
handouts provided to certification examination candidates. The formulas used will be those found in the
Canadian version of the Association of Boards of Certification’s (ABC) handout and in the handout
provided by the Environmental Operators Certification Program (EOCP) in British Columbia.
Commencing in 2018 the ABC/EOCP standardized exam began using both United States and metric units
in the both the stem and the answer choices. The format uses US units first followed by metric units in
brackets. Where US units are converted to metric units the value obtained will be rounded to one
decimal place. For example:
A clarifier is 100 feet (30.5 m) in diameter and 15 feet (4.8 m) deep. Calculate its volume.
a) 117,750 cubic feet (3,505.2 cubic metres)
A reservoir is 32 feet (9.8 m) deep. What is the pressure at the bottom of the reservoir?
a) 13.85 psi (95.5 kPa)
This workbook will use that format.
Each formula is accompanied by one or more solved examples of a question which would require the
use of the formula to obtain a solution. Each of the sample questions begins with the question stated in
bold text. Each of the sample questions contains the basic equation used, a step-by-step guide to
developing the information needed to solve the question and the solved question using a “dimensional
analysis” approach which first sets out the question in words and then solves it by substituting the
appropriate numerical value. Many of the questions will have application to other disciplines. For
example, operators in any of the four disciplines may need to calculate hydraulic detention time – it may
be called a reservoir for a water distribution operator, a wet well for a collection system operator, and a
clarifier for either a wastewater or water treatment plant operator but the basic mathematical concept
is the same.
Additional information can be found in the publications of the following organizations and agencies:
American Water Works Association Association of Boards of Certification
California State University, Sacramento Environment Canada
Metcalf and Eddy / AECOM Provincial and State Operator Certification Programs
Water Environment Federation United States Environmental Protection Agency

Graeme Faris
May 1, 2022
Copyright © 2022 Graeme Faris
All parts of this publication may be reproduced in any form, by any photographic, mechanical or other means, or used in any
information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the author provided that it is used to
advance operator education and training.

6
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Glossary of Abbreviations
The following abbreviations may be used in this document:
atm Atmospheres MGD Million US gallons per day
BOD5 Biochemical oxygen demand mg/L Milligram(s) per litre
C Celsius min Minute(s)
CBOD5 Carbonaceous BOD5 mL Millilitres(s)
cfs Cubic feet per second ML Million litres (aka Megalitre)
cm Centimeter(s) MLD Million litres per day
COD Chemical oxygen demand MLSS Mixed liquor suspended solids
DO Dissolved oxygen MLVSS Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
EMF Electromotive force OCR Oxygen consumption rate
F Fahrenheit ORP Oxidation reduction potential
F:M ratio Food to microorganism ratio OUR Oxygen uptake rate
ft Feet PE Population equivalent
ft lb Foot pound ppb Parts per billion
g Gram(s) ppm Parts per million
gal US gallons psi Pounds per square inch
gfd US gallons flux per day Q Flow
gpcd US gallons per capita per day RAS Return activated sludge
gpd US gallons per day RBC Rotating biological contactor
gpg Grains per US gallon RPM Revolutions per minute
gpm US gallons per minute SBOD5 Soluble BOD
hp Horsepower SDI Sludge density index
hr Hour(s) sec Second(s)
in Inch(es) SOUR Specific oxygen uptake rate
kg Kilograms SRT Solids retention time
km Kilometre SS Settleable solids
kPa kiloPascal(s) SSV30 Settled sludge volume, 30 minutes
kW kiloWatt SVI Sludge volume index
kWh KiloWatt hours TOC Total organic carbon
L Litre(s) TS Total solids
lb Pound(s) TTHM Total Trihalomethanes
Lpcd Litres per capita per day TSS Total suspended solids
Lpd Litres per day VS Volatile solids
Lpm Litres per minute VSS Volatile suspended solids
LSI Langelier Saturation Index W Watt(s)
m Meter(s) WAS Waste activated sludge
MCRT Mean cell residence time yd Yard(s)
mEq Milliequivalent yr Year
MG Million US gallons

7
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Units of Measure
As noted in the introduction, math questions on an EOCP/ABC certification will contain both United
States common units of measure and System Internationale units of measure (i.e., metric units).

CAUTION
Due to rounding of the conversion factors used and the ABC/EOCP practice of rounding all
conversions of US units to metric units to a single decimal point, operators will find that the
metric answer and the US unit answer given in a math problem will not convert to precisely the
same value. i.e., a US unit answer when converted to metric units will not give the same answer
as would be found if the problem was solved using the metric values given and vice versa.
Generally, the values will be within 5% of each other.

United States Units

The United States of America remains the only industrialized country in the world to continue to use
non-metric units. This despite the fact that the US Congress adopted the metric system as the official
system of measurement in the United States in 1893 (Mendenhall Order) and, most recently, again in
1975 with the Metric Conversion Act.
The use of two different unit systems caused the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter in 1999. NASA
specified metric units in the contract. NASA and other organizations applied metric units in their work,
but one subcontractor, Lockheed Martin, provided software that calculated and reported thruster
performance data to the team in pound-force-seconds, rather than the expected newton-seconds. The
spacecraft was intended to orbit Mars at about 150 kilometers (93 miles) altitude, but incorrect data
caused it to descend instead to about 57 kilometers (35 miles), burning up in the Martian atmosphere.
Nevertheless, the United States continues to use non-metric units.
In our industry, the most commonly used US units are: parts per million for concentrations; pounds per
square inch for pressure; inches, feet and miles for linear dimensions; square feet, square yards and
acres for area; cubic feet, gallons and million gallons for flow or volume; and pounds or tons for weight.
Conversion factors can be found in the EOCP/ABC math formula handout.
System Internationale Units (The Metric System)
The metric system is used in all of the industrialized countries of the world except the United States.
Canada began the conversion to a metric system of measurement in 1970 and by 1975 it was in
universal use throughout the country.
Introduced in France in 1779 the metric system originally was limited to two units – the metre and the
kilogram.
Metre
The metre (meter in the US), symbol m, is the base unit of length in the International System of Units
(SI). Originally intended to be one ten-millionth of the distance from the Earth's equator to the North
Pole (at sea level), since 1983, it has been defined as "the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum
during a time interval of 1 ⁄ 299,792,458 of a second (≈ 3 x 10-9 seconds).

8
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Kilogram
The kilogram, also known as the kilo, symbol kg, is the base unit of mass in the International System of
Units and, until 2019, was defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram
(IPK).
The IPK is made of a platinum-iridium alloy, which is 90% platinum and 10% iridium (by mass) and is
machined into a cylinder with a height and diameter of approximately 39 millimeters to minimize its
surface area. The cylinder has a mass which is almost exactly equal to the mass of one liter of water.
In 2019, the kilogram was redefined in terms of three fundamental physical constants: The speed of
light, c, a specific atomic transition frequency ∆vcs and the Planck constant, h.
It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10−34 when
expressed in the unit J⋅s, which is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−1, where the metre and the second are defined in
terms of c and ∆vcs . The second, symbol s, is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium
frequency ∆vcs , the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133
atom, to be equal to 9,192,631,770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1 (are you
confused yet?).
The metric system is decimal, except where the non-SI units for time (hours, minutes, seconds) and
plane angle measurement (degrees, minutes, seconds) are concerned. All multiples and divisions of the
decimal units are factors of the power of ten.
Decimal prefixes are a characteristic of the metric system; the use of base 10 arithmetic aids in unit
conversion. Differences in expressing units are simply a matter of shifting the decimal point or changing
an exponent; for example, the speed of light may be expressed as 299,792,458 m/s or 2.99792458×108
m/s.
A common set of decimal-based prefixes is applied to some units which are too large or too small for
practical use without adjustment. The effect of the prefixes is to multiply or divide the unit by a factor of
ten, one hundred or one thousand. The prefix kilo, for example, is used to multiply the unit by 1000, and
the prefix milli is to indicate a one-thousandth part of the unit. Thus, the kilogram and kilometre are a
thousand grams and metres respectively, and a milligram and millimetre are one thousandth of a gram
and metre respectively. These relations can be written symbolically as:
1 mg = 0.001 g 1 km = 1000 m
When applying prefixes to derived units of area and volume that are expressed in terms of units of
length squared or cubed, the square and cube operators are applied to the unit of length including the
prefix, as illustrated here:
1 mm2 (square millimetre) = (1 mm)2 = (0.001 m)2 = 0.000 001 m2
1 km2 (square kilometre) = (1 km)2 = (1000 m)2 = 1,000,000 m2
1 mm3 (cubic millimetre) = (1 mm)3 = (0.001 m)3 = 0.000 000 001 m3
1 km3 (cubic kilometre) = (1 km)3 = (1000 m)3 = 1,000,000,000 m3
On the other hand, prefixes are used for multiples of the non-SI unit of volume, the litre (L), or the stere
(cubic metre). Examples: 1 mL = 0.001 L, 1 kL = 1,000 L = 1m3
The tonne (1,000 kg), the litre (now defined as exactly 0.001 m3), and the hectare (10,000 m2), continue
to be used alongside the SI units.

9
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

ppm and mg/L

The acronym ppm stands for parts per million and was commonly used in the pre-metric era. In the
metric system we use the acronym mg/L which stands for milligrams per litre. The metric system assigns
a weight of one kilogram to one litre of water. One kilogram of water contains one million milligrams
and thus a value of one milligram per litre is exactly equivalent to one part per million parts. The two
terms can be used interchangeably.
Proof:
Consider that by definition, 1 Litre of water weighs 1 kilogram
1 kilogram contains 1,000 grams
1 gram contains 1,000 milligrams
Therefore, 1 kilogram contains 1,000 grams × 1,000 milligrams/gram = 1,000,000 milligrams (mg)
Thus,
1 mg 1 mg 1 mg 1 mg
= = = = 1 part⁄million parts = 1ppm
L kg 1,000 g 1,000,000mg
Units and Equivalents in the Metric System
Tera (T) 1012 1,000,000,000,000
9
Giga (G) 10 1,000,000,000
Mega (M) 106 1,000,000
3
Kilo (K) 10 1,000
2
Hecto (H) 10 100
Deca (D) 101 10
-1
Deci (d) 10 1/10
-2
Centi (c) 10 1/100
Milli (m) 10-3 1/1,000
-6
Micro (µ) 10 1/1,000,000
-9
Nano (n) 10 1/1,000,000,000
Pico (p) 10-12 1/1,000,000,000,000

10
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Quantity Measured Unit Symbol Relationships

Distance, length, width, millimetre mm 10 mm = 1 cm
thickness, girth, etc. centimetre cm 100 cm = 1 m
metre m 1,000 m = 1 km
kilometre km
Mass (Weight) milligram mg 1,000 mg = 1 g
gram g 1,000 g = 1 kg
kilogram kg 1,000 kg = 1 t
tonne t
Area square metre m2 10,000 m2 = 1 ha
hectare ha 100 ha = 1 km2
square kilometre km2
Volume millilitre mL 1 cm3 = 1 mL
3
cubic centimetre cm (or cc) 1,000 mL = 1 L
litre L 1,000L = 1 m3
cubic metre m3
Megalitre ML 1,000 m3 = 1 ML
Velocity (Speed) metres/second m/s
kilometre/hour km/h
Temperature degree Celsius °C
Pressure kilopascal kPa 9.8 kPa = 1 m of head
Energy joules J
kilowatt-hour kWh
Power watt W

11
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Significant Figures and Rounding

When we use a handheld calculator or the calculator function on our smart phone, laptop or tablet it is
not uncommon to get an answer to the fifth or sixth decimal point. But is that answer accurate? Is that
level of precision necessary? The accuracy of any answer is based on the accuracy of the values used in
determining the answer and that depends on the precision of the measuring instrument or even the skill
of the person using the instrument.
The rules for determining the number of significant figures or digits that an answer should contain are
relatively straightforward.
There are three rules that apply to “rounding off” numbers until the appropriate numbers of significant
figures remain:
1. When a figure less than five is dropped, the next figure to the left remains unchanged. For
example, the number 11.24 becomes 11.2 when it is required that the four be dropped
2. When the figure is greater than five that number is dropped and the number to the left is
increased by one. For example, 11.26 becomes 11.3
The third rule, which is less commonly used, helps to prevent rounding bias in long series of numbers.
3. When the figure that needs to be dropped is a five, round to the nearest even number. For
example, 11.35 becomes 11.4 and 46.25 becomes 46.2

Zero – Is it significant or not?

A zero may be a significant figure, if it is a measured value, or be insignificant and serve only as a place
holder or spacer for locating the decimal point. If a zero or zeroes are used to give position value to the
significant figures in the number, then the zero or zeroes are not significant. Consider this:
1.23 mm = 0.123 cm = 0.000123 m = 0.00000123 km
In the example above, the zeroes are insignificant and only give the significant figures, 123, a position
that indicates their value.

The Megalitre Shortcut

Many questions ask the operator to calculate the weight of a substance added to a process or wasted
from a process per unit of time given the concentration of the substance in mg/L and the flow in either
liters or cubic metres per unit of time.
Regardless of the substance, whether it be COD, BOD5, suspended solids, volatile solids, mixed liquor
suspended solids or waste or return activated sludge the standard equation is:
Flow, m3 Concentration, mg
Loading, kg⁄day = ×
unit of time L
or
Loading, kg/day = (Flow, m3/unit of time)(Concentration, mg/L)

12
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

To solve the equation the operator inserts conversion factors and sets up the equation as follows:
X mg Y m 3 1 kg 103 L
Loading =   6  = Z kg/time
L Time 10 mg m 3
Where X = the concentration, Y = the flow and Z = the product after all of the math has been done
The benefit of the long form equation is that it allows the operator to “cancel out” words above and
below the vinculum (the line which separates the numerator and denominator in a fraction) to see if the
equation has even been set up properly before doing the math.
As an alternative to setting up the equation long form, the operator can simply convert the flow to
Megalitres (ML) [1 Megalitre = 1,000 cubic metres = 1,000,000 liters] and multiply by the concentration
given in mg/L.
Why does this work? Consider that:
1mg 1,000 mg 1,000,000 mg 1 kg
= = =
L 1,000 L 1,000,000 L ML
Because 1,000,000 mg = 1 kg and 1,000,000 L = 1,000 m3 = 1 ML
The following example illustrates the use of this shortcut.
What is the loading on a basin if 2,500 cubic metres of a substance having a concentration of 180 mg/L
is added per day?
Example 1 - Insert known values and solve, long form
180 mg 2,500 m3 1 kg 103 L
Loading = × × 6 × 2 = 450 kg⁄day
L day 10 mg m
Example 2 – Megalitre shortcut
Step 1 – Convert 2,500 m3 to Megalitres = 2.500 / 1,000 = 2.5 ML
Insert known values and solve
Loading = (180 mg/L)(2.5 ML/day) = 450 kg/day
How many kilograms of solids are in an aeration basin 30 m long, 10 m wide and 3.5 m deep if the
concentration of the MLSS is 2,450 mg/L?
Step 1 – Calculate volume of aeration basin = LWD = (30)(10)(3.5) = 1,050 cubic metres = 1.05 ML
Insert known values and solve
2,450 mg 1,050 m3 1 kg 103 L
Loading = × × 6 × 2 = 2,572.5 kg
L day 10 mg m
Or
Solids = (2,450 mg/L)(1.05 ML) = 2,572.5 kg

Things That Are Equal to One

When setting up a problem it is often useful to insert conversion factors that will allow us to move from
the units given in the problem to the units that are needed to answer the problem. Luckily in
mathematics, multiplying and dividing by the number one (1) has no effect on the answer so the

13
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

insertion of a conversion factor (so long as it is equal or equivalent to one) has no impact on the
numerical answer but it will help us move from one unit to another.
Some conversion factors that are equal to one include:
1m3 10,000 m2 1 kg 1,000g
1,000 L ha 106 mg kg
6
1ML 1,000 mg 10 mg 1kPa
1,000 m3 g 1 Kg 1,000 Pa
Exponents and Powers of 10
In mathematics an exponent is the number to which the base number is to be multiplied by itself. In the
example which follows the number 2 is the base and the exponent 3 indicates the number of times the
base is to be multiplied by itself. Exponents are written as a superscript to the right of the number.
23 = (2)(2)(2) = 8
The expression b2 = b·b is called the square of b. The area of a square with side-length b is b2.
The expression b3 = b·b·b is called the cube of b. The volume of a cube with side-length b is b3.
So 32 is pronounced "three squared", and 23 is "two cubed".
The exponent tells us how many copies of the base are multiplied together.
For example: 35 = 3·3·3·3·3 = 243.
The base 3 appears 5 times in the repeated multiplication, because the exponent is 5. Here, 3 is the
base, 5 is the exponent, and 243 is the power or, more specifically, the fifth power of 3, or 3 raised to
the fifth power, or 3 to the power of 5.
The word "raised" is usually omitted, and very often "power" as well, so 35 is typically pronounced
"three to the fifth" or "three to the five".
Powers of ten
In the base ten (decimal) number system, integer powers of 10 are written as the digit 1 followed or
preceded by a number of zeroes determined by the sign and magnitude of the exponent. For example,
103 = 1,000 and 10−4 = 0.0001.
Exponentiation with base 10 is used in scientific notation to denote large or small numbers. For
instance, 299,792,458 m/s (the speed of light in vacuum, in metres per second) can be written as
2.99792458×108 m/s and then approximated as 2.998×108 m/s.
SI prefixes based on powers of 10 are also used to describe small or large quantities. For example, the
prefix kilo means 103 = 1,000, so a kilometre is 1,000 metres.
Powers of 10 when the exponent is a positive number
8.64 × 104
The small number 4 in the top right hand corner is the exponent.
104 is a shorter way of writing 10 × 10 × 10 × 10, or 10,000
8.64 × 104 = 8.64 × 10,000 = 86,400
10 to the power of any positive integer (i.e. 1, 2, 3, etc.) is a one followed by that many zeroes.

14
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

102 = 10 × 10 = 100
103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1,000
106 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 1,000,000

15
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Powers of 10 when the exponent is a negative number:

8.64 × 10-4
The small number -4 in the top right hand corner is the exponent.
1 1 1
10−4 is a shorter way of writing = = = 0.0001
104 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 10,000
Therefore:
8.64 8.64
8.64 × 10−4 = = = 0.000864
10 × 10 × 10 × 10 10,000
The decimal moves 4 places to the left
10 to the power of any negative integer (i.e. 1, 2, 3, etc.) is a one divided by the product of the power.
1 1
10−2 = = = 0.01
10 × 10 100
1 1
10−3 = = = 0.001
10 × 10 × 10 1,000
1 1
10−4 = = = 0.0001
10 × 10 × 10 × 10 10,000
To recap -
If our exponent is a negative number, e.g.
10-x then the decimal place moves “x” places to the LEFT

For example

3.21 ×10-3 → .0 0 3.21 → 0.00321

3 jumps to the left

4 ×10-6 → .0 0 0 0 0 4. → 0.000004
6 jumps to the left
If our exponent is a positive number, e.g.
10y then the decimal place moves “y” places to the RIGHT

For example

3.21 ×103 → 3.2 1 0 → 3210

3 jumps to the right

16
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

4 ×106 → 4 0 0 0 0 0 0. → 4,000,000
6 jumps to the right
Multiplying and dividing by powers of ten
When we multiply two values expressed as powers of ten we add the exponents together
102 × 103 = 102+3 = 105
Example 1
125 × 3,600 = 450,000
(1.25 × 102 ) × (3.6 × 103 ) = 1.25 × 3.6 × 102+3 = 4.5 × 105 = 450,000

When we divide to values expressed as powers of ten we subtract the exponents

102
= 102−3 = 10−1
103
Example 2
125
= 0.034
3,600
1.25 × 102 1.25
= × 102−3 = 0.34 × 10−1 = 0.034
3.6 × 103 3.6

Note: normally, one would not use powers of ten notation for relatively small numbers such as those
shown in the examples. The skill becomes useful in reducing some of the conversion factors used when
converting from, say, milligrams per litre to kilograms per day

Basic Math Skills

Order of Operation – BEDMAS
BEDMAS is an acronym which can be used to help remember the correct order in which mathematical
operations are carried out when solving an equation. That order is:
1 Brackets ( )
2 Exponents 32
3 Division 
4 Multiplication ×
5 Addition +
6 Subtraction –

17
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Example 1 – Consider the equation:

4(2 + 1)
(5 − 2)2 + −1
6
Solve using BEDMAS
4(2 + 1) 4(3)
Brackets (5 − 2)2 + − 1 = (3)2 + −1
6 6
4(3) 4(3)
Exponents (3)2 + −1=9+ −1
6 6
4(3) 12
Division⁄Multiplication 9 + −1=9+ −1=9+2−1
6 6
Addition 9 + 2 − 1 = 11 − 1

Subtraction 11 − 1 = 10

When solving a fractional expression, you treat each part (the numerator and the denominator) as
separate equations and apply the rules of BEDMAS accordingly. Finally, divide the numerator by the
denominator.
Useless fact: the line separating the numerator and the denominator is called the vinculum.
Example 2 – Consider the equation: 8 + 32(3 × 5) – 6(3 + 5)
Brackets 8 + 32 (3 × 5) − 6(3 + 5) = 8 + 32 (15) − 6(8)

Exponents 8 + 32 (15) − 6(8) = 8 + 9(15) − 6(8)

Division⁄Multiplication 8 + 9(15) − 6(8) = 8 + 135 − 48

Subtraction 8 + 135 − 48 = 143 − 48 = 95

Addition and Subtraction

In addition and subtraction, only similar units expressed to the same number of decimal places may be
added or subtracted. The number with the least number of decimal places a limit on the number of
decimals that the answer can justifiably contain. For example, suppose you have been asked to add
together the following values: 446 mm + 185.22 cm + 18.9 m. First convert the quantities to similar
units (in this case metres) and then chose the least accurate number, which is 18.9. As it only has one
digit to the right of the decimal point, the other two values will have to be rounded off.
446 mm = 0.446 m = 0.4 m
185.22 cm = 1.8522 m = 1.8 m
18.9 m = 18.9 m = 18.9 m
21.1 m
When adding numbers (including negative numbers), the rule is that the least accurate number will
determine the number reported as the sum. The number of significant figures reported in the sum
cannot be greater than the least significant figure in the group being added.

18
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

In the next example, the least precise number, 170, dictates that the other three numbers will have to
be changed (rounded off) before addition is done.
1.023 g = 1g
23.22 g = 23 g
170 g = 170 g
1.008 g = 1g
195 g
Multiplication and Division
The rules for rounding off in multiplication and division are different for those used in addition and
subtraction. In multiplication and division the number with the fewest significant figures will dictate how
the answer is finally written. Suppose we have to multiply 26.56 by 6.2.
(26.56)(6.2) = 164.672
In the equation above, the first number has four significant figures while the second number only has
two. Therefore the answer should only be written with two significant figures as 160 because the least
precise value (6.2) only has two significant figures.
Pi (π)
π (sometimes written pi) is a mathematical constant which equals the ratio of a circle’s circumference
to its diameter.
circumference
π= ≈ 3.14
diameter
Pi is an irrational number, which means that its value cannot be expressed exactly as a fraction having
integers in both the numerator and denominator (for example, 22÷7). Consequently its decimal
representation never ends and never repeats. Reports on the latest, most-precise calculation of π are
common. The record as of November 2021, stands at 62 trillion decimal digits by a team from
Switzerland’s University of Applied Science at Graubünden. Why? Because they can.

The value used for π in all calculations in this book and on the EOCP exams is 3.14.

NASA uses a value of 3.141592653589793 when calculating interplanetary orbits which proves,
once again, that water and wastewater treatment isn’t rocket science.

19
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

The constant 0.785

The number 0.785 often appears in formulas requiring the calculation of the area of a circle.
The equations: Area = 0.785(D)2 and Area = π r2 will give the same answer. Why?
Proof:
If π = 3.14 and the radius of a circle is equal to one half the diameter i.e. r =D÷2
D D D2 3.14D2
Then, Area = π22 = π ( ) × ( ) = π ( ) = = 0.785D2
2 2 4 4
Because 3.14 ÷ 4 = 0.785
Both formulas are correct but to avoid confusion operators should chose to use one or the other in all of
their calculations. In this manual, the formula A = π r2 will be used when the radius is given and
A = 0.785 D2 when the diameter is given.

20
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Before we get started

8 Simple Steps to Solving a Math Problem (and 1 more)
1. Make sure all the units are the same, you cannot multiply meters by millimetres, feet by inches
or litres by kilograms. Look to the answer choices or the wording of the question to determine
which units you should use.
2. If you think visually, make a sketch
3. Ensure you understand the question – read it then read it again. Read it slowly.
4. Write down the things you know – what data did the question provide?
Separate the wheat from the chaff, sometimes the question will provide you with more
information than is really needed to solve it.
5. Find the applicable formula and write it down. The variables provided, information given and
the units required in the answer will help you select the correct formula
6. Break the question into manageable sections, don’t try and devise a super-formula.
7. Double check your calculations – calculator keys are small and fingers are big.
8. Does the answer look reasonable and are the units correct?
And 1 more
9. Time management – don’t be afraid to flag the question and move onto the next one. Once you
have finished all the other questions, then you can go back and work on the ones you flagged.

How do you eat a meal like this? One bite at a time!

Remember this, each question on a certification examination is worth exactly 1 mark. Don’t burn up
time that could have been spent answering questions to which you knew the answer. Pick the low-
hanging fruit first and then go back for the hard ones.
At the end of it all, if you haven’t been able to achieve an answer that matches any of the ones given
then guess. You have a 1 in 4 chance of being right and there is no penalty for being wrong.
The odds of winning the Lotto Max are 1 in 33,294,800 but you still buy tickets!

21
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Geometry – Perimeter, Circumference, Area and Volume

Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of
figures, and the properties of space.
Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths,
areas and volumes
Some of the formulas that we still use today were first devised and recorded in the 3rd century BCE, by
the Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria in his 13 volume treatise Elements which served as the
main textbook for teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of its publication until the
late 19th or early 20th century.
Operators of water and wastewater treatment plants need to be familiar with the formulas for
calculating areas, perimeters and volumes of a variety of geometric shapes. The shapes described below
can be found in treatment process tanks and basins, in clarifiers, lagoons, trenches, storage hoppers and
a variety of other locations and applications.

As the picture above shows, operators may be called upon to calculate the area of rectangles (aeration
basins, primary clarifiers, clear wells) and circles (clarifiers); the volume of polyhedrons (aeration basins,
clarifiers, etc.), cylinders (clarifiers, digestors, reservoirs) and occasionally, a sphere (gas holder) or a
storage hopper with a conical bottom and cylindrical barrel. Linear measurements such as the amount
of perimeter fencing required or the circumference of circular process tank must also be calculated from
time to time.
The tools to carry out these calculations are presented in the remainder of this section.

22
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Linear Measurement
Perimeter
A perimeter is a path that surrounds a two-dimensional shape. The word comes from the Greek words
peri (around) and meter (measure). The term may be used either for the path or its length—it can be
thought of as the length of the outline of a shape
In our industry this term is usually applied to shapes which are square or rectangular. A rectangle is any
four-sided shape having at least 1 right angle and a length which is longer than its width. A square is any
four-sided shape having at least 1 right angle and all four sides equal in length.
A practical application may be the calculation of the linear metres of fencing required to enclose a
space.
The formula for calculating the perimeter of a rectangle is:
Perimeter = 2 × (length + width)
It is written as:
P = 2 × (L + W) or P = 2(L + W) or P = 2L + 2W
How many feet (metres) of fencing will be required to enclose a building lot that is 59 feet (18 metres)
wide by 148 feet (45 metres) long?
Known: Length = 148 ft (45 m), Width = 59 ft (18 m)
Insert known values and solve:
P = 2 × (L + W) = 2 × (148 ft + 59 ft) = 2 × (207 ft) = 414 feet
P = 2 × (L + W) = 2 × (45 m + 18 m) = 2 × (63 m) = 126 metres
Circumference of a circle
The term circumference is used to refer to the distance around the outside of a circular or elliptical
shape (its perimeter).
Calculation of the circumference of a circle requires the operator to know either its diameter (the
distance across a circle at its widest point) or its radius (the distance from the center of a circle to its
circumference or one half the diameter) and the value of the constant pi (3.14).
The formula for calculating the circumference of a circle is:
circumference = pi × diameter or pi × 2 × radius
It is written as:
C = πd or C = 2πr
What is the circumference of a secondary clarifier with a diameter of 147 feet (45 metres)?
Known: Diameter = 147 feet (45 metres), pi (𝜋) = 3.14
Insert known values and solve:
C = πd = 3.14 × 147 ft = 461.6 feet
C = πd = 3.14 × 45 m = 141.3 metres

23
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

What is the circumference of a gravity thickener with a radius of 29.5

feet (9 metres)?
Known: radius = 29.5 feet (9 metres), pi (𝜋) = 3.14
Insert known values and solve:
C = 2πr = 2 × 3.14 × 29.5 ft = 185.3 feet
C = 2πr = 2 × 3.14 × 9 m = 56.52 metres
Circumference of an ellipse
There is no simple formula with high accuracy for calculating the circumference of an ellipse. There are
simple formulas but they are not exact, and there are exact formulas but they are not simple.
Thankfully, there are not many elliptical storage tanks or clarifiers being constructed. The most accurate
of the simple formulae for the circumference of an ellipse is:
circumference = π × [3(a + b) − √(3a + b)(a + 3b) ]
Where “a” and “b” are the major and minor axes of the ellipse and “a” is not more than three times the
length of “b”. Even then, the formula is only accurate to ±5%

Area
The area of a geometrical shape such as a circle, square, rectangle or triangle is the space contained
within the boundary of the shape (i.e. its perimeter). Two dimensions are required to calculate the area
of a shape and that area is reported as “units” squared. In the metric system the units that are most
commonly used are the square metre (m2) and the square centimetre (cm2). Large shapes such as land
surveys and wastewater lagoons are often reported in units of hectares (10,000 m2).
Area of a Circle
The area of a circle can be calculated using two different formulas depending on whether the radius or
the diameter of the circle is known. (the diameter of a circle is equal to 2 times its radius and the radius
of a circle is equal to one half of the diameter).
The formulas are:
Area = π × (radius)2 or Area = π × radius × radius = π𝑟 2
Area = 0.785 × (diameter)2 = 0.785D2
Calculate the surface area of a secondary clarifier which has a diameter of 82 feet (25 metres).
Insert known values and solve:
Area = 0.785 × (82 ft)2 = 5,278.3 ft 2
Area = 0.785 × (25 m)2 = 490.6 m2
Calculate the surface area of a thickener with a radius of 15 feet (4.6 metres).
Area = π(r)2 = 3.14 × (15 ft)2 = 3.14 × 15 ft × 15 ft = 706.5 ft 2
Area = π(r)2 = 3.14 × (4.6 m)2 = 3.14 × 4.6 m × 4.6 m = 66.4 m2
Circular shapes found in the industry include clarifiers, thickeners, wet wells, meter vaults and pipes.

24
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Area of a Cone (lateral surface area)

The practical application of this formula would be to calculate the surface area of a conical section of a
hopper or the floor of a clarifier, trickling filter or anaerobic digestor in order to determine the amount
of a coating needed.
The formula is:
Area = π × radius × √(radius)2 + (height)2
It is written:
Area = π × r × √r 2 + h2
A gravity thickener 32.8 feet (10 metres) in diameter has a cone shaped floor. The cone is 4.9 feet (1.5
metres deep. A skim coat of concrete is to be applied to the floor. Calculate the number of square feet
(metres) to be covered.
Known: Radius = ½ of diameter = 5 metres, height = 1.5 metres
Insert known values and solve
US units
Area = π × r × √r 2 + h2
Area = 3.14 × 16.4 ft × √(16.4 ft)2 + (4.9 feet)2
Area = 3.14 × 16.4 ft × √292.9 ft = 881.4 ft 2
Metric units
Area = π × r × √r 2 + h2
Area = 3.14 × 5m × √(5m)2 + (1.5m)2
Area = 3.14 × 5m × √27.25 m2 = 82 m2
Area of a Cone (total surface area)
The formula is:
Area = π × (radius)2 + √(radius)2 + (height)2
You need to paint a cone shaped hopper with a lid. The hopper is 8
feet (2.4 metres) deep and 12 feet (3.6 meters) in diameter. How
many square feet (square meters) will you have to paint?
Known: radius = ½ of the diameter
US units
Area = π × (6 ft)2 × √(6ft)2 + (8ft)2
= 3.14 × 36ft 2 + √36ft 2 + 64ft 2
Area = π × (6 ft)2 × √(6ft)2 + (8ft)2 = 3.14 × 36ft 2 + √36ft 2 + 64ft 2
Area = π × (radius)2 + √(radius)2 + (height)2
Area = 3.14 × 36ft 2 + 10 ft 2 = 123 ft 2

25
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Metric units
Area = π × (1.8m)2 + √(1.8m)2 + (2.4m)2 = 3.14 × 3.24𝑚2 + √3.24𝑚2 + 5.76𝑚2
Area = π × (1.8m)2 + √(1.8m)2 + (2.4m)2 = 3.14 × 3.24𝑚2 + √3.24𝑚2 + 5.76𝑚2
Area = (3.14 × 3.24𝑚2 ) + 3𝑚2 = 13.2𝑚2

NOTE: it is generally accepted that the math questions on a certification exam can be solved with a basic
four function calculator, therefore, it is unlikely that any questions requiring the calculation of a square
root will appear on the exam.
Area of a Cylinder (total and lateral surface area)
Calculating the area of a cylinder is a two-step operation. First the operator must calculate the
circumference of the cylinder (i.e. the distance around the outside) and multiply that value by the
height, depth or length of the cylinder as the case may be.
The practical application of this calculation is to determine the surface of area of a pipe, storage tank or
reservoir in order to determine the quantity of paint or some other type of coating to be applied.
The equation for the lateral surface area is:
Area = Circumference × Height
It is written as:
Area = C × H or Area = π × D × H

If the total area of a cylinder is to be calculated, as in calculating the surface area of a fuel tank then the
two ends of the cylinder must also be accounted for and the formula becomes:
[End #1 SA] + [End #2 SA] + [π × Diameter × Height]
Where SA = surface area. This equation can be simplified to:
Total surface area = π × D × H + (2 × 0.785D2 )
A newly purchased fuel storage tank which is 10 feet (3 metres) long and 5 feet (1.5 metres) in
diameter needs to be painted. Calculate the total surface area to be painted.
US units
Total surface area = 3.14 × 5feet × 10 feet + (2 × 0.785 × [10 feet]2 ) = 314 ft 2
Metric units
Total surface area = 3.14 × 1.5 m × 3m + (2 × 0.785 × [3m]2 ) = 28.3 𝑚2

26
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Area of a Square or Rectangle

The area of a square or rectangle is equal to the product of one long side multiplied by one short side or
in the case of a square by one side multiplied by another.
The formula for the area of a square or rectangle is:
Area = Length × Width
It is written as:
A = L × W or A = LW or A = (L)(W)
What is the surface area of a primary clarifier that is 26 feet (8 metres) wide and 164
feet (50 metres) long?
Insert known values and solve;
US Units
Area = 26 ft × 164 ft = 4,264 ft 2
Metric units
Area = 8 m × 50 m = 400 m2
Area of a Right Triangle
The area of a right triangle is equal to its base (any side of the triangle) multiplied by its height
(perpendicular to, or at 90° to the base), divided by two (often written as multiplication by ½).
The formula is
Base × Height
Area =
2
It is written as:
(B) × (H) 1
A= or B × H
2 2

A compost pile is 7 metres wide and 3 metres high. What is its cross-sectional area?
Known: Width (base) = 7 metres, Height = 3 metres
Insert known values and solve:
7 m × 3m
Area = = 10.5 m2
2
Area of a Trapezoid
Calculating the area of a trapezoid falls somewhere between calculating the area of a square and
calculating the area of a triangle. Trapezoidal shapes found in the industry include trenches dug for the
installation of pipelines and stock piles of materials such as wood chips, compost or soil.
The area of trapezoid is equal to the sum of its two sides divided by 2 times its height. The formula is:
side 1 + side 2
Area = × height
2

27
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

A pile of compost has a base 5 meters wide, a top 2.5 metres wide and a height of 2 meters. Calculate
the cross-sectional area of the pile.
Known: side 1 = 5 m, side 2 =2.5 m, height = 2 m
Insert known values and solve
side 1 + side 2 5 m + 2.5 m
Area = × height = × 2 m = 7.5m2
2 2
Area of a Sphere
This formula is provided in the EOCP handout with the notation that it might be used to calculate the
surface area of an air bubble. It could also be used to calculate the surface area of a gas holder
associated with an anaerobic digestor.
The equation is: Area = 4 × π × (radius)2
It is written: Area = 4πr 2 or πd2 (where d = diameter)
Area of an Irregular Shape
Occasionally it is necessary to calculate the area of an irregular shape such as a sewage lagoon. One way
to do this is to break the shape into a number of shapes for which we have formulas (such as squares,
rectangles or triangles). The area of each shape can be calculated, then added together to equal the
area of the entire shape.

Volume
A measure of the three dimensional space enclosed by a shape. As volume is a three-dimensional
measurement, the units used to describe it need to have three dimensions as well. These units are
reported as “units” cubed or cubic “units”. In the US system volumes are often expressed as cubic
inches, cubic feet and cubic yards. In the metric system volume is often expressed as cubic metres (m3),
cubic centimetres (cm3) and liters (1,000 cm3). Large volumes are also reported as Megalitres
(1 ML = 1,000,000 L =1,000 m3).
In the water and wastewater industry operators often need to calculate the volume of a basin
(rectangular), clarifier, digestor or reservoir (cylinder), compost pile or stockpile (triangular) or a storage
hopper (conical) or of a structure that is a combination of shapes (e.g. a digestor with a cylindrical body
and a conical floor)
Volume of a Cone
Calculation of the volume of a cone is used less frequently but it may be required when calculating the
volume of a storage hopper or the conical floor section of a digestor, clarifier or trickling filter.
The volume of a cone is equal to the one third (⅓) the area of its circular base (the radius of the cylinder
squared, multiplied by the constant π), multiplied by the height
The formula is:
π × (radius)2 × height πr 2 h 0.785D2 ℎ
Volume = or V = or V =
3 3 3

28
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Calculate the volume of conical hopper 6.6 feet (2 metres) deep and 4.9 feet (1.5 metres) in diameter.
Known: diameter = 1.5 metres, therefore radius = 1.5÷2=0.75 m, depth = 2 metres
Insert known values and solve:
US units
0.785D2 h 0.785(4.9 feet)2 × 6.6 ft
V= = = 41.5 ft 3
3 3
Metric units
0.785D2 h 0.785(1.5m)2 × 2m
V= = = 1.18 m3
3 3
Volume of a Cylinder
Calculation of the volume of a cylinder will probably be the most frequently used volume calculation
after the calculation for the volume of a rectangular basin. Cylinders are found as circular clarifiers,
reservoirs and water and sewer pipelines.
The volume of a cylinder is equal to the area of its circular base (the diameter of the cylinder, multiplied
by the constant 0,785), multiplied by the height.
The formula is
Volume = 0.785(diameter)2 or π × (radius)2 × height
It is written:
V = πr 2 h or V = 0.785𝐷2 h

What is the volume of a reservoir that is 90 feet (27.4 metres) in diameter and 15 feet (4.5 metres)
deep?
Known: Diameter = 90 feet (27.4 metres), depth = 15 feet (4.5 metres)
Insert known values and solve
US units
V = 0.785𝐷2 h = 0.785(90 ft)2 × 15 ft = 95,377.5 ft 3
Metric units
V = 0.785𝐷2 h = 0.785(27.4 m)2 × 4.5 m = 2,652 m3

29
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Volume of a Rectangular Tank

The volume of a box or cube is equal to its length, multiplied by its width, multiplied by its height, (depth
or thickness). In the case of a cube, all three lengths are the same.
The formula is
Volume = length × width × height
It is written:
V = LWH or V = (L)(W)(H) or V = L × W × H

Sometimes the word “depth” and the letter “D” is substituted for height
Calculate the volume of an aeration basin 50 metres long by 6 metres wide by 4.5 metres deep.
Known: Length = 50 m, Width = 6 m, Depth = 4.5 m
Insert known values and solve:
V = LWD = 50 m × 6 m × 4.5 m = 1,350 m3

Volume of a Prism
The mathematical name for a three-dimensional shape that is triangular in cross-section is a prism.
Examples of prismatic structures in the wastewater industry include spoil piles, compost piles and tanks
which have a triangular cross section in their floors for the purposes of collecting sludge or grit.
The equation for the volume of a prism is one half its base times its height times its length
The formula is
base × height
Volume of a prism = × length
2
It is written:
B×H
V= ×L
2

Calculate the volume of a compost pile 3 metres high by 6 metres wide by 30 metres long.
Known: Base = 6 metres, Height = 3metres, Length = 30 metres
Insert known values and solve:
B×H 6m×3m
V= ×L= × 30 m = 270 m3
2 2
Volume of a lagoon (a frustrum)
The correct name for a truncated pyramid is a frustrum. The EOCP handout provides a formula for
calculating the volume of a lagoon which is a type of inverted truncated pyramid.
The volume of a frustrum is equal to one half (1/2) the average length times the average width times the
depth.

30
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

The formula is:

Volume = average length × average width × depth
It is written:
Ltop + Lbottom Wtop + Wbottom
V= × × depth
2 2
Where L = length and W = Width
A lagoon measures 328 feet (100 metres) wide by 984 feet (300 metres) long on the surface, its
bottom dimensions are 262 feet (80 metres) wide by 919 feet (280 metres) long. It is 8 feet (2.5
metres) deep. What is its volume?
US units
Inset known values and solve
984 ft + 919 ft 328 ft + 262 ft
V= × × 8ft = 2,245,540ft 3
2 2
Metric units
Insert known values and solve:
300 m + 280 m 100 m + 80 m
V= × × 2.5 m = 65,250 m3
2 2
Note: many other formulas exist for calculating the volume of a frustrum which give a more accurate
result than the one used by the EOCP. For example:
(Atop + Abottom + √Atop × Abottom )
V= × depth
3
Yields a slightly different and more accurate answer.
(30,000 m2 + 22,400 m2 + √30,000 m2 × 22,400 m2 )
V= × 2.5 m = 65,269 m3
3

Amperes
See Basic Electrical Concepts

Average (arithmetic mean)

The term “arithmetic mean” is just another way of saying “average”.
The arithmetic average of a series of numbers is simply the sum of the numbers divided by the number
of values in the series.
The equation is:
Sum of all terms
Average =
Number of terms

31
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

What is the average concentration of volatile acids in a digestor supernatant given the following data?
All values given are in mg/L
Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun
234 261 280 272 259 257 244

Insert known values and solve

234 + 261 + 280 + 272 + 259 + 257 + 244
Average VSS = = 258 mg⁄L
7 days
Calculate the 7 day running average for BOD5 removal during days 8, 9 and 10 given the following
data:
Day BOD5, mg/L Day BOD5, mg/L
1 212 9 226
2 231 10 211
3 244 11 245
4 235 12 206
5 217 13 193
6 202 14 188
7 194 15 189
8 209 16 204

Step 1 – Calculate the average for day 8 and the previous 6 days (7 days total)
231 + 244 + 235 + 217 + 202 + 194 + 209
Average, days 2 to 8 = = 219 mg/L
7
Step 2 – Calculate Day 9, 7 day running average by dropping day 2 and adding day 9
244 + 235 + 217 + 202 + 194 + 209 + 226
Average, days 3 to 9 = = 218 mg/L
7
Step 3 - Calculate Day 10, 7 day running average by dropping day 3 and adding day 10
235 + 217 + 202 + 194 + 209 + 226 + 211
Average, days 4 to 10 = = 213 mg/L
7

32
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Given the following data, calculate the unknown values

Day Effluent BOD5, mg/L Unknown values
Monday 28 Arithmetic mean, mg/L
Tuesday 32 Median, mg/L
Wednesday 34 Range, mg/L
Thursday 32 Mode, mg/L
Friday 29 Geometric mean, mg/L
Saturday 23
Sunday 35
Note: a scientific calculator is required to determine the geometric mean
Calculate the arithmetic mean (average)
28 + 32 + 34 + 32 + 29 + 23 + 35
Arithmetic mean = = 30.4, round to 30 mg/L BOD 5
7
Median, Range, and Mode
Determine the median of BOD5 mg/L
To determine the median value, put the data in ascending order and choose the middle value
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23 28 29 32 32 34 35

In this case, the middle or median value is 32 mg/L BOD5

Determine the mode of BOD5 mg/L
Mode is the measurement that occurs most frequently. In this case it is 32 mg/L as it appears twice in
the data set.
Determine the range of BOD5 mg/L
The equation is: Range = Largest value – smallest value = 35 mg/L – 23 mg/L = 12 mg/L BOD5

Average (geometric mean)

The equation is: Geometric mean = [(x1)(x2)(x3)(x4)(x5)(x6)(x7)]1/n
Where x = the value of the measurement and n = the number of measurements.
1
Geometric mean = [23 × 28 × 29 × 32 × 32 × 34 × 35]7 = 30.2 mg⁄L BOD 5

Note: for any series of numbers, the geometric mean will always be less than the arithmetic mean.
Determination of the geometric mean requires a scientific calculator with an nth root function. Current
EOCP practice is to only include mathematical questions that can be solved with a basic four function
calculator so it is unlikely that a question involving solving for the geometric mean will appear on a
certification exam.

33
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Basic Chemistry
Molarity
A more accurate way of expressing the concentration of a solution
than percent strength is molarity (M). Molarity is defined as the
number of moles of a substance per litre of solution. A mole is a
quantity of a substance equal in weight (in grams) to the substances
molecular weight. For example, the molecular weight of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) is 100.09 and therefore, if you had 100.09 grams
of calcium carbonate you would have 1 mole of calcium carbonate.
The equation is: Not that kind of mole!
moles of solute
Molarity =
litres of solution
If 0.6 moles of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are dissolved in 2.5 litres of water, what is the molarity of
the resulting solution?
moles of solute 0.6 moles
Molarity = = = 0.24𝑀
litres of solution 2.5 litres of solution
Normality
Normality is defined as the number of equivalent weights of a solute per litre of solution. In order to
determine the normality of a solution one must first calculate how many equivalent weights of the
solute are contained in the total weight of the solution.
When carrying out an acid-base titration, the number of hydrogen atoms in an acid molecule can
provide a quick indication of the normality of an acid which contains one mole per litre. For example
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) contains one hydrogen atom and if the concentration of the acid were 1
mole / litre its normality would be 1
• Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) contains two hydrogen atoms and if the concentration of the acid were 1
mole / litre its normality would be 2
• Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) contains three hydrogen atoms and if the concentration of the acid were
1 mole / litre its normality would be 3
The equation is:
number of equivalent weights of solute
Normality =
litres of solution
If 2.1 equivalents of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were used to make 1.75 litres of solution what is the
normality of the solution?
Step 1 – Insert known values and solve:
number of equivalent weights of solute 2.1 Eq
Normality = = = 1.2 N
litres of solution 1.75 L

34
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Operators who wish to delve a little deeper into the field of Chemistry may wish to obtain copies of the
American Water Works Association (AWWA) publications Basic Chemistry for Water and Wastewater
Operators (ISBN 1-58321-148-9) by D.S. Sarai, PhD. or Basic Science Concepts and Applications for
Wastewater (ISBN 1-58321-290-6) by P.L. Antonelli et al
Milliequivalents and Waste Milliequivalents
The use of equivalent weights in general chemistry has largely been superseded by the use of molar masses.
Equivalent weights may be calculated from molar masses if the chemistry of the substance is well known. For
example:

• sulfuric acid has a molar mass of 98.078 g/ mol, and supplies two moles of hydrogen ions per mole of
sulfuric acid, so its equivalent weight is
98.078 grams⁄mole
= 49.04 grams⁄equivalent
2 equivalents⁄mole

• potassium permanganate has a molar mass of 158.034 g /mol, and reacts with five moles of electrons
per mole of potassium permanganate, so its equivalent weight is
158.034 grams⁄mole
= 31.6068 grams⁄equivalent
5 equivalents⁄mole
Some contemporary general chemistry textbooks make no mention of equivalent weights. Others
explain the topic, but point out that it is merely an alternate method of doing calculations using moles.
A milliequivalent is simply 1/1,000 of an equivalent.
The equations for the calculation of both milliequivalents and waste milliequivalents are the
same:
Milliequivalent, mEq = mL of substance × Normality of substance
How many milliequivalents will be found in 5 mL of a 0.2 Normal solution of hydrochloric
acid?
Step 1 – Insert known values and solve
Milliequivalent, mEq = 5 mL × 0.2 N = 1 mEq
Number of Equivalent Weights
Equivalent weight (also known as gram equivalent) is a term which has been used in several contexts in
chemistry. In its most general usage, it is the mass of a given substance (mass of one equivalent) which
will:
• combine or displace directly or indirectly with 1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen or 8 parts by
mass of oxygen.– values which correspond to the atomic weight divided by the usual valence,
• or supply or react with one mole of hydrogen cations (H+) in an acid-base reaction
• or supply or react with one mole of electrons (e−) in a redox reaction.
The equivalent weight of a compound can be calculated by dividing the molecular weight by the number
of positive or negative electrical charges that result from the dissolution of the compound.

35
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

The use of equivalent weights in general chemistry has largely been superseded by the use of molar
masses. Equivalent weights may be calculated from molar masses if the chemistry of the substance is
well known. For example:
• Sulfuric acid has a molar mass of 98.078 g/ mol, and supplies two moles of hydrogen ions per
mole of sulfuric acid, so its equivalent weight is 98.078 g/ mol ÷2 Eq/ mol = 49.039 g /Eq.
• Potassium permanganate has a molar mass of 158.034 g /mol, and reacts with five moles of
electrons per mole of potassium permanganate, so its equivalent weight is 158.034 g/ mol ÷ 5
Eq/ mol = 31.6068 g /Eq
The equation is:
total weight, g
Number of equivalent weights =
equivalent weight, g
If 75 g of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) were used in making up a solution, how many equivalents weights of
H2SO4 were used?
Step 1 – Calculate the equivalent weight of H2SO4
weight of 1 mole H2 SO4 98.078g
Equivalent weight = = = 49.04 g
equivalents per mole 2
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
total weight, g 75 g
Number of equivalent weights = = = 1.53
equivalent weight, g 49.04 g

Unless the EOCP also provides a copy of the Periodic Table of Elements with the exam it is highly unlikely
that a question regarding Equivalent Weights will appear on an exam. Officially, the abbreviation of the
term equivalent is equiv but common usage is to use the term Eq as the abbreviation.
Number of Moles
A general discussion of the periodic table of the elements, Avogadro’s number and the derivation of an
element’s atomic weight is beyond the scope of this manual. In simplest terms, a mole of a substance is
a quantity of that substance whose mass (weight) in grams is equal to its atomic weight or the sum of
atomic weights of the elements which make up a molecule.
For example, carbon has an atomic weight of 12 and therefore, one mole of carbon weighs 12 grams.
Water (H2O) contains two atoms of hydrogen each of which have an atomic weight of 1 and one atom of
oxygen which has an atomic weight of 16 for a total atomic weight of 18 and therefore, 1 mole of water
weighs 18 grams.
In the chemistry laboratory we often need to know how many moles of a substance are present.
The equation is:
Total weight, g
Number of moles =
Molecular weight, g

36
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Calculate the number of moles of calcium hydroxide that are present in a 25 gram sample of the
material. The atomic weights are: calcium = 40, oxygen = 16 and hydrogen = 1
Step 1 – Calculate the gram molecular weight of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Ca = 1 ×40 = 40 O = 2×16 =32 H = 2×1 =2 = 40+32+2=74 grams
Insert known values and solve
Total weight, g 25 g
Number of moles = = = 0.34 moles
Molecular weight, g 74 g
Alkalinity
The alkalinity of a wastewater is a measure of its ability to resist changes in pH. It is reported as mg/L of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
The formula is:
titrant volume, mL × acid normality × 50,000
Alkalinity as mg CaCO3⁄L =
sample volume, mL
A 100 mL sample of effluent was titrated with 22 mL of 0.2N sulfuric acid. What was its alkalinity?
22 mL × 0.2 × 50,000
Alkalinity = = 2,200 mg⁄L as CaCO3
100 mL
Hardness
The hardness of a water is normally of more interest to water treatment operators than to wastewater
operators. However, hard water can lead to scaling in boilers and heat exchanger piping.
When the titration factor is 1.00 of EDTA, the formula is:
Titrant volume, mL × 1,000
Hardness, as mg⁄L CaCO3 =
Sample volume, mL
When the titration factor is some number other than 1.00 of EDTA the formula is:
Titrant volume, mL × mg CaCO3 equivalent to 1 mL EDTA titrant × 1,000
Hardness (EDTA), as mg⁄L CaCO3 =
Sample volume, mL
What is the CaCO3 hardness of a water sample if 42 mL of titrant is required to reach the endpoint
(where the colour changes from wine red to blue) on a 100 mL sample?
Known: titrant volume = 42 mL, sample volume = 100 mL
Insert known values and solve
Titrant volume, mL × 1,000
Hardness, as mg⁄L CaCO3 =
Sample volume, mL
42 mL × 1,000
Hardness = = 420 mg⁄L as CACO3
100 mL

37
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Basic Electrical Concepts – Amperes, Resistance, Voltage, Power

The Law which relates voltage, amperage and resistance in an electrical circuit known as Ohm’s Law.
Ohm’s Law states that the electromotive force (voltage) in a circuit is the product of current flow
(amperes) and resistance (ohms).
Four formulas can be derived from Ohm’s Law:
E E
E = I × R or I = or R = and P = E × I
R I
Where: E = Volts, I = Amperes, R = resistance measured in Ohms (Ω), P = power measured in Watts
Three different formula are used to calculate power depending on whether the voltage supply is direct
current, alternating current or three phase alternating current.
The formulas are:
Volts × Amperes
Power, kW in a Direct current circuit =
1,000
Volts × Amperes × Power Factor
Power, kW in an Alternating current circuit =
1,000
Volts × Amperes × Power Factor × 1.732
Power, kW in an Altenating 3∅ current circuit =
1,000
Operators should have a basic knowledge of the application of Ohm’s Law so as to undertake simple
electrical calculations.
What is the amperage (I) draw required to illuminate a 120 Watt incandescent lamp in a 110 Volt AC
circuit?
The equation is: P = E × I
Step 1 – Rearrange the equation to solve for I
P 120
if P = E × I then I = = = 1.09 amperes
E 110
What is the voltage (E) on a circuit if the current (I) is 7 amperes and the resistance (R) is 17 ohms. .
The equations is: E = (I)(R)
Insert known values and solve
Voltage = (7 amps)(17 ohms) = 119 Volts
What is the resistance in a circuit if the voltage is 120 and the amperes are 19?
The equation is: R= E / I
Insert known values and solve
Resistance = (120 volts) / (19 amperes) = 6.3 ohms

38
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (seeded, mg/L)

Biochemical oxygen demand measures the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms as they
metabolize organic material – either in a wastewater treatment process or in the natural environment.
Biochemical oxygen demand is the source of the food in the Food to Microorganism equation.
The test is carried out in a darkened incubator over five days ±6 hours at a temperature of 20 C
̊ ±1 C
̊ in a
300 mL BOD bottle. The acronym used is often written as BOD5. BOD5 values are typically expressed in
mg/L.
Occasionally an operator will need to calculate the BOD of a sample which has been disinfected and
contains no viable microorganisms. In this case the sample needs to be “seeded” with a small aliquot of
wastewater with a known BOD concentration.
The formula for calculating a “seeded” BOD is:
[(initial DO, mg⁄L − final DO, mg⁄L) − seed correction factor, mg⁄L] × 300 mL
mL of sample
Two calculations are needed in this case to solve this formula.
The formula for calculating the seed correction in mg/L is:

BOD of seed stock, mg⁄L × Volume of seed stock, mL

Seed correction, mg⁄L =
Total Volume of BOD bottle, 300 mL

Calculate the seeded BOD5 in mg/L given the following data:

DOinitial: 8.6 mg/L DOfinal: 3.2 mg/L Sample size: 125 mL
Seed stock sample: 5 mL Seed stock BOD: 95 mg/L Total diluted volume: 300 mL

Insert known values and solve:

Step 1 – Calculate the seed correction in mg/L
BOD of seed stock, mg⁄L × Volume of seed stock, mL
Seed correction, mg⁄L =
Total Volume of BOD bottle, 300 mL
95 mg⁄L × 5 mL
Seed correction = = 1.58 𝑚𝑔⁄𝐿
300 mL
Step 2 – Calculate the seeded BOD
[(initial DO, mg⁄L − final DO, mg⁄L) − seed correction factor, mg⁄L] × 300 mL
mL of sample
[(8.6, mg⁄L − 3.2, mg⁄L) − 1.58, mg⁄L] × 300 mL
= 9.2 mg⁄L
125 mL

39
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (unseeded, mg/L)

The formula for calculating an unseeded BOD sample is:
(DOinitial − DOfinal ) × 300 mL
BOD, mg⁄L =
Sample volume, mL
A 25 mL sample of final effluent had an initial DO of 6.2 mg/L and a final DO of 3.9 mg/L. Calculate the
BOD of the sample.
Known: DOinitial = 6.2 mg/L, DOfinal = 3.9 mg/L, Sample volume = 25 mL
Insert known values and solve:
(DOinitial − DOfinal ) × 300 mL (6.2 mg⁄L − 3.9 mg⁄L) × 300 mL
BOD = = = 27.6 mg⁄L
Sample volume, mL 25 mL
Blending
See section on Two and Three Normal Equations.

Colony Forming Units (CFU) / 100 mL

The membrane filtration method of testing for coliform group bacteria is a relatively simple and
inexpensive way to quickly analyze a water or wastewater sample. To be useful, a filter must have
between 20 and 60 colonies when counted. Filters with colony counts outside this range should not be
used.
The formula is:
# of colonies on plate × 100
#CFU⁄100mL =
mL of sample
A 9 mL sample produce a plate count of 36 colonies. What CFU/100 mL value is this equal to?
# of colonies on plate × 100 36 × 100
CFU⁄100 mL = = = 400 CFU/100mL
mL of sample 9
Chemical Feed Pump Setting, % stroke
Many chemical feed pumps have the ability to vary their output by changing the length of the stroke,
the frequency of the stroke or both. Adjustments are made to ensure that the optimum chemical
dosage is applied.
The formula is:
Desired output
Feed pump setting, % stroke = × 100%
Maximum output
A diaphragm pump used to meter sodium hypochlorite has a maximum output of 158 gpm (10 L/s).
What % stroke should be selected to deliver 36.5 gpm (2.3 L/s)?
US units
36.5 gpm
Feed pump setting, % stroke = × 100% = 23%
Maximum output 158 gpm

40
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Metric units
2.3 L⁄s
Feed pump setting, % stroke = × 100% = 23%
10 L⁄s
Ratio Calculations
This problem can also be solved using a ratio, as follows:
Known: Initial speed setting = 100%, Initial dosage 10 L/s, required dosage = 2.3 L/s
Unknown: New speed setting
Set up the problem using the names of the variables.
Initial speed setting , Percent New speed setting, Percent
=
Initial Chemical dosage, mL Required dosage, mL

Rearrange equation, insert known values and solve

100% New speed setting, Percent
=
10 L⁄s 2.3 L⁄s
(100%)(2.3 L⁄s)
New speed setting = = 23%
10 L⁄s
Chemical Feed Pump Setting, mL/min (see Caution Note)
Accurate knowledge of the amounts of a chemical required for process control will prevent process
upsets and ensure that the desired effect is obtained.

Caution
While on a nature tour in Barbados our group came upon a parrot sitting in a tree. Our guide said to
us “there are two kinds of parrots in Barbados, this kind and the other kind”. These formulas fall into
that category.
The US formula ignores the concentration of the chemical being used and produces a feed rate
derived from the specific gravity of the solution being fed.
The metric formula produces a feed rate based on the specific gravity and the % weight of active
chemical per unit volume of the solution being fed.
The two formulas measure quite different things and the answers obtained, though accurate for the
formula being used, will be quite different.
These formulae are under review by ABC/EOCP. The term “feed chemical density” is ambiguous and
not normally used to describe the concentration of a chemical in a solution.
Until such time as the review is complete, use the formulas given on the ABC/EOCP handout to
answer a certification question.

41
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Two different formulas are provided for the calculation of chemical feed rates. Due to the length of the
formulas, the words Chemical Feed Pump Setting will be abbreviated to CFPS.
They are:
flow, MGD × dose, mg⁄L × 3.785 L⁄gal × 1,000,000 gal⁄MG
CFPS, mL⁄minute =
Feed chemical density, mg⁄mL × 1,440 min⁄day

flow, m3 ⁄day × dose, mg⁄L

CFPS, mL⁄minute =
Feed chemical density, g⁄cm3 × Active chemical % expressed as a decimal × 1,440

What chemical pump feed rate is required if a 12.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution is used to
disinfect a daily flow of 0.66 million gallons (2,500 cubic metres) if the dosage required is 8.5 mg/L?
Known: A 12.5% solution of NaOCl has a specific gravity (density) of 1.21 kg/L (1,210 mg/mL)
Known 1% = 10,000 mg/L. Therefore, 12.5% = 125,000 mg/L = 125 mg/mL
Known: 12.5% expressed as a decimal = 0.125
US units
flow, MGD × dose, mg⁄L × 3.785 L⁄gal × 1,000,000 gal⁄MG
CFPS, mL⁄minute =
Feed chemical density, mg⁄mL × 1,440 min⁄day
Insert known values and solve

0.66MGD × 8.5 mg⁄L × 3.785 L⁄gal × 1,000,000 gal⁄MG

CFPS, mL⁄minute = = 12.18 mL⁄min
1210 mg⁄mL × 1,440 min⁄day
Metric units
flow, m3 ⁄day × dose, mg⁄L
CFPS, mL⁄minute =
Feed chemical density, g⁄cm3 × Active chemical % expressed as a decimal × 1,440
Insert known values and solve
2,500 m3 ⁄day × 8.5 mg⁄L
CFPS, mL⁄minute = = 97.56 mL⁄min
1.21 g⁄cm3 × 0.125 × 1,440

42
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Now let’s look at the problem in a different way. We will use the Thanksgiving dinner analogy and solve
the problem one bite at a time!
What chemical pump feed rate is required if 12.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution is used to
disinfect a daily flow of 0.66 million gallons (2,500 cubic metres) if the dosage required is 8.5 mg/L?
Step 1 – Calculate the kilograms of sodium hypochlorite required per day
8.5 mg 2,500 m3 1 kg 103 L
NaOCL required = × × 6 × 3 = 21.25 kg/day
L day 10 mg m
But the solution only contains 12.5% NaOCl
Step 2 – Calculate how many litres of solution are required
21.25 kg 100 kg solution 1L
NaOCL required = × × = 140.49 L⁄day
day 12.5 kg NaOCL 1.21 kg
But the question asked for the feed rate in millilitres per minute.
We could use the litres per day formula and simply divide the answer by 1,440 as shown below
140.49 L⁄day 0.09756 L 1,000 mL
CFPS = = × = 97.56 mL/min
1,440 min⁄day min L
Composite Sample Single Portion
When sampling, it is important that the size of sample taken is representative of the whole. Grab
samples are taken to get an instantaneous snapshot of the process while composite samples are taken
to get a picture of the process over a longer time period.
The equation for selecting a single sample size is:
instantaneous flow × total sample volume
Composite sample single portion =
number of samples × average flow
A treatment plant uses a composite sample to sample for TSS in the influent. The sampler is set to
take 24 samples over the course of 24 hours for a total sample volume of 10 litres. The daily flow
through the plant is 12,500 cubic metres. Calculate the sample volume that would be taken at a time
when the instantaneous flow was 870 m3/hour.
Insert known values and solve:
870 m3 ⁄hr × 10 L
Composite sample single portion = = 0.69 L
24 × 520.8 m3 ⁄hr
CT Calculation
The CT value is simply the product of the chlorine residual concentration in milligrams per litre (mg/L)
multiplied by the time in minutes that it takes the chlorinated water to reach the first customer in the
water distribution system. The value must be calculated using the peak hour flow in a system as that is
when the time will be shortest.
The equation is:
CT Value = disinfectant residual concentration, mg⁄L × Time in minutes

43
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

In its simplest form a CT value calculation would look like this:

Calculate the CT value if the chlorine residual is 0.2 mg/L and the contact time is 27 minutes.
CT = 0.2 mg/L ×27 minutes = 5.4 mg/L/min
Where a system contains no storage travel time in the pipeline is calculated by dividing the pipe volume
(between the point of application and the first customer) by the flow in litres per second. Where a
system contains a storage reservoir between the point of application and the first customer, calculation
of time (T) must take into account the time spent in the reservoir.
Water with a chlorine residual of 1.7 mg/L is flowing at a velocity of 2.4 m/sec in a 200 mm diameter
supply main. What is the CT value at the first customer’s house if it is located 2 km downstream of the
point at which the chlorine residual was measured?
Step 1 – Calculate the travel time in minutes
1 second 1 minute
Time = 2,000m × × = 13.88 minutes
2.4 m 60 seconds
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
CT Value = chlorine residual , mg⁄L × Time, min = 1.7 mg⁄L × 13.88 min = 23.6 mg ∙ min/L
Cycle Time, minutes
Establishment of appropriate pumping cycle times is important to protect the life of electrical motors
and to prevent the development of septic conditions in wet wells, clarifiers and sumps.
The equations are:
Wet well storage volume, 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠
Cycle time, minutes =
Pump capacity, gpm − wet inflow, gpm

Wet well storage volume, m3

Cycle time, minutes =
Pump capacity, m3 ⁄minute − Wet well inflow, m3 ⁄minute
Calculate the cycle time for a wet well that is 9.8 feet (3 metres) in diameter and 15 feet deep
(4.6 metres) deep if the inflow to the wet well is 145 gallons per minute (0.55 m3/minute) and the lift
pump has a capacity of 475 gallons per minute (30 L/s).
US units
Step 1 –Calculate the volume of the wet well
7.48 gal
Volume = 0.785D2 × h = 0.785 × (9.8 feet)2 × 15 feet × = 8,459 gallons
ft 3
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
8,459 gallons 8,459 gallons
Cycle time = = = 25.6 minutes
475 gpm − 145 gpm 330 gpm

44
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Metric units
Step 1 –Calculate the volume of the wet well
Volume = 0.785D2 × h = 0.785 × (3m)2 × 4.6m = 32.5m3
Step 2 – Convert pump capacity to m3/minute
30 L 60 s 1 m3
Pump output = × × = 1.8 m3 ⁄minute
s min 1,000 L
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve
32.5 m3 32.5 m3
Cycle time = = = 26 minutes
1.8 m3 ⁄minute − 0.55 m3 ⁄minute 1.25 m3 ⁄minute
Degrees Celsius
In the metric system, temperature is measured in degrees Celsius. On this scale, water freezes at 0° and
boils at 100°
The equation to convert from Centigrade to Fahrenheit is:
℉ − 32
Degrees Celsius =
1.8
Convert 70°F to Celsius
℉ − 32 70 − 32
Degrees Celsius = = = 21.1℃
1.8 1.8
Degrees Fahrenheit
In the United States temperature is measure in degrees Fahrenheit. On this scale, water freezes at 32°
and boils at 212°
The equation to convert from Fahrenheit to Centigrade is:
Degrees Fahrenehit = (℃ × 1.8) + 32
Convert 22° Celsius to Fahrenheit
Degrees Fahrenehit = (℃ × 1.8) + 32 = (22 × 1.8) + 32 = 71.6℉
Detention time (or Hydraulic Retention Time)
Detention time measures the length of time a particle of water remains in a tank, basin, pond or pipe.
i.e. the time elapsed from the moment a particle enters the tank to the moment when it leaves the tank.
It is often measured for lagoons, aeration basins, clarifiers, wet wells, UV or chlorine contact chambers,
force mains and outfalls.
The equation for detention time is:
Volume
Detention time =
Flow
When using this equation the units for volume and flow must be the same. This may require the
operator to convert flow from litres per second to cubic metres per day or hour.

45
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

What is the detention time in days for an aerated lagoon that is 394 feet (120 metres) long, 164 feet
(50 metres) wide and 4.8 feet (1.45 metres) deep if it receives a flow of 58,916 gallons (223 cubic
metres) per day?
US units
Step 1 – Convert flow to cubic feet per day
1 ft 3
58,916 gpd × = 7,876.4ft 3
7.48 gal
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
Volume 394 ft × 164 ft × 4.8 ft 310,156.8 ft 3
Detention time = = = = 39 days
Flow 7,876.4 ft 3 ⁄day 7,875.5 ft 3 ⁄day
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the volume of the lagoon
Volume = L × W × D = 120 m × 50 m × 1.45 m = 8,700 m3
Insert known values and solve
Volume 8,700 m3
Detention time = = = 39 days
Flow 223 m3 ⁄day
Feed Rate
The ability to calculate the feed rate is an important tool to avoid over or under dosing a unit process.
The equations are:
Dose, mg⁄L × Flow, MGD × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Feed rate, lb⁄day =
Purity, % expressed as a decimal
Dose, mg⁄L × Flow, m3 ⁄day
Feed rate, kg⁄day =
Purity, % expressed as a decimal × 1,000
What is the feed rate if a 12% solution of alum is fed at a dose of 4 mg/L into a flow of 1.32 MGD
(5,000 m3) per day?
US units
Dose, mg⁄L × Flow, MGD × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Feed rate, lb⁄day =
Purity, % expressed as a decimal
4 mg⁄L × 1.32 MGD × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Feed rate, lb⁄day = = 366.96 lb⁄day
0.12
Metric units
Dose, mg⁄L × Flow, m3 ⁄day
Feed rate, kg⁄day =
Purity, % expressed as a decimal × 1,000
4 mg⁄L × 5,000 m3 ⁄day
Feed rate, kg⁄day = = 166.6 kg⁄day
0.12 × 1,000

46
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Feed Rate (Fluoride)

Fluoridation of a drinking water supply, while more common in the 1970s and 80s is still practiced in
many communities. Three fluoride containing chemicals are used: sodium fluoride (NaF), sodium
fluorosilicate (Na2SiF6) and fluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6). Sodium fluoride is the chemical of choice when a
fluoride saturator is used.
Chemical Formula Available Fluoride Ion Chemical Purity
sodium fluoride NaF 0.452 or 45.2% 98%
sodium fluorosilicate Na2SiF6 0.607 or 60.7% 98%
fluorosilicic acid H2SiF6 0.792 or 79.2% 23%

The equations are:

Dosage, mg⁄L × Capacity, MGD × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Feed rate, lb⁄d =
Available Fluoride ion, % as a decimal × Purity, % as a decimal
Dose, mg⁄L × Capacity, m3 ⁄d
Feed rate, kg⁄d =
Available Fluoride ion, % as a decimal × Purity, % as a decimal × 1,000
Or
Dose, mg⁄L × Capacity, ML⁄d
Feed rate, kg⁄d =
Available Fluoride ion, % as a decimal × Purity, % as a decimal

A water treatment plant produces 2.8 MGD (10,600 m3/day) and the desired dosage is 1.1 mg/L what
would the fluoride feed rate be if the chemical used is sodium fluorosilicate?
US units
Insert known values and solve:
1.1 mg⁄L × 2.8 MGD × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Feed rate, lb⁄d = = 43.2 lb⁄day
0.607 × 0.98
Metric units
Insert known values and solve:
1.1 mg⁄L × 10,600 m3 ⁄d
Feed rate, kg⁄d = = 19.6 kg⁄day
0.607 × 0.98 × 1,000
Feed Rate (Fluoride Saturator)
The use of a fluoride saturator and sodium fluoride provides the operator with a solution that always
contains 18,000 mg/L of fluoride ion. This is because sodium fluoride has a solubility of 4.0 grams per
100 mL of water at the range of temperatures normally encountered in water treatment plant
operations. The equation shown below illustrates how this occurs.
4g 1,000 mg 1,000 mL
× × × 0.45 = 18,000 mg⁄L
100 mL g L

47
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

The equations are:

Plant capacity, gpm × Dosage, mg⁄L
Feed rate (fluoride saturator), gpm =
18,000 mg⁄L
Plant capacty, L⁄min × Dosage, mg⁄L
Feed rate (fluoride saturator), L⁄min =
18,000 mg⁄L
A water treatment plant is using a fluoride saturator to provide feed stock for fluoridation. The plant
produces 1.5 MGD (5,678 m3/day) and wants to fluoridate at 1 mg/L. What is the fluoride feed rate?
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the plant capacity in gallons per minute
1,000,000 gal 1 day 1 hour
Plant capacity = × × = 694 gal⁄min
day 24 hours 60 minutes
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
694 gal⁄min × 1 mg⁄L
Feed rate (fluoride saturator), gpm = = 0.04 gal⁄min
18,000 mg⁄L
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the plant capacity in litres per minute
5,678 𝑚3 1,000 L 1 day
Plant capacity = × 3
× = 3,943 L⁄min
day m 1,440 minutes
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
3,943 L⁄min × 1 mg⁄L
Feed rate (fluoride saturator), gpm = = 0.22 L⁄min
18,000 mg⁄L
Filtration
Both water and wastewater treatment plants use filtration to produce high quality water. Regardless of
whether the filter uses sand or a synthetic media, backwashing is required. Filters are backwashed to
release the impurities trapped in the filter media. Backwashing may be initiated on a timed cycle or on
differential head.

Filter Backwash Rate

The equations for filter loading and filter backwash are the same. The only difference is the direction
water is travelling through the filter

The equations typically used are:

Flow, gpm
Filter backwash rate =
Filter area, ft 2
Flow, L⁄sec
Filter backwash rate
Filter area, m2

48
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

A filter having a surface area of 10 feet (3 metres) by 16 feet (5 metres) is backwashed at a rate of 317
gallons per minute (20 L/s) for 1 minute. What is the filter backwash rate?
US units
Insert known values and solve
Flow, gpm 317 gpm
Filter backwash rate, gpm⁄ft 2 = = = 1.98 gpm⁄ft 2
Filter area, ft 2 10 ft × 16 ft
Metric units
Insert known values and solve
Flow, L⁄s 20 𝐿⁄𝑠
Filter backwash rate, L⁄m2 ⁄s = = = 1.3 L⁄m2 ⁄s
Filter area, m2 3𝑚 × 5𝑚
Filter Backwash Rise Rate
Periodically the flow is reversed in a filter in order to flush trapped particles out of the filter. To do this a
sufficient volume of water (typically 3 times the loading rate) needs to be rapidly introduced into the
filter in order to lift and separate the media. The rise rate is a measure of how rapidly the water level
rises in the filter during the backwash process.
The equations are:
backwash rate, gpm⁄ft 2 × 12 in⁄ft
Filter backwash rise rate, in⁄min =
7.48 gal⁄ft 3
water rise, cm
Filter backwash rise rate, cm⁄min =
time, min

A filter that is 12 feet (3.7 metres) long by 20 feet (6.1 metres) wide is backwashed at a rate of 3,250
gallons per minute (205 L/s) for 1 minute. What is the filter backwash rise rate?
The solution to this problem includes a number of intermediate steps
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the surface area of the filter.
Surface area = 12 ft × 20 ft = 240 ft 2
Step 2 – Calculate the backwash rate in gpm/ft2
Flow, gpm 3250 gpm
Filter backwash rate, gpm⁄ft 2 = = = 13.5 gpm⁄ft 2
Filter area, ft 2 240 ft 2
Insert calculated values and solve:
13.5 gpm⁄ft 2 × 12 in⁄ft
Filter backwash rise rate, in⁄min = = 21.65 𝑖𝑛⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
7.48 gal⁄ft 3

49
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the surface area of the filter.
Surface area = 6.1m × 3.7m = 22.6 m2
Step 2 – Calculate the backwash rate in cubic metres
205 L 1 m3 60 s
Backwash rate = × × = 12.3 m3 ⁄minute
s 1,000 L minute
Step 3 – Calculate the depth (rise) of the backwash water
Volume 12.3m3
Depth = = = 0.54m = 54 cm
Area 22.6 m2
Step 4 - Insert calculated values and solve:
Water rise, cm 54 cm
Filter backwash rise rate, cm⁄minute = = = 54 cm⁄minute
Time, minutes 1 minute
Filter Drop Test Velocity
The equations are:
water drop, feet
Filter drop test velocity, ft⁄min =
time, minutes
water drop, meters
Filter drop test velocity, m⁄min =
time, minutes
The influent to a filter that is 12 feet (3.7 metres) wide by 20 feet (6.1 metres) long is turned off. Over
the space of 5 minutes the water level in the filter drops 2.5 feet (0.76 metres). Calculate the filter
drop velocity.
US units
water drop, feet 2.5 ft
Filter drop test velocity, ft⁄min = = = 0.5 ft⁄min
time, minutes 5 min
Metric units
water drop, meters 0.76 m
Filter drop test velocity, m⁄min = = = 0.15 m⁄min
time, minutes 5 min
Filter Loading Rate
As noted in the section on filter backwashing, the equations are the same for loading and backwashing,
only the direction of flow is different.
The equations are:
Flow, gallons⁄minute
Filter loading rate, gal⁄min⁄ft 2 =
Filter area, ft 2
Flow, litres⁄second
Filter loading rate, L⁄sec⁄m2 =
Filter area, m2

50
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

A filter having a surface area of 10 feet (3 metres) by 16 feet (5 metres) loaded at a rate of 317 gallons
per minute (20 L/s) for 1 minute. What is the filter loading rate?
US units
Insert known values and solve
Flow, gpm 317 gpm
Filter loading rate, gpm⁄ft 2 = = = 1.98 gpm⁄ft 2
Filter area, ft 2 10 ft × 16 ft
Metric units
Insert known values and solve
Flow, L⁄s 20 𝐿⁄𝑠
Filter loading rate, L⁄m2 ⁄s = = = 1.3 L⁄m2 ⁄s
Filter area, m2 3𝑚 × 5𝑚

Filter Yield (see Caution Note)

The filter yield equations are used in the operation of vacuum filter units. In wastewater treatment,
vacuum filters have been replaced by either belt filter presses, rotary presses or centrifuges.

Caution
The metric equation given in the ABC handout is incorrect. The correct metric equation is shown
below:
Solids concentration, % × sludge feed rate, L⁄hr
Filter yield, kg⁄m2 ⁄hour =
Surface area of filter, m2
Until such time as ABC rectifies this error, if a filter yield equation is encountered on a
certification exam use the filter yield equations given in the handout as the answers provide for
the question choices will be based on the incorrect formula.

The equations are:

Solids loading , lb⁄hr × % recovery (as a decimal)
Filter yield, lb⁄ft 2 ⁄hr =
Filter operation, hr⁄day × Filter area, ft 2
Solids concentration, % × sludge feed rate, L⁄hr × 10
Filter yield, kg⁄m2 ⁄hour =
Surface area of filter, m2
A rotary drum vacuum filter fed at a rate of 71 gallons per minute (4.5 L/s) produces a cake with 25%
solids content. The drum has a surface area of 301 square feet (28 square metres). What is the filter
yield?
US units
Step 1 – convert gallons per hour to pounds per hour
71 gallons 60 min 8.34 pounds
Solids loading rate = × × = 35,528 lb⁄hr
min hr gallon

51
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Step 2 – Insert known values and solve

35,528, lb⁄hr × 0.25
Filter yield, lb⁄ft 2 ⁄hr = = 29.5
1 × 301 ft 2
Metric units
Step 1 – Convert L/s to L/hour
4.5 L 3,600 s
Sludge feed rate = × = 16,200 L⁄hour
s hour
Step 2 – Convert 25% to a decimal value, insert known values and solve:
Solids concentration, % × sludge feed rate, L⁄hr × 10
Filter yield, kg⁄m2 ⁄hour =
Surface area of filter, m2
. 25 × 16,200 L⁄hr × 10
Filter yield, kg⁄m2 ⁄hour = = 1,446 kg⁄m2 ⁄hour
28 m2
Flow Rate
Operators need to know how to calculate flow in order to enhance settling in grit chambers or prevent
settling in gravity sewers and force mains and to calculate appropriate chemical dosage. Excessive
velocities in pipe lines can accelerate wear.
Flow is measured as a volume (e.g. US gallon, cubic foot, litre, cubic metre, and megalitre) per unit of
time (e.g. second, minute, hour, day).
The basic equations are:
Area, ft 2 Area, m2
Flow rate = or
Velocity, ft⁄sec Velocity m⁄sec
A number of formulas are used:
Flow (Q) in an open channel = Area, (width × depth) × Velocity
Flow (Q) in a pipe = Area, (0.785D2 ) × Velocity
Both formulas can be rearranged to solve for velocity or area if the other two values are known
Flow Flow
If Flow = Area × Velocity then Velocity = and Area =
Area Velocity
Note: this formula applies only to incompressible fluids like water and wastewater. A different formula
would be used to calculate the velocity of say, an air stream.
What is the flow in cubic feet per minute (liters per second) in a pipe with a diameter of 8 inches (20
centimetres) if the water is flowing at a velocity of 1.6 feet per second (0.5 metres per second)?
Assume that the pipe is flowing full.
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the area of the pipe in square feet.
Area = 0.785(D)2 = 0.785 × (0.66 ft)2 = 0.342 ft 2
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
Flow = Area × Velocity = 0.342 ft 2 × 1.6 ft⁄s = 0.55 ft 3 ⁄s

52
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the area of the pipe in square metres.
Area = 0.785(D)2 = 0.785 × (0.2 m)2 = 0.0314 m2
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
Flow = Area × Velocity = 0.0314 m2 × 0.5 m⁄s = 0.016 m3 ⁄s
Step 3 – Convert flow to L/s
0.016 m3 1,000 L
× = 16 L⁄s
s m3
Food / Microorganism Ratio
The food to microorganism (F:M) ratio is one of the most important calculations for the control of the
activated sludge process. The operator, for all practical purposes, has no control over the volume of
flow entering the plant or the concentration of BOD5 contained in the flow. If the operator is to balance
the food (BOD5) available to the microorganisms present to consume it the balance will be achieved by
wasting or not wasting microorganisms from the process. In the F:M equation microorganisms are
measured as mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS). The F:M ratio is usually reported as a
dimensionless number.
The equations are:
BOD5 added, lb⁄day
Food to Microorganism ratio (F: M) =
MLVSS under aeration, lb
BOD5 added, kg
Food to Microorganism ratio (F: M) =
MLVSS under aeration, kg
Or
BOD5 added, kg
F: M =
MLVSS concentration × (Volume of aeration basin + clarifier)
Where:
BOD5 added = BOD5 , mgL × Flow
MLVSS = Mixed liquor volatile solids, mg⁄L × Volume of (aeration tank + clarifier)
Note: In most problems, the only volume or dimensions given will be for those of the aeration basin(s).

Given the following data, calculate the F:M ratio:

Flow: 2.7 MGD (10,220 m3/day) Primary effluent BOD5 = 220 mg/L
Aeration tank volume: 65,000 ft3 (1,840 m3) MLVSS = 2,450 mg/L
In US units
Step 1 – Calculate the pounds of BOD5 added each day
220 mg 2.7 MG 8.34 lb
BOD5 added = × × = 4953.9 lb⁄day
L day gal

53
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Step 2 – Calculate kg of MLVSS under aeration

2,450mg 0.486 MG 8.34 lb
MLVSS under aeration = × × = 9,930 lb
L day gal
Step 3 – Insert calculated values and solve:
BOD5 added, lb 4,953.9 𝑙𝑏
F: M = = = 0.49
MLVSS under aeration, lb 9930 𝑙𝑏
In metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the kg of BOD5 added each day
220 mg 10,220 m3 1 kg 103 L
BOD5 added = × × 6 × 3 = 2,248.4 kg⁄day
L day 10 mg m
Or
BOD5 added = 220 mg⁄L × 10.22 ML = 2,248.4 kg⁄day
Step 2 – Calculate kg of MLVSS under aeration
2,450mg 1,840 m3 1 kg 103 L
MLVSS under aeration = × × 6 × 3 = 4,508 kg
L day 10 mg m
Or
MLVSS under aeration = 2,450 mg⁄L × 1.84 ML = 4,508 kg
Step 3 – Insert calculated values and solve:
BOD5 added, kg 2,248.4 𝑘𝑔
F: M = = = 0.49
MLVSS under aeration, kg 4508 𝑘𝑔
Sludge Wasting Rate
The activated sludge process will produce between 0.4 to 0.8 kg of solids for each kg of BOD removed. In
order to maintain the proper F:M ratio in the process some sludge needs to be removed or wasted from
the process. Sludge wasting is normally calculated on the basis of maintaining a desired MLSS
concentration in the aeration basin or on maintaining a desired MCRT. The formulas are presented
below:
Wasting to maintain a desired MLSS concentration
(Actual MLSS − Desired MLSS, mg⁄L) × Aeration tank volume, m3
Waste sludge, m3 =
Return activated sludge concentration, mg⁄L

Wasting to maintain a desired MCRT

kg MLSS in aeration basin + clarifer
Waste sludge, kg⁄day = − Effluent TSS, kg
MCRT, days

54
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

A wastewater treatment plant has been found to operate best with a MLSS concentration of 2,400
mg/L. Over time the MLSS concentration has increased to 2,580 mg/L. If the plant has an aeration
basin volume of 2,000 cubic metres and a RAS concentration of 3,220 mg/L how much RAS should be
wasted to bring the plant back into peak performance?
Known: Actual MLSS = 2,580 mg/L, Desired MLSS = 2,400 mg/L, RAS = 3,220 mg/L
Aeration basin volume = 2,000 m3
Insert known values and solve
(Actual MLSS − Desired MLSS, mg⁄L) × Aeration tank volume, m3
Waste sludge, m3 =
Return activated sludge concentration, mg⁄L
(2,580 mg⁄L − 2,400 mg⁄L) × 2,000 m3
Waste sludge, m3 = = 111.8 m3
3,220 mg⁄L
A treatment plant has been operating with a 7 day MCRT but now the operator wants to reduce the
MCRT to 5 days. The MLSS concentration is 2,650 mg/L and effluent suspended solids are 8 mg/L. The
combined volume of the aeration basin and clarifier is 3,582 m3 and the flow through the plant is
12,500 m3/day. How many kilograms of solids need to be wasted from the process to achieve a 5 day
MCRT?
Known:
Desired MCRT = 5 days MLSS = 2,650 mg/L Effluent TSS = 8 mg/L
3
Flow = 12,500 m /day Aeration tank volume + Clarifier volume = 3,582 m3

Step 1 – Calculate the kg of MLSS in inventory

MLSS = 2,650 mg⁄L × 3.582 ML = 9,492 kg
Step 2 – Calculate the kg of effluent TSS
Effluent TSS = 8 mg⁄L × 12.5 ML = 100 kg
Step 3 – Insert known and calculated values and solve
kg MLSS in aeration basin + clarifer
Waste sludge, kg⁄day = − Effluent TSS, kg
MCRT, days
9,492 kg
Waste sludge = − 100 kg = 1,798 kg⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦
5 days
Force and Pressure
Pressure is a measure of a force applied against a surface and is usually expressed as force per unit area.
In the metric system pressure is measured and expressed in Pascals (Pa) or kilopascals (kPa).
Force is measured in Newtons (N) or kiloNewtons (kN). In the US system, force is measured in pounds
and pressure is measured in pounds per square inch.
One Pascal is equal to a force of one Newton per square metre. A Newton is equal to the force required
to accelerate one kilogram at a rate of one metre per second per second (1kg·m/s2). A Canadian $5 bill
resting on the palm of your hand exerts a pressure of approximately 1 Pascal.

55
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

A column of water 1 metre high exerts a pressure of 9.804139432 kPa. This manual will use a rounded
value of 9.8 kPa. In the US system, a column of water 2.31 feet high exerts a pressure of 1 pound per
square inch.
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101.325 kPa or 14.7 pounds per square inch
The equations for the calculation of force are:
Force, lb = pressure, psi × area, in2
Force, newtons, N = Pressure, Pa × Area, m2
A 10 inch (250 mm) diameter pipeline is pressurized to 108 psi (750 kPa). What is the force exerted on
the end cap on the pipe?
US units
Step 1 – calculate the area of the end cap
Area = 0.785 × (10 in)2 = 78.5in2
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
Force, lb = Pressure, psi × area, in2 = 108 psi × 78.5 in2 = 8,478 lb
In metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the surface area of the end cap
Area = πr 2 = 0.785 × (0.25m)2 = 0.049m2
Insert known values and solve
Force, N = Pressure, Pa × Area, m2
1,000 Pa
Force = Pressure × Area = 750kPa × × 0.049m2 = 36,796 Newtons
kPa

For those not uses to the concept of Newtons as a force, it might be helpful to know
that
9.8 Newtons = 1 kilogram force and that 1 kPa = 1 kN/m2
In the problem above we can convert force in Newtons to a force in kilograms by:
1kg
36,796 N × = 3,754.7 kg
9.8N
In the metric system a kilogram can be a mass, a weight and a force

Head is often expressed in units of height such as meters or feet. On Earth, additional height of fresh
water adds a static pressure of about 9.8 kPa per meter (0.098 bar/m) or 0.433 psi per foot of water
column height.
2.31 ft
Head, ft = Pressure, psi ×
psi

1m
Head, m = Pressure, kPa ×
9.8 kPa

56
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

What is the depth of water in a storage tank if the pressure at the bottom of the tank is 7.8 psi
(54 kPa)?
Insert known values and solve:
US units
2.31 ft 2.31 ft
Head, ft = Pressure, psi × = 7.8psi × = 18 feet
psi psi
Metric units
1m 1m
Head = Pressure, kPa × = 54 kPa × = 5.5 m
9.8 kPa 9.8 kPa

What pressure will a pump generate if it can lift water to a height of 138 feet (42 meters)?
(Assume no friction losses in the piping system)
Rearrange the equation, insert known values and solve:
US units
psi 1 psi
Pressure = Head, ft × = 138 ft × = 59.7 psi
2.31 ft 2.31 ft
Metric units
9.8 kPa 9.8 kPa
Pressure = Head, m × = 42 m × = 411.6 kPa
m m
Horsepower (Pumping Calculations)
Calculations of pump curves, required power and system heads is usually left to the design engineer.
However, it is useful for the operator to be able to calculate efficiencies and capacities of pumps within
their system in the event that a change to the system is contemplated.
In the U.S. system the terms water horsepower, motor horsepower and brake horsepower are used. In
the metric system the term horsepower is replaced with the term power. (1 Horsepower = 746 watts =
0.746 kW)
Horsepower, Brake
This term is used when calculating the power required to lift a specified volume of fluid (flow) a
specified distance (head). If the fluid being pumped is anything other than water, the numerator of the
equation should contain a factor to account for the specific gravity of the fluid. In the ABC and EOCP
formulas it is assumed that the specific gravity of the fluid is 1 and therefore, the factor is omitted from
the equation.

57
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

The equations are:

flow, gpm × head, ft
Horsepower, brake, hp =
3960 × pump efficiency expressed as a decimal
9.8 × flow, m3 ⁄sec × head, m
Horsepower, brake, kW =
pump efficiency expressed as a decimal
9.81 × Flow, m3 ⁄s × Head, m × Specific gravity
Power required, kW =
Pump efficency, % × Motor efficiency, %
For those who prefer working in the metric system, two more equations are available for use when flow
is given in either litres per second or litres per minute.
For flows in litres per minute
Flow, L⁄min × Head, m
Power, kW =
6,125
For flows in litres per second
9.81 × Flow, L⁄s × Head, m × Specific gravity
Power required, kW =
1,000 × Pump efficency, % × Motor efficiency, %
Note: For all formulas express % as a decimal. E.g. 95% = .95
When the question stem does not provide values for specific gravity, pump efficiency or motor
efficiency the equation simplifies to:
9.81 × Flow, L⁄s × Head, m
Power required, kW =
1,000
What is the brake horsepower required for a pump required to meet the following parameters:
Motor efficiency = 90% Pump efficiency = 85%
Discharge head = 148 feet (45 metres) Flow = 1,009 gallons / minute (5,500 m3/day)

US units
Step 1 – insert known values and solve
flow, gpm × head, ft 1,009 × 148
Horsepower, brake, hp = = = 44.4
3960 × pump efficiency expressed as a decimal 3,960 × 0.85
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the flow in cubic metres per second
5,500m3 1 day
Flow = × = 0.06 m3 ⁄s
day 86,400 seconds
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
9.81 × Flow, m3 ⁄s × Head, m × Specific gravity
Power required, kW =
Pump efficency, % × Motor efficiency, %
9.81 × 0.06 m3 ⁄s × 45 m × 1 26.487
Power required, kW = = = 34.6 kW
0.9 × 0.85 0.765

58
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Efficiency Calculations
Before discussing the formulas and calculations surrounding the efficiency of a pump, motor and pump-
motor combination it will be useful to first define some terms.
• Motor Horsepower (mhp) is a measure of the electrical power supplied to the terminals of the
electric motor. It is the input power to the motor. One horsepower is defined as being equal to 746
Watts or 0.746 kilowatt.
• Brake Horsepower (bhp) is the output power of the motor. It is also known as the shaft
horsepower (shp). The brake horsepower of a motor is always less than the input or motor
horsepower supplied to the motor due to friction, resistance within the stator, rotor and core and
the load applied to the motor.
• Water Horsepower (whp) is the output power of a pump. That is, the energy imparted to the fluid
being pumped in order to raise a given volume of it to a given height.
The water horsepower is always less than the shaft or brake horsepower applied to the pump shaft
due to friction, friction losses and inefficiencies in impellor and volute design.
• Wire to water horsepower (also called wire-to-water efficiency or overall efficiency) is the energy
that is imparted to the water divided by the energy supplied to the motor. It is work done divided
by work applied.
The term metric horsepower is strictly defined as the power required to raise a mass of 75 kilograms
against the earth's gravitational force over a distance of one metre in one second; this is equivalent to
735.49875 Watts or 98.6% of an imperial electrical horsepower which is equal to 746 Watts.
In this manual and in the EOCP and ABC handouts 1 horsepower = 746 Watts.
Horsepower, Motor, hp
The formulas for calculating motor horsepower are:
flow, gpm × head, ft
Motor horsepower, hp =
3,960 × %pump efficiency(decimal) × %motor efficiency(decimal)
9.8 × flow, m3⁄sec × head, m
Motor horsepower, kW =
%pump efficiency(decimal) × %motor efficiency(decimal)
What is the brake horsepower required for a pump required to meet the following parameters:
Motor efficiency = 90% Pump efficiency = 85%
Discharge head = 148 feet (45 metres) Flow = 1,009 gallons / minute (5,500 m3/day)
US units
Step 1 – insert known values and solve
flow, gpm × head, ft
Motor horsepower, hp =
3,960 × %pump efficiency(decimal) × %motor efficiency(decimal)
1,009, gpm × 148, ft 149,332
Motor horsepower, hp = = = 49.29 hp
3,960 × 0.85 × 0.90 3029.4

59
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the flow in cubic metres per second
5,500m3 1 day
Flow = × = 0.06 m3 ⁄s
day 86,400 seconds
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
9.81 × Flow, m3 ⁄s × Head, m
Power required, kW =
Pump efficency, % × Motor efficiency, %
9.81 × 0.06 m3 ⁄s × 45 m 26.487
Power required, kW = = = 34.6 kW
0.9 × 0.85 0.765
Horsepower, Water, hp
The formulas used to measure water horsepower are:
flow, gpm × head, ft
Horsepower, Water, hp =
3,960
Horsepower, Water, kW = 9.8 × flow, m3 ⁄sec × head, m
What is the water horsepower required for a pump required to meet the following parameters:
Discharge head = 148 feet (45 metres) Flow = 1,009 gallons / minute (5,500 m3/day)
US units
Step 1 – insert known values and solve
flow, gpm × head, ft 1,009 × 148
Horsepower, Water, hp = = = 37.7 hp
3,960 3,960
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the flow in cubic metres per second
5,500m3 1 day
Flow = × = 0.06 m3 ⁄s
day 86,400 seconds
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
Horsepower, Water, kW = 9.8 × flow, m3 ⁄sec × head, m = 9.8 × 0.06 × 45 = 26.5 kW
Wire to Water Efficiency, %
The equations for wire to water efficiency are:
Water hp
Wire to water efficiency, % = × 100%
Motor hp
flow, gpm × total dynamic head, ft × 0.746 kW⁄hp × 100%
Wire to water efficiency, % =
3,960 × electrical demand, kW

60
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

What is the wire to water efficiency in percent of a pump system has a water horsepower
requirement of 37.7 horsepower and a motor horsepower of 49.29?
Step 1 – Insert known values and solve
Water hp 37.7 hp
Wire to water efficiency, % = × 100% = × 100% = 76.5%
Motor hp 49.29 hp
Supplemental Equations
The formulas used to measure efficiency in pumping applications are:
Brake horsepower × 100 bhp × 100
Motor efficiency = or
Motor horsepower mhp
Water horsepower × 100 whp × 100
Pump efficiency = or
Brake horsepower bhp
Water horsepower × 100 whp × 100
Overall efficiency (wire to water efficency) = or
Motor horsepower mhp
Wire to water efficiency = Decimal motor efficiency × decimal pump efficiency × 100%

What is the motor power if the brake power is 35 kW and the motor efficiency is 88%?
Insert known values and solve
Brake horsepower × 100 40 kW × 100
Motor horsepower = = = 45.5 kW
Motor efficiency, % 88%

Find the water horsepower if the brake horsepower is 34 kW and the pump efficiency is 81%
The equation is: Water horsepower = (brake horsepower)(pump efficiency)
Water horsepower = (brake horsepower)(pump efficiency) = (34 kW)(0.81) = 27.5 kW
What is the brake horsepower if the water horsepower is 40 kW and the pump efficiency is 78%?
Step 1 – Rearrange the water horsepower equation, insert known values and solve
water horsepower 40 kW
Brake horsepower = = = 51 kW
efficiency . 78
What is the motor horsepower if 60 kW of water horsepower is required to run a pump with a motor
efficiency of 93% and a pump efficiency of 85%?
The equation is:
water horsepower
Motor horsepower =
motor efficiency × pump efficiency
Insert known values and solve
60 kW 60 kW
Motor horsepower = = = 76 kW
. 93 × .85 . 79

61
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Trivia question: Ever wonder where the factor 3,960 comes from in the US formulas?
Well, behind the scenes some folks realized that I horsepower equals the amount of work required to lift
550 pounds a distance of 1 foot in one second and that equates to 33,000 foot pounds per minute. They
also realized that a US gallon of water weighs 8.333 pounds. There is a lot more mental gymnastics
behind those two numbers but when you divide 33,000 by 8.333 you get 3,960. And now you know.

Loading rate - Hydraulic

Hydraulic loading rates are important control parameters for clarifiers, rotating biological contactors,
trickling filters and activated sludge processes. They can be used to determine sludge withdrawal rates
and contact times between food and microorganisms.
The equations are:
Total flow applied, gpd
Hydraulic loading rate, gpd⁄ft 2 =
Surface area, ft 2
Total flow applied, m3 ⁄day
Hydraulic loading rate, m3 ⁄day⁄m2 =
Surface area, m2
Calculate the hydraulic loading rate on a circular clarifier 90 feet (27.5 metres) in diameter if it
receives a flow of 2.88 MGD (10,900 m3/day) at a MLSS concentration of 2,825 mg/L.
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the surface area of the clarifier
Area = 0.785𝐷2 = 0.785 × (90 𝑓𝑡)2 = 6,358.5𝑓𝑡 2
Insert known values and solve
Flow 2,880,000 gal⁄day
Hydraulic loading rate = = = 452.9 gpd⁄ft 2
Surface area 6,358.5 ft 2
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the surface area of the clarifier
Area = 0.785𝐷2 = 0.785 × (27.5𝑚)2 = 593.7m2
Insert known values and solve
Flow 10,900 m3 ⁄day
Hydraulic loading rate = = = 18.4 m3 ⁄m2 ⁄day
Surface area 593.7 m2
Loading Rate – Mass
Calculating the mass of solids added to or removed from a process is the most commonly performed
calculation in wastewater mathematics. The task is embedded in almost every single math problem
found on a certification examination.
The basic equations are:
Loading rate (Mass), lb⁄day = Flow, MGD × Concentration, mg⁄L × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Volume, m3 ⁄day × Concentration, mg⁄L
Loading rate (Mass), kg⁄day =
1,000

62
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

In most applications of the formula some conversion factors will need to be applied to convert the
values given to the values desired. E.g. from mg/L to kg or kg/m3
When the value desired is in kilograms the following formula may be used:
Mass, kg = concentration, mg⁄L × Volume, ML
Where flow or volume are expressed in Megalitres, symbol ML (Megalitre = 106 L or 103 m3)
Calculate the pounds (kilograms) of MLSS under aeration in an aeration basin 160 feet (48.8 m) long
by 16 feet (4.9 m) wide by 10 feet (3 m) deep if the MLSS concentration is 2,658 mg/L.
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the volume of the aeration basin
Volume = L × W × D = 160 ft × 16 ft × 10 ft = 25,600 ft 3
Step 2 – Convert cubic feet to gallons
7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠 1 𝑀𝐺𝐷
25,600𝑓𝑡 3 × × 6 = 0.191 𝑀𝐺𝐷
𝑓𝑡 3 10 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠
Step 3– Insert known values and solve:
Loading rate (Mass), lb⁄day = 0.191 MGD × 2,658 mg⁄L × 8.34 lb⁄gal = 4,234 lb
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the volume of the aeration basin
Volume = L × W × D = 50m × 5m × 3m = 750 m3
Insert known values and solve:
Mass = Concentration × Flow
2,658 mg 1,000L 1 kg
Mass = × 750m3 × 3
× 6 = 1,993.5 kg
L m 10 mg

1,000L 1 kg
In the equation above two conversion factors, 3
and 6 were required
m 10 mg
Alternate formula:
Mass, kg = concentration, mg⁄L × Volume, ML
Step 1 – Convert 750 m3 to ML. 750 m3 = 0.75 ML
Insert known values and solve
Mass = 2,658 mg⁄L × 0.75ML = 1,993.5 kg
Calculate the kilograms of BOD added to a sequencing batch reactor each day if the influent BOD
concentration is 168 mg/L and the flow is 1.71 MGD (75 L/s ).
US units
Step 1 – Insert known values and solve.
Mass, lb⁄day = 1.71 MGD × 168 mg⁄L × 8.34 lb⁄gal = 2,395.9 lb⁄day

63
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Metric units
Step 1 – Apply conversions factors, insert known values and solve
168 mg 75 L 86,400 seconds 1 kg
Mass = × × × 6 = 1,088.6 kg⁄day
L second day 10 mg
86,400 seconds 1 kg
In the equation above two conversion factors, and 6 were required.
day 10 mg
Hypochlorite Strength, %
The manufacturers of sodium hypochlorite have devised a number of ways to express the concentration
of sodium hypochlorite in a solution.
Commercial sodium hypochlorite is usually delivered to treatment facilities at concentrations of
between 10 and 15 trade percent. Trade percent is often used to express the concentration of sodium
hypochlorite solutions but it does not accurately reflect the concentration of either sodium hypochlorite
or chlorine in the solution.
Grams per Liter (g/L) Available Chlorine
The weight of available chlorine, in grams contained in one liter of sodium hypochlorite solution.
Trade percent available chlorine
Commonly used to denote the strength of commercial sodium hypochlorite solutions, it is similar to
grams per liter, except that the unit of volume is 100 milliliters (mL) instead of one liter. Its value is
therefore one tenth of the value of grams per liter. This is also sometimes referred to as “available
chlorine volume percent”.
This is the most common way of specifying the strength of a sodium hypochlorite solution used by
vendors.
grams per litre available chlorine
trade % available chlorine =
10
Weight percent available chlorine
Dividing trade percent by the specific gravity of the sodium hypochlorite solution gives weight percent,
or percent available chlorine, by weight
grams per litre available chlorine
weight % available chlorine =
10 × (specific gravity of solution)
Weight percent sodium hypochlorite
Like trade percent available chlorine, this term is commonly used to denote the strength of commercial
sodium hypochlorite solutions. It is a measure of the weight of sodium hypochlorite per 100 parts by
weight of sodium hypochlorite solution.
Weight percent of sodium hypochlorite is defined as the weight of sodium hypochlorite per 100 parts by
weight of sodium hypochlorite solution.
It is calculated by converting weight percent of available chlorine into its equivalent as sodium
hypochlorite; that is, multiplying by the ratio of their respective molecular weights as shown below
molecular weight of NaOCl 74.44
= = 1.05
molecular weight of Cl2 70.91

64
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

weight % NaOCl = weight % available chlorine × 1.05

Or

trade % available chlorine × 1.05

weight % NaOCl =
specific gravity of solution

Comparison of metrics for determining the strength of NaOCl solutions

Available Cl2 NaOCl
Trade % Specific gravity Available Cl2 g/L
weight % weight %
0.8 1.01 8 0.80 0.84
2 1.034 20 1.93 2.03
4 1.062 40 3.77 3.95
6 1.089 60 5.51 5.78
8 1.116 80 7.17 7.53
10 1.142 100 8.76 9.20
12 1.168 120 10.27 10.79
15 1.206 150 12.44 13.06
The information presented above outlines the various ways in which the strength of sodium
hypochlorite is measured and sold. The formulas which follow are the ones provided in the ABC/EOCP
handout. They are used to calculate the % hypochlorite strength by weight.

Hypochlorite Strength, % (by weight)

The equations are:

Chlorine required, pounds
Hypochlorite Strength, % = × 100%
Hypochlorite solution needed, gallons × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Chlorine required, kg × 100
Hypochlorite Strength, % =
Hypochlorite solution needed, kg
4 pounds (1.8 kg) of 65% calcium hypochlorite are added to a 45 gallon (170.3 litre) drum of water.
What is the per cent strength (by weight) of the resulting hypochlorite solution?
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the number of pounds of available chlorine
. 65 lb Ca(OCl)2
4 lb × = 2.6 lb
lb
Step 2 – Convert pounds of Ca(OCl)2 to gallons
1 gal
gal Ca(OCl)2 = 2.6 lb × = 0.31 gallons
8.34 lb

65
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Step 3 – Insert known values and solve

Chlorine required, pounds
Hypochlorite Strength, % = × 100%
Hypochlorite solution needed, gallons × 8.34 lb⁄gal
2.6 pounds
Hypochlorite Strength, % = × 100% = 0.68%
(45 gal + 0.31 gal) × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the number of kilograms of available chlorine
. 65 kg Ca(OCl)2
1.8 kg × = 1.17 kg
kg
Step 2 – Convert kg of Ca(OCl)2 to liters
1L
litres Ca(OCl)2 = 1.17 kg × = 1.17 L
1 kg
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve
Chlorine required, kg × 100
Hypochlorite Strength, % =
Hypochlorite solution needed, kg

1.17 kg × 100
Hypochlorite Strength, % = = 0.68%
(170.1 L + 1.17 L) × 1 kg⁄L

Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)

The Langelier Saturation Index was developed in the mid 1930s by Dr. Wilfred Langelier, a professor at
the University of California, Berkely. The Index became a tool to determine if water is corrosive or scale-
forming, based on the chemistry of the water.
The equation is:
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) = pH − pHs
Where pH is the pH of the water and pHs is the pH of the water when saturated with calcite or calcium
carbonate.
If the Langelier Index is negative, then the water is under saturated with calcium carbonate and will tend
to be corrosive in the distribution system. If the Langelier Index is positive, then the water is over
saturated with calcium carbonate and will tend to deposit calcium carbonate forming scales in the
distribution system and If Langelier Index is close to zero, then the water is just saturated with calcium
carbonate and will neither be strongly corrosive or scale forming.
Calculate the LSI if the pH is 7.5 and the pHs is 8.43
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) = pH − pHs = 7.5 − 8.43 = −3.43
If such a question were posed on a certification exam it becomes a simple matter of having the ability to
perform a simple subtraction to solve.

66
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

In reality, calculation of the LSI is not such a simple matter and for completeness, the mathematics
behind deriving a value for pHs are shown below.
Calculation of pHs requires knowledge of the water’s alkalinity, hardness, temperature and total
dissolved solids content.
pHs is the pH at saturation in calcite or calcium carbonate and is defined as:
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) - (C + D)
Where:
A = (Log10 [TDS] - 1) / 10
B = -13.12 x Log10 (oC + 273) + 34.55
C = Log10 [Ca2+ as CaCO3] - 0.4
D = Log10 [alkalinity as CaCO3]
In the sample question given above, let us look at how the pHs of 8.43 was derived.
Water Analysis:
Our water sample had a temperature of 15 ˚C, a pH of 7.5, total dissolved solids (TDS) of 320 mg/L,
hardness of 150 mg/L as CaCO3 and alkalinity of 34 mg/L as CaCO3
Calculation of pHs
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) - (C + D) where:
Log10 (TDS) − 1 2.50 − 1
A= = = 0.15
10 10
B = −13.12 × Log10 (15 + 273) + 34.55 = (−13.12 × 2.45) + 34.55 = 2.28
C = Log10 (Ca2+ as CaCO3 ) − 0.4 = Log10 (150) − 0.4 = 2.17 − 0.4 = 1.77
D = Log10 (Alkalinity as CaCO3 ) = Log10 (34) = 1.53
Insert calculated values and solve
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) − (C + D)
pHs = (9.3 + 0.15 + 2.28) − (1.77 + 1.53) = 11.73 − 3.3 = 8.43
To summarize, calculation of pHs is a lengthy process which requires the use of logarithmic tables or a
scientific calculator with a log function. Neither are provided at a certification exam session, nor are the
formula required to calculate the parameters A, B, C and D. Operators can rest assured that any LSI
question will provide the two values necessary to solve the formula given in the ABC/EOCP handout.

67
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Leakage
It is a fact of life that unlined concrete reservoirs will eventually develop some leaks. The AWWA
recommends that in a 24 hour period, leakage in an unlined concrete reservoir with a water depth of 7.6
metres (25 feet) or less should not exceed 0.1 percent of the water volume. For a fully lined concrete
reservoir, leakage should not exceed 0.025 percent of the water volume
The equations are:
Volume, gallons
Leakage, gal⁄day =
Time, days
Volume, Litres
Leakage, L⁄day =
Time, days
In its simplest form, a water leakage question might look like this:
A leak test was carried out on a reservoir and it was found that 3,000 gallons (11,356 L) had leaked
over a period of 3 days. What was the leakage rate?
US units
Insert known values and solve:
Volume, gallons 3,000 gal
Leakage, gal⁄day = = = 1,000 gal⁄day
Time, days 3 days
Metric units
Insert known values and solve:
Volume, Litres 11,356 L
Leakage, L⁄day = = = 3,785 L⁄day
Time, days 3 days
On a Class III or IV exam you will have to work for your money and the question might look like this:
The Town of Whyus carried out a leak detection test on their 60 foot (18.3m) diameter unlined
concrete reservoir which normally operates with a water depth of 22 feet (6.7m). After a period of 36
hours it was discovered that the water depth had decreased by 0.33 feet (0.1 metres). What was the
leakage rate?
Step 1 – Calculate the volume of water lost
Volume lost = Area × depth = πr 2 d = (30 ft)2 × 3.14 × .33ft = 932.6ft 3
Volume lost = Area × depth = πr 2 d = (9.15m)2 × 3.14 × .0.1 m = 26.3m3
But the equations ask for volumes in either US gallons or litres
7.48 gallons
932.6ft 3 × = 6,975.8 gallons
ft 3
1,000 L
26.3m3 × = 26,300 L
m3

68
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Step 2 – Insert known values and solve

US units
Volume, gallons 6,975.8 gallons
Leakage, gal⁄day = = = 4,650.5 gal⁄day
Time, days 1.5 days
Metric units
Volume, Litres 26,300 L
Leakage, L⁄day = = = 17,533 L⁄day
Time, days 1.5 days
It wasn’t part of the question but does the Town’s reservoir meet the AWWA standard?

Mean Cell Residence Time / Solids Retention Time/Sludge Age

Mean cell residence time, sludge age and solids retention time are all methods used by an operator to
control the inventory of solids in the process and to maintain the desired food to microorganism ratio or
the environment necessary for certain species to thrive (e.g. nitrifiers/denitrifiers or phosphorous
accumulating microorganisms).
Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT)
The mean cell residence time calculation is a refinement of the solids retention (or detention) time and
the sludge age calculation. MCRT takes into account solids which are stored in the secondary clarifier as
well as solids that are removed from the process as waste activated sludge and effluent suspended
solids. It is a subtractive process as it monitors solids lost from the process. It is an important design and
operating parameter with values normally expressed in days.
The equations are:
(Aeration tank TSS, lb) + (Clarifier TSS, lb)
MCRT, days =
(TSS wasted, lb⁄day) + (Efluent TSS, lb⁄day)
MLSS, mg⁄L × (volume of aeration basin + clarifier, m3 )
MCRT, days =
(WAS, mg⁄L × WAS Flow) + (Effluent TSS, mg⁄L × Effluent Flow)
Where: MLSS = mixed liquor suspended solids, TSS = total suspended solids, WAS = waste activated
sludge, Effluent TSS = effluent total suspended solid, Effluent flow = flow leaving the plant.
It is assumed that the solids concentration in the clarifier is the same as that in the aeration basin (i.e.
the MLSS concentration)
Given the following data, calculate the mean cell residence time for this treatment plant:
Volume of aeration basin + clarifier = 0.46 MG (1,800 m3) MLSS = 2,625 mg/L
WAS = 1,653 lb/day (750 kg/day) Effluent TSS = 33 lb/day (15 kg/day)

The simplified equation is:

weight of solids under aeration
MCRT =
weight of solids lost per day

69
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

US units
Step 1 – Calculate the pounds of solids under aeration
2,625mg 0.46 MG 8.34 lb
MLSS under aeration = × × = 10,070.5 lb
L day gal

Step 2 – Insert known values and solve

kg solids under aeration 10070.5 lb
MCRT = = = 5.97 ≅ 6 days
kg solids lost per day 1653 lb⁄day + 33 lb⁄day
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the kilograms of solids under aeration
kg solids under aeration = 2,625 mg⁄L × 1.8 ML = 4,725 kg

Step 2 – Insert known values and solve

kg solids under aeration 4,725 kg
MCRT = = = 6 days
kg solids lost per day 750 kg + 15 kg
Solids Retention Time
The solids retention time takes into account only the solids in the aeration basin and the solids removed
from the process as waste activated sludge. The basic maths are the same as those for the MCRT
calculations.
The equations are:
(Aeration tank TSS, lb)
SRT, days =
(TSS wasted, lb⁄day)
MLSS, mg⁄L × (volume of aeration basin, m3 )
SRT =
(WAS, mg⁄L × WAS Flow)
Sludge Age
Sludge age (also known as solids retention time and Gould sludge age) is an important parameter in the
operation of the activated sludge process. Similar in concept to detention time, sludge age refers to the
amount of time, in days, that solids remain under aeration. It is an additive process as it measures solids
added to the process each day. Sludge age is controlled by varying the waste activated sludge rate.
The equations for sludge age are:
lb solids under aeration
Sludge age, days =
lb solids added per day
kg solids under aeration
Sludge age, days =
kg solids added per day

70
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

The influent to an extended aeration package plant adds 450 pounds (204 kilograms) per day of
solids to the aeration basin. If the solids under aeration weigh 6,713 pounds (3045 kilograms), what
is the sludge age in days?
Insert known values and solve
US units
lb solids under aeration 6,713 lb
Sludge age, days = = = 15 days
lb solids added per day 450 lb/day
Metric units
kg solids under aeration 3,045 kg
Sludge age, days = = = 15 days
kg solids added per day 204 kg/day

Organic Loading Rate, Attached Growth Systems

Organic loading rates provide the operator with an indication of the amount of food entering a
biological process. The concept is more generally applied to wastewater lagoons (kg/ha/day), trickling
filters (kg/m3/day) and rotating biological contactors (g/m2/day) than it is to the activated sludge
process where the concept of food to microorganism ratio is used.
The general equation for organic loading is:
Flow × concentration Flow × concentration
Organic loading rate = or
area volume
For most applications the mass being added is either total suspended solids (TSS) or biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD)
Mass loadings for clarifiers, lagoons, and rotating biological contactors are area based while mass
loadings for aeration basins, trickling filters and digestors are volume based.
Rotating Biological Contactor
Organic loadings to rotating biological contactors (RBC) are calculated based on the surface area of the
media being rotated through the influent to the process.
The surface area is calculated in square feet in the US system and square metres in the metric system.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) is typically measured as soluble BOD (SBOD5).
The equations are:
Organic load, lb SBOD5 ⁄day
OLR, lb SBOD5 / day⁄1,000ft 2 =
surface area of media, 1,000 ft 2
Organic load, kg SBOD5 ⁄day
OLR, kg SBOD5 / day⁄m2 =
surface area of media, m2

71
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Calculate the SBOD5 loading rate on a rotating biological contactor. The influent flow is 0.26 MGD
(1000 m3/day) with a BOD of 185 mg/L. The RBC has 400 disks each 11.5 feet (3.5 metres) in diameter
mounted on its shaft.
This problem cannot be solved in a single step. We first have to use the mass equation to calculate the
number of pounds or kilograms of SBOD5 added per day and we have to remember that each disk has
two sides.
The equation is:
Flow × concentration
Organic loading rate =
surface area × number of disks × 2
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the mass of SBOD applied
Mass of SBOD = Flow × concentration = 185 mg⁄L × 0.26 MGD × 8.34 lb⁄gal = 401 lb⁄day
Step 2 – Calculate surface area of disks
Area = 0.785𝐷 2 × 2 × number of disks = 0.785 × 2 × (11.5 ft)2 × 400 = 83,053 ft 2
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve
Mass of SBOD applied 401 lb⁄day
Organic loading rate = = = 0.005 lb SBOD⁄ft 2 ⁄day
Surface area 83,053 ft 2
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the mass of BOD applied
Mass of BOD = Flow × concentration = 185 mg⁄L × 1.0 ML/day = 185 kg⁄day
Step 2 – Calculate surface area of disks
Area = 0.785𝐷 2 × 2 × number of disks = 0.785 × 2 × (3.5 m)2 × 400 = 7,693 m2
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve
Mass of BOD applied 185 kg⁄day
Organic loading rate = = = 0.02 kg BOD⁄m2 ⁄day
Surface area 7,693 m2
Note: organic loading to a RBC is usually reported as g BOD/m2/day.
Trickling Filter
The calculation for the loading rate for a trickling filter is similar to that for a RBC with the following
differences: in the numerator, BOD is used instead of SBOD and in the denominator the volume of the
filter is used instead of surface area.
The equations are:
Organic load, lb BOD5 ⁄day
OLR, lb BOD5 / day⁄1,000ft 3 =
volume of media, 1,000 ft 3
Organic load, kg BOD5 ⁄day
OLR, kg BOD5 / day⁄m2 =
volume of media, m3

72
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

A trickling filter with a diameter of 135 feet (41 metres) and a media depth of 5 feet (1.5 metres)
receives a flow of 1.95 MGD (7,382 cubic metres) with a BOD of 110 mg/L. Calculate the organic
loading for this filter.
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the volume of the filter
Volume = 0.785D2 × h = 0.785 × (135 feet)2 × 5 feet = 71,533ft 3
Step 2 – Calculate the organic loading to the filter
Mass of SBOD = Flow × concentration = 110 mg⁄L × 1.95 MGD × 8.34 lb⁄gal = 1,788.9 lb⁄day
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve
1,788.9 lb⁄day
Organic loading rate = = 25 lb BOD⁄day⁄1,000ft 3
71.533 103 ft 3
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the volume of the filter
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 0.785𝐷2 × ℎ = 0.785 × (41 𝑚)2 × 1.5𝑚 = 1,979.4𝑚3
Step 2 – Calculate the organic loading to the filter
Mass of SBOD = Flow × concentration = 110 mg⁄L × 7.382 ML = 812 kg⁄day
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve
812 kg⁄day
Organic loading rate = = 0.41 kg BOD⁄day⁄𝑚3
1,979.4 m3
Oxygen Uptake Rate
The Oxygen Uptake Rate (OUR) test measures the amount of oxygen consumed by a sample over a
period of time. It is measured in mg/L O2/minute or mg/L O2/hour.
The equations are:
oxygen usage, mg⁄L
Oxygen uptake rate =
time, minutes
Or
initial DO, mg⁄L − final DO, mg⁄L
Oxygen uptake rate =
elapsed time, minutes
These quick tests have many advantages; rapid measure of influent organic load and biodegradability,
indication of the presence of toxic or inhibitory wastes, degree of stability and condition of a sample,
and calculation of oxygen demand rates at various points in the aeration basin. As always, trends are
more useful than instantaneous values.
Calculate the OUR of a sample if the initial dissolved oxygen concentration is 5.9 mg/L and after 10
minutes the final dissolved oxygen concentration is 1.4 mg/L.
Insert known values and solve
5.9 mg⁄L − 1.4 mg⁄L 60 minutes
OUR = × = 27 mg⁄L O2 ⁄hour
10 minutes hour

73
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Population Equivalent, Organic

Knowledge of typical per capita water usage or BOD5 contributions can be used to calculate the
population load on a wastewater treatment plant or conversely, if the population is known to determine
whether excessive infiltration and inflow is present.
The general equations are:
flow, MGD × BOD, mg⁄L × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Population equivalent (organic loading) =
0.17 lb BOD⁄person⁄day
Flow, m3 ⁄day × BOD, mg⁄L
Population equivalent (organic loading) =
1,000 × 0.077 kg BOD⁄person⁄day
Population served
Population equivalent =
Size of treatment process (e. g. area or volume)
Calculate the population loading on a lagoon if the population is 12,500 people and the lagoon system
totals 20 acres (8 hectares).
Population served 12,500
Population equivalent = = = 625 people⁄acre
Area, acres 20 acres
Population served 12,500
Population equivalent = = = 1,562 people⁄ha
Area, ha 8 ha
A treatment plant receives a daily flow of 2.5 MGD (9,500 m3) with a BOD of 222 mg/L. Calculate the
equivalent population served.
The equation is:
US Units
Step 1 – Insert known values and solve:
2.5 MGD × 222 mg⁄L × 8.34 lb⁄gal
Population equivalent = = 27,228 people
0.17 lb BOD⁄person⁄day
Metric units
Flow, m3 ⁄day × BOD, mg⁄L
Population equivalent (organic loading) =
1,000 × 0.077 kg BOD⁄person⁄day
Step 1 – Insert known values and solve
9,500 m3 ⁄day × 222 mg⁄L 2,109,000
Population equivalent = = = 27,389 people
1,000 × 0.077 kg BOD⁄person⁄day 77
Alternate method:
Step 1 – Calculate the kg of BOD5 received at the plant each day
kg BOD = flow × concentration = 9.5 ML × 222 mg⁄L = 2,109 kg⁄day
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
kg BOD /day 2,109 kg BOD
Population = = = 27,389 people
0.077 kg BOD/ person⁄day 0.077kg BOD/ person⁄day

74
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Recirculation Ratio
Recirculation of flow from the secondary clarifier to the trickling filter is a technique used to dilute the
strength of the influent to the trickling filter, maintain a relatively uniform flow to the filter, reduce odor
and filter flies and to ensure the filter does not dry out during periods of low flow. Recirculation ratios
generally range from 1:1 to 2:1
The equation is:
recirculated flow
Recirculation ratio =
primary effluent flow
What is the recirculation ratio for a trickling filter if the influent to the plant is 3.3 MGD
(12.5 ML/day ) and a flow of 5.75 MGD (21.8 ML/day) is recirculated to the trickling filter?
Insert known values and solve:
US units
recirculated flow 5.75
Recirculation ratio = = = 1.74: 1
primary effluent flow 3.3
Metric Units
recirculated flow 21.8
Recirculation ratio = = = 1.74: 1
primary effluent flow 12.5
What is the trickling filter’s recirculated flow if the influent flow to the plant was 5.9 ML/day and the
recirculation ratio was 1.65:1 ?
Rearrange the equation to solve for recirculated flow then insert known values and solve
recirculated flow
If Recirculation ratio =
primary effluent flow
Then Recirculated flow = Recirculation ratio × Primary effluent flow
Recirculated flow = 1.65 × 5.9 ML⁄day = 9.74 ML⁄day
Reduction of Volatile Solids, %
A modified version of the % removal formula is used when dealing with volatile solids reduction in an
anaerobic digestor and the reduction in moisture content in digestor sludge or a composting process.
There have been a number of formulas used in the past to calculate volatile solids reduction in
anaerobic digestors. Current practice is to use what is called the “Van Kleeck” formula for modern
digestors. In this formula all percent values are expressed as a decimal. E.g. 25% = 0.25

The formula is:

(Volatile solids in − Volatile solids out)
% Volatile solids reduction = × 100%
Volatile solids in − (volatile solids in × volatile solids out)

It is often written as:

(VSin − VSout ) (in − out)
%VS reduction = × 100% or × 100%
VSin − (VSin × VSout ) in − (in × out)

75
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Calculate the % volatile solids reduction in an anaerobic digestor which is fed primary sludge with a
volatile solids content of 87% and produces a digested sludge with a volatile solids content of 59%

Known: Volatile solids in = 87% = 0.87, Volatile solids out = 59% = 0.59

Step 1 – Insert known values and solve:

(VSin − VSout )
%VS reduction = × 100%
VSin − (VSin × VSout )

(0.87 − 0.59) . 28 . 28
VS reduction = × 100% = ( ) = ( ) × 100% = 77.8%
0.87 − (0.87 × 0.59) . 87 − .51 . 36

Percent Reduction in Flow

See the following section for solved examples. This equation is the same as the percent removal
equation with the exception of a change in wording.
original flow − reduced flow
reduction in flow, % = × 100
original flow
Percent Removal
After the solids equation, the percent removal calculation is one the most commonly calculated values.
Percent removal calculations whether for BOD5, TSS or VSS inform the operator of the efficiency of the
unit process and provide information on the impact of the material removed on the next downstream
process. (E.g. thickeners, digestors or dewatering equipment). The percent removal statement may
sometimes be worded as percent reduction.
The equation is
(𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧 − 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐮𝐭) (𝐢𝐧 − 𝐨𝐮𝐭)
% 𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐯𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝐨𝐫 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧 𝐢𝐧
What is the removal efficiency of a primary clarifier if the influent TSS are 195 mg/L and the effluent
TSS are 82 mg/L
Known: Influent TSS =195 mg/L, effluent TSS = 82 mg/L
Insert known values and solve
(in − out) (195 − 82) 113
removal efficiency = × 100% = × 100% = × 100% = 57.9%
in 195 195

76
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Percent Return Rate (Sludge Return Rate, %)

One of the parameters for the control of the activated sludge process is the rate at which settled MLSS is
returned from the clarifier to the aeration basin. Different variations of the activated sludge process
have different optimum return rates. In addition to the return of solids from the clarifier, some
biological nutrient removal processes have internal sludge recycle streams as well.
The equation is:
Return flow rate
Return rate, % = × 100
Influent flow rate
Calculate the percent sludge return rate if the influent flow is 2.5 MGD (9,500 m3/day) and the RAS
return rate is 1.9 MGD (85 L/second).
US units
Return flow rate 1.9 𝑀𝐺𝐷
Return rate, % = × 100 = × 100 = 76%
Influent flow rate 2.5 𝑀𝐺𝐷
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the RAS rate in cubic metres per day
85 L 86,400 s 1m3
RAS rate = × × = 7,344 m3 ⁄day
s day 1,000 L

Step 3– Insert known values and solve:

Return flow rate 7,344 m3 ⁄day
Return rate = × 100 = × 100 = 77%
Influent flow rate 9,500 m3 ⁄day
Return Sludge Rate – Solids Balance
The equations are
Flow into aeration basin × MLSS, mg⁄L
Recycle Flow (RAS) =
return activated sludge, mg⁄L − mixed liquor suspended solids, mg⁄L

Or
flow flow
Recycle flow (RAS) = or
100 . 01 × [(MLSS, % × SVI) − 1)]
(MLSS, % × SVI) − 1

For US units flow is in Million Gallons per Day for metric unit flow is in cubic metres per day

77
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Calculate the return activated sludge rate for a treatment plant given the following data:
Flow: 3.2 MGD (12,000 m3/day) MLSS = 2,400 mg/L
Return activated sludge: 3,600 mg/L SVI = 212

Insert known values and solve

Equation 1
flow × MLSS, mg⁄L
Recycle Flow (RAS) =
RAS, mg⁄L − MLSS, mg⁄L
3.2 MGD × 2,400 mg⁄L
Recycle Flow (RAS) = = 6.4 MGD
3,600 mg⁄L − 2,400 mg⁄L
12,000 m3 ⁄d × 2,400 mg⁄L
Recycle Flow (RAS) = = 24,000 m3 ⁄day
3,600 mg⁄L − 2,400 mg⁄L
Equation 2
flow
Recycle flow (RAS) =
. 01 × [(MLSS, % × SVI) − 1)]
3.2 MGD 3.2 MGD
Recycle flow (RAS) = = = 6.4 MGD
. 01 × [(0.24% × 212) − 1)] 0.5
12,000 m3 ⁄day 12,000 m3 ⁄day
Recycle flow (RAS) = = = 24,000 m3 ⁄day
. 01 × [(0.24% × 212) − 1)] 0.5

Slope, %
Wastewater treatment systems occasionally utilize gravity as a driving force to convey wastewater
through pipes. Pipes need to be installed at a constant grade (or slope) to ensure that wastewater will
flow at the proper velocity required to ensure that solids remain entrained in the water.
Slope is expressed as a decimal value and grade is simply the slope expressed as a percentage. (i.e. a
slope of 0.02 is equivalent to a grade of 2%). Solving slope and grade problems will be simplified if a
sketch is drawn.
The basic equation for slope (and grade) is:
Rise or drop Rise or drop
Slope = and Grade, % = × 100
Run Run
Calculate the slope / grade of a pipe if it drops 8.2 feet (2.5 meters) in 295 feet (90 meters).
Known: Rise (drop) = 8.2 feet (2.5 m), Run = 295 feet (90 m)
Insert known values and solve
US units
Rise or drop 8.2 feet
Slope = = = 0.028 = 2.8%
Run 295 feet

78
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Metric units
Rise or drop 2.5 m
Slope = = = 0.028 = 2.8%
Run 90 m
An outfall leaves a treatment plant at an elevation 12 metres above sea level. It terminates 4.5
kilometres from the treatment plant at a depth of 80 metres below sea level. What is the grade of the
outfall?
Known: Drop = 12m + 80 m = 92 m, Run = 4.5 km = 4,500 m
Insert known values and solve:
Rise or drop 92 m
Grade, % = × 100 = × 100 = 2%
Run 4,500 m
Solids, mg/L
The ability to calculate the solids content of a sample is a useful tool in measuring process efficiency.
The equation is:
dry solids, grams × 1,000,000
Solids =
sample volume, mL
A 100 mL sample of final effluent was filtered through a filter paper that weighed 0.2184 grams. After
drying overnight, the filter paper was weighed and found to weigh 0.2188 grams. What was the
weight of solids in mg/L?
Step 1 – Calculate the weight of solids captured on the filter paper
Weight = (filter plus solids) − (filter) = 0.2188 g − 0.2184 g = 0.0004 g
Step 2 – Insert known values and solve
dry solids, grams × 1,000,000 0.0004 × 1,000,000
Solids = = = 4 mg⁄L
sample volume, mL 100
Sludge Density Index (SDI)
The sludge density index is a less commonly used parameter. It reports a value in units of g/mL versus
mL/g. (remember, density is measured as weight per unit volume)
Two formulas are available to calculate the sludge density index (SDI)
100 MLSS, g × 100%
SDI = 𝑜𝑟 SDI =
Sludge volume index Settled sludge volume, mL/L
A settleability test on an MLSS sample with a concentration of 2,810 mg/L carried out in a 1 liter
graduated cylinder had a settled sludge volume (SSV) of 245 mL The operator calculated that the
sludge volume index (SVI) was 87. What is the sludge density index for this sample?
Known: SSV = 245 mL, MLSS = 2,810 mg/L = 2.81 g/L
Insert known values and solve
100 100
or SDI = = = 1.15 g⁄mL
Sludge volume index 87
Or

79
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

MLSS, g × 100% 2.81 g × 100%

SDI = = = 1.15 g⁄mL
Settled sludge volume, mL/L 245 mL⁄L
As with SVI the results of the calculation are usually reported as a dimensionless number.
As the examples show, both formulas give the same answer. Operators can choose either method but
once a formula is chosen it is recommended that the operator stick with that formula.

Sludge Volume Index (SVI)

The sludge volume index (SVI) and sludge density index (SDI) inform the operator about the way in
which activated sludge flocculates and settles in the secondary clarifier. They play a role in determining
return sludge rates and mixed liquor suspended solids.
• An SVI less than 80 indicates excellent settling and compacting characteristics
• An SVI between 80 and 150 indicates moderate settling and compacting characteristics
• An SVI greater than 150 indicates poor settling and compacting characteristics
Samples for the settleability and SVI tests should be taken from the end of an actively aerated basin before
clarification.
Three equations are commonly used. They are:

Settled sludge volume, mL⁄L × 1,000 mg⁄g

SVI =
Mixed liquor suspended solids, mg/L
Settled sludge volume, mL⁄L
SVI =
Mixed liquor suspended solids, g/L
settled sludge volume, %
SVI =
mixed liquor suspended solids, %

A settleability test on an MLSS sample in a 1 liter graduated cylinder had a settled sludge volume (SSV)
of 245 mL, If the MLSS concentration was 2,810 mg/L what was the sludge volume index?
Known: SSV = 245 mL, MLSS = 2,810 mg/L = 2.81 g/L
Insert known values and solve
Settled sludge volume, mL × 1,000 245 mL × 1,000
SVI = = = 87 mL⁄g
Mixed liquor suspended solids, mg/L 2,810 mg/L
Settled sludge volume, mL⁄L 245 mL⁄L
SVI = = = 87 mL⁄g
Mixed liquor suspended solids, g/L 2.81 g

80
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

The third variation of the SVI equation requires us to convert the settled sludge volume and the MLSS
concentration to a per cent value.
245 mL
SSV = × 100% = 24.5%
1,000 mL
mg 1%
MLSS = 2,810 × = 0.281%
L 10,000 mg⁄L
Insert calculated values and solve
settled sludge volume, % 24.5%
SVI = = = 87 mL/g
mixed liquor suspended solids, % 0.281%
Although the units for SVI are in mL/g the results of the calculation are usually reported as a
dimensionless number.
As the examples show, all three formulas give the same answer. Operators can chose any formula but
once a formula is chosen it is recommended that the operator stick with that formula to avoid
confusion.

Percent Solids Capture (Centrifuge)

Knowledge of the % solids capture in centrifuge operation will aid the operator in adjusting the polymer
dosage and other operating parameters of the centrifuge.
The equation is:
Cake TS% Feed sludge TS% − Centrate TSS%
Solids capture% = [ ]×[ ] × 100
Feed Sludge TS% Cake TS% − Centrate TSS%
Calculate the percent solids capture for a centrifuge which produces a 24% cake when fed a 3.2%
sludge. The centrate has a TSS of 0.45%.
Insert known values and solve.
24 3.2 − 0.45
Solids capture% = [ ]×[ ] × 100
3.2 24 − 0.45
2.75
Solids capture% = [7.5] × [ ] × 100
23.55
Solids capture% = 7.5 × 0.117 × 100 = 87.58%
Solids Concentration, mg/L
The ability to calculate the solids concentration of a sample is a skill which every treatment plant
operator who works in the laboratory must develop. Knowledge of the amount of solids entering,
leaving and within a plant is essential for process control and permit compliance.
The formula is:
Weight of dry solids, g × 1,000,000
Solids, mg⁄L =
Sample volume, mL

81
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

A 25 mL sample was filtered on a Whatman GF/C 5.5 cm diameter filter. The weight of the filter paper
was 0.1785 grams and the weight of the dried filter paper plus retained solids was 0.1833 grams.
What was the solids concentration for this sample?
Step 1 – Calculate the weight of dry solids
Dry solids = 0.1833 g − 0.1785g = 0.0048 g
Step 2 – Insert calculate value and solve:
0.0048 g × 1,000,000
Solids = = 192 mg/L
25 mL
Solids Loading Rate
Many unit processes are dependent on careful control of solids loading rates to ensure that the ability to
maintain aerobic conditions is not overwhelmed by excessive loading (e.g. aerobic digestors, AS
processes, lagoons) or that solids handling capabilities are not exceeded (e.g. thickeners).
The equations are:
solids applied, lb⁄day
Solids loading rate, lb⁄day⁄ft 2 =
Surface area, ft 2
solids applied, kg⁄day
Solids loading rate, kg⁄day⁄m2 =
Surface area, m2

A gravity thickener receives 106,000 gallons (400 cubic metres) of 2% primary sludge per day.
Calculate the solids loading rate if the thickener is 30 feet (9 metres) in diameter.
US units
Step 1 – Calculate pounds of solids applied per day
Solids applied = 0.106 MGD × 20,000 mg⁄L × 8.34 lb⁄gal = 17,681 pounds
Step 2 – Calculate surface area of thickener
Area = 0.785(D)2 = 0.785 (30 ft)2 = 70.65ft 2
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve:
solids applied, lb⁄day 17,681 lb⁄day
Solids loading rate = = = 250 lb⁄day⁄ft 2
Surface area, ft 2 70.65ft 2
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate pounds of solids applied per day
Solids applied = 20,000 mg⁄L × 0.4 ML = 8,000 kg
Step 2 – Calculate surface area of thickener
Area = 0.785(D)2 = 0.785 (9m)2 = 63.6m2
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve:
solids applied, kg⁄day 8,000 kg⁄day
Solids loading rate = = = 126 kg⁄day⁄m2
Surface area, m2 63.6m2

82
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Solids Retention Time

The ABC/EOCP formula/conversion table states: “see Mean Cell Residence Time”. As explained below,
the two calculations are not equal and will return different results. As long as all parties using the data
derived are using the same formula the difference will not matter.
Like the MCRT equation, solids retention time is a subtractive process as it monitors solids lost from the
process. It is slightly less accurate than the MCRT as it does not take into account solids lost in the final
effluent or solids held in the secondary clarifier.
It is an important design and operating parameter with values normally expressed in days.
The equations are:
MLSS under aeration, lb
Solids Retention Time (SRT), days =
WAS, lb⁄day
MLSS, mg⁄L × Aeration basin volume, m3
Solids Retention Time (SRT) =
WAS, mg⁄L × WAS Flow, m3 ⁄day
The aeration basin at a treatment plant contains 0.52 MG (2,000 m3) of MLSS with a concentration of
2,400 mg/L. The operator has set the waste rate at 0.085 MGD (325 m3/day). The WAS has a
concentration of 4,800 mg/L. What is the solids retention time?
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the pounds of MLSS under aeration
8.34 𝑙𝑏
lb MLSS = 2,400 mg⁄L × 0.52 MG × = 10,408.3 lb
𝑔𝑎𝑙
Step 2 – Calculate the kg of WAS waste per day
4,800 mg 0.085 MG 8.34 lb
lb WAS wasted = × × = 3,402.7 lb/day
L day gal
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve:
lb MLSS under aeration 10408.3 lb
SRT = = = 3 days
lb WAS wasted/day 3,402.7 lb/day
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the kg of MLSS under aeration
kg MLSS = 2,400 mg⁄L × 2.0 ML = 4,800 kg
Step 2 – Calculate the kg of WAS waste per day
4,800 mg 325 m3 1 kg 103 L
kg WAS wasted = × × 6 × 3 = 1,560 kg/day
L day 10 mg m
Step 3 – Insert known values and solve:
kg MLSS under aeration 4,800 kg
SRT = = = 3 days
kg WAS wasted/day 1,560 kg/day

83
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity and Density
Specific gravity is a measure that compares the density of a substance to another. The basis for
comparison for liquids and solids is water which has a density of 1 gram per cubic centimetre.
The specific gravity of a substance will determine whether it will sink (sp gr >1) or float (sp gr <1) and can
therefore be removed through sedimentation or floatation.
The density of a substance is a measure of its mass for a given volume. It is usually expressed in units of
grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3) or kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3).

The formulas are:

Specific weight of substance, lb⁄gal
Specific gravity =
8.34 lb⁄gal
Specific weight of the substance, kg⁄L
Specific gravity =
1 kg⁄L
Mass
Density =
Volume
Specific Gravity of Liquids
How much will the contents of a 54 gallon (205 L) drum full of sodium hypochlorite weigh if the specific
gravity of solution is 1.19?
US units
Specific weight of substance, lb⁄gal
Specific gravity =
8.34 lb⁄gal
Step 1 – Rearrange the formula to solve for weight
8.34 lb
Weight of substance = Specific gravity × volume, gallons ×
gallon
8.34 lb
Weight of substance = 1.19 × 54 gallons × = 535.9 pounds
gallon
Metric units
Mass of the substance, kg⁄L
Specific gravity =
Mass of 1 litre of water
Step 1 – rearrange the formula to solve for mass.
1 kg
Mass = Specific gravity × 1 kg⁄L × Volume = 1.19 × × 205 L = 244 kg
L
Specific Gravity of Solids
A piece of metal that weighs 62.6 pounds (28.4 kilograms) in air is weighed in water and found to
weigh 42.3 pounds (19.2 kilograms). What is the specific gravity of this metal?
Step 1 – Subtract the weight in water from the weight in air to determine the loss of weight in water
Weight loss = 62.6 pounds – 42.3 pounds = 20.3 pounds of weight loss in water

84
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Weight loss = 28.4 kg – 19.2 kg = 9.2 kg of weight loss in water

Step 2 – Find the specific gravity by dividing the weight of the metal in air by the weight loss in water
Weight of the substance in air 62.6 pounds
Specific gravity = = = 3.08
Loss of weight in water 20.3 pounds

Weight of the substance in air 28.4 kg

Specific gravity = = = 3.08
Loss of weight in water 9.2 kg
Density
A substance weighs 11.3 ounces (321 grams) and occupies a volume of 9.76 cubic inches (160 mL).
What is its density in pounds per cubic foot (g/cm3)?
Insert known values and solve
1 pound
Mass 11.3 ounces × 16 ounces 0.706 lb
Density = = 3 = 3
= 126 lb⁄ft 3
Volume 1 ft 0.0056 ft
9.76 in3 ×
1,728in3
Mass 321 g
Density = = = 2.0 g⁄cm3
Volume 160 cm3

Specific Oxygen Uptake Rate or Respiration Rate, mg/g/hr

The Specific Oxygen Uptake Rate (SOUR), also known as the oxygen consumption or respiration rate, is
defined as the milligrams of oxygen consumed per gram of volatile suspended solids (VSS) per hour.
The equation is:
SOUR, mg⁄L⁄min (60min)
SOUR =
MLVSS, g⁄L (1 hr)
The expanded equation below provides a path to deriving the values required to solve for the SOUR
Initial DO, mg⁄L − Final DO, mg⁄L 60 minutes 1,000 mg⁄g
SOUR = × ×
elapsed time, minutes hour MLVSS, mg⁄L
Calculate the specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR) of a sample with a volatile solids concentration of
2,400 mg/L if the initial dissolved oxygen concentration was 4.4 mg/L and the final dissolved oxygen
concentration was 2.1 mg/L after 10 minutes
Insert known values and solve:
Initial DO, mg⁄L − Final DO, mg⁄L 60 minutes 1,000 mg⁄g
SOUR = × ×
elapsed time, minutes hour MLVSS, mg⁄L
4.4 mg⁄L − 2.1 mg⁄L 60 minutes 1,000 mg⁄g
SOUR = × × = 5.75 mg⁄O2 ⁄g MLVSS⁄hour
10 minutes hour 2,400 mg⁄L

85
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Surface Loading Rate (aka Surface Overflow Rate)

The surface loading rate (sometimes called the surface overflow rate [SOR] or the rise rate) is another
measure used to determine the loading on a clarifier. As the SOR increases the velocity with which the
water moves up and out of the clarifier increases and particles which may settle slowly can be carried
over the weir leading to a decrease in effluent quality and percent removal rates.
Surface overflow rates are typically expressed in units of volume/time/area (e.g. gallons/day/square
foot, litres/second/square metre or cubic metres/day/square metre).
The equation is:
Flow Flow, gpd Flow, Lpd
Surface overflow rate (SOR) = = 2
=
Surface area Surface area, ft Surface area, m2

It is written:
Q
SOR =
A
What is the surface overflow rate in a basin that is 121 feet (37 metres) long and 36 feet (11 metres)
wide if the flow is 1.3 MGD (4,921 cubic metres) per day?
Known: Length = 121 ft., width = 36 ft., Flow = 1.3 MGD= 1,300,000 gallons/day
Known: Length = 37 m, width = 11 m, Flow = 4,921 m3/day
US units
Step 1 – Calculate area of basin:
Area = L × W = 121 ft × 36 ft = 4,356 ft 2
Insert known values and solve
Flow 1,300,000 gpd
Surface overflow rate (SOR) = = = 298.4 gal/ ft 2 ⁄day
Surface area 4,356 ft 2
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate area of basin:
Area = L × W = 37 m × 11 m = 407 m2
Insert known values and solve
Flow 4,921 m3 ⁄day
Surface overflow rate (SOR) = = = 12.1 m3 / m2 ⁄day
Surface area 407 m2
Two and Three Normal Equation
These equations are known as the dilution equations as they are used to make up solutions by either
diluting a concentrated solution with water or by mixing two solutions of known concentration to form a
third solution with a concentration somewhere between the concentrations of the stock solutions.
Concentration may be expressed as moles of a chemical, the normality of the chemical, the percent (%)
concentration of the chemical or the concentration in milligrams per litre.

86
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

When using two and three normal equations, the values being compared must be of the same units.
i.e. if C1 is in mg/L then C2 must also be in mg/L.
The formula for a two normal equation is:
(𝐶1 × 𝑉1 ) = (𝐶2 × 𝑉2 )
Where C = Concentration and V = Volume
The formula for a three normal equation is:
(𝐶1 × 𝑉1 ) + (𝐶2 × 𝑉2 ) = (𝐶3 × 𝑉3 )
Where C = Concentration and V = Volume
Two normal equation
What volume of a 5% solution will be required to make up 80 mL of a 0.4% solution?
Step 1 – Rearrange the standard equation to solve for the unknown.
(𝐶1 × 𝑉1 ) = (𝐶2 × 𝑉2 )
0.4% × 80 mL = 5% ×? mL
0.4% × 80 mL
? mL = = 6.4 mL
5%
Three normal equation
An operator mixes 15 mL of a 1 Normal solution with 30 mL of a 2.5 Normal solution. What is the
Normality of the resulting 45 mL of solution?
(𝐶1 × 𝑉1 ) + (𝐶2 × 𝑉2 ) = (𝐶3 × 𝑉3 )
Step 1 – insert known values
(1 N × 15 mL) + (2.5N × 30 mL) = (? N × 45 mL)
15 + 75 = 45?
90
Normality of final solution = = 2.0 N
45
Dilution Calculations
Sometimes we want to dilute a chemical (typically sodium or calcium hypochlorite) by mixing it with
water or, less frequently, by mixing two different concentrations of a chemical together to produce a
new concentration somewhere between the two. There are a number of formulae that can be used
Dilution Box
The dilution box is a useful tool for solving dilution problems when two solutions of different strength
are being used to make a third solution of a desired strength.
t is especially useful when an exact amount of the new product is desired. The dilution box is set up as
follows:
A D D = B – C = parts of A required
C
B E E = A – C = parts of B required
D+E = Total Parts required

87
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

In the dilution box method, the two numbers on the left (A, B) represent the known concentrations. The
number in the center (C) represent the desired concentration. The numbers on the right (D,E) are
determined by subtracting diagonally the existing concentrations from the desired concentration. Ignore
any negative values as a result of the subtractions.
How many liters of a 15% solution must be mixed with a 2.1% solution to make exactly 2,500 liters of
an 8% solution?
Step 1 – Set up the dilution box
15% 5.9 5.9 parts of the 15% solution are required for every 12.9 parts
8%
2.1% 7.0 7.0 parts of the 2.1% solution are required for every 12.9 parts
12.9 total parts
Step 2 – Solve for volumes needed
(5.9 parts)(2,500L)
= 1,143 L of the 15% solution
12.9 parts total

(7.0 parts)(2,500L)
= 1,357 L of the 2.1% solution
12.9 parts total

To make 2,500 L of 8% solution, mix 1,143 L of 15% solution and 1,357 L of 2.1% solution
Dilution using water
The Chlorine Institute provides a formula for diluting sodium hypochlorite solutions
A−B
V=X×H×
B
Where: A= Weight percent of initial (strong) sodium hypochlorite solution
B= Weight percent of desired (diluted) sodium hypochlorite solution
X= Litres of initial (strong) sodium hypochlorite solution
H= Specific gravity of initial (strong) sodium hypochlorite solution
V= Volume in litres of water required for dilution of initial (strong) sodium
hypochlorite solution

How many litres of water will be required to dilute a 20 L pail of 12% sodium hypochlorite to
4% sodium hypochlorite? (12% NaOCl has a specific gravity of 1.16)
Known: A = 12%, B = 4%, X = 20 L, H = 1.16
Insert known values and solve
A−B 12% − 4%
V = X×H× = 20 L × 1.16 × = 15.46 L
B 12%

88
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Threshold Odour Number (TON)

This a method is for the determination of odor in drinking water. A sample is diluted with odor-free
water until the least definitely perceptible odor is detected by the test panel. There is no absolute
threshold odor concentration, because of inherent variations in individual olfactory capability. A given
person varies in sensitivity over time.
The comparisons are made at a temperature of 60°C. The odor at the threshold point is expressed
quantitatively by the threshold odor number (TON). This threshold method is applicable to samples
ranging from nearly odorless natural waters to industrial wastes with threshold numbers in the
thousands.
The formula is:
A+B
Threshold Odour Number =
A
Where A = the volume of the odour causing sample and B = the volume of odour free water.
Because the sum of A+B always equals 200 the formula can be restated as
200
Threshold Odour Number =
A
A 50 mL sample when added to 150 mL of odour free water produces no detectable odour. What is
the odour threshold number for this sample?
A + B 50 + 150
Threshold Odour Number = = =4
A 50
Total Solids, %
The total solids test returns a value for both suspended and dissolved solids in a sample. The test is
performed by evaporating the contents of an evaporating dish, drying the dish at 103°C and then
weighing the dish and the residue it contains.
The formula is:
(dried weight, g) − (tare weight, g)
Total Solids, % = × 100
(wet weight, g) − (tare weight, g)
What was the percent total solids content of a sample given the following data: Tare weight = 43.7g,
Wet weight = 70.8g, Dried weight = 44.1g
(dried weight, g) − (tare weight, g)
Total Solids, % = × 100
(wet weight, g) − (tare weight, g)
Insert known values and solve
(44.1 g) − (43.7 g) 0.4 g
Total Solids, % = × 100 = × 100 = 1.47%
(70.8 g) − (43.7 g) 27.1 g

89
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Velocity
Knowledge of the velocity of wastewater is useful in determining the detention time in sewers, the
design of grit channels and the efficiency of primary clarifiers.
Four equations are given for calculation of velocity. They are:
Flow rate, ft 3 ⁄second Flow rate, m3 ⁄second
Velocity = or
Area, ft 2 Area, m2
These equations are simply a rearrangement of the classic flow equation (Flow=Area × Velocity)
The second group of equations introduce the factors of distance and time.
Distance, ft Distance, m
Velocity = or
Time, seconds Time, seconds
What is the velocity of water in a pipe with a diameter of 8 inches (200 mm) if the water flow rate is
254 gallons per minute (16 L/s)? (assume that the pipe is flowing full)
US units
Step 1 – Calculate the cross-sectional area of the pipe in square feet
Area = 0.785(D)2 = 0.785(0.66 ft)2 = 0.35ft 2
Step 2 – Convert flow to cubic feet per second
254 gallons 1 minute 1 ft 3
Flow rate = × × = 0.57 ft 3 ⁄sec
minute 60 seconds 7.48 gallons
Step 3 - Insert known values and solve
Flow rate, ft 3 ⁄second 0.57 ft 3 ⁄sec
Velocity = = = 1.6 ft⁄sec
Area, ft 2 0.35ft 2
Metric units
Step 1 – Calculate the area of the pipe in square metres.
Area = π × (radius)2 = 3.14 × 0.1 m × 0.1 m = 0.0314 m2
Step 2 – Convert flow rate to cubic metres per second
16 L 1 m3
Flow rate = × = 0.016 m3 ⁄sec
sec 1,000 L
Step 3 - Insert known values and solve
Flow rate, m3 ⁄second 0.016 m3 ⁄s
Velocity = = = 0.51 m⁄s
Area, m2 0.0314 m2

90
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Dye is introduced into a sewer. Two minutes later the dye is observed at a manhole 300 feet (91
metres) downstream. What is the velocity of the wastewater in the sewer?
Distance, ft Distance, m
Velocity = or
Time, seconds Time, seconds
US units
Distance, ft 300 feet
Velocity = = = 2.5 ft⁄second
Time, seconds 120 seconds
Metric units
Distance, m 91 metres
Velocity = = = 0.76 m⁄sec
Time, seconds 120 seconds
Sometimes this questions is framed such that the first of the dye was observed at 110 seconds and the
last of the day at 130 seconds. In this case, time becomes the average of the two observations
i.e. (T1 +T2)÷2

Percent Volatile Solids (Percent (%) Removal Calculation)

After the solids equation, the percent removal calculation is one the most commonly calculated values.
Percent removal calculations whether for BOD5, TSS or VSS inform the operator of the efficiency of the
unit process and provide information on the impact of the material removed on the next downstream
process. (E.g. thickeners, digestors or dewatering equipment). The percent removal statement may
sometimes be worded as percent reduction.
The equation is
(parameter in − parameter out) (in − out)
% removal efficiency = × 100 or × 100
parameter in in
What is the removal efficiency of a primary clarifier if the influent TSS are 195 mg/L and the effluent
TSS are 82 mg/L?
Known: Influent TSS =195 mg/L, effluent TSS = 82 mg/L
Insert known values and solve
(in − out) (195 mg⁄L − 82 mg⁄L)
removal efficiency = × 100 = × 100 = 57.9%
in 195 mg⁄L
The equation is also used in the laboratory to calculate the volatile solids fraction of a suspended solids
sample using a muffle furnace. The concept is the same, the words are different
The equation is:
(Dry solids, g − Residue, g)
Volatile solids, % = × 100
Dry solids, g
Calculate the % volatiles solids if the weight of the filter paper and ash is 1.293 grams and the weight of
the filter paper and dry solids was 3.518 grams
(3.518 g − 1.293 g) 2.225 g
Volatile solids, % = × 100 = × 100 = 63.2%
3.518 g 3.518g

91
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Water Use
Designers of wastewater treatment plants will select a gallons or litres per capita per day flow as a data
point in the design of a plant. Operators can compare the population served to the flow to determine
whether infiltration and inflow is increasing or decreasing over time.
The formulas are:
Volume of wastewater treated, gal⁄day
Gallons per capita per day , gpcd =
Population served.

Volume of wastewater treated, L⁄day

Litres per capita per day , Lpcd =
Population served.
A small package treatment plant receives a flow of 317,000 gallons per day (1,200 m3/day) from a
population of 3,750. What is the per capita per day flow?
US units
317,000, gal⁄day
Gallons per capita per day , gpcd = = 84 gpcd
3,750
Metric units
1,200 m3 × 1,000 L⁄m3
Litres per capita per day , Lcd = = 320
3,750
Weir Overflow Rate
The weir overflow rate is one of the measures used to determine the loading on a clarifier. As overflow
rates increase the velocity with which the water moves over the weir increases and particles which may
settle slowly can be carried over the weir leading to a decrease in effluent quality and percent removal
rates. Weir overflow rates are typically expressed in units of volume/time/length (e.g. gallons/day/foot,
litres/second/metre or litres/day/metre).
The formulas for the weir overflow rate (WOR) are:
Flow Flow, gpd Flow, Lpd
Weir overflow rate = = 𝑜𝑟
Weir length Weir length, ft Weir length, m
A rectangular clarifier has a total weir length of 200 feet (60.9 metres). What is the WOR if the daily
flow is 110,952 gallons (4,200 m3) per day?
US units
Insert known values and solve
Flow 110,952 gal/day
Weir overflow rate = = = 554.8 gal⁄ft⁄day
Weir length 200 ft

92
Math for Operators
A Guide to Using the EOCP/ABC 2019 Formula and Conversion Handouts

Metric units
Step 1 – convert flow from cubic metres per day to liters per day
4,200 m3 1,000 L
Flow = × = 420,000 L/day
day m3
Insert known values and solve
Flow 420,000 L/day
Weir overflow rate = = = 6,896 L⁄m⁄day
Weir length 60.9 m
A circular clarifier has a diameter at the weir of 32 metres. If the daily flow is 7,600 cubic metres per
day what is the WOR in cubic metres/day/metre of weir length?
Known: Diameter = 32 m, Flow = 7,600 m3/day
Step 1 – Calculate the weir length
Circumference = πd = 3.14 × 32 m = 100.5 m
Insert known values and solve
Flow 7,600 m3 ⁄day
Weir overflow rate = = = 75.6 m3 ⁄m⁄day
Weir length 100.5 m

End Note
So there you have it, a tour through the mathematical formulas commonly used in our industry. Every
mathematical question you will find on a certification exam can be solved using one of or a combination
of these formulas.
Some of you will find other ways to arrive at the correct answer and the formula you use will be valid
and, if it works for you, use it. Other texts and resources may also provide different ways of arriving at a
solution and they too are valid and useful ways to solve a problem.
For those of you who like switching back and forth between US and metric units, handheld metric
conversion calculators can be purchased from Canon (Model FC-43S) and Sharp (Elsimate EL-344R) at
most office supply stores or on-line.

93