FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

SCHOOL OF MINING, METALLURGY AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGY

MINERALS PROCESSING 2 PRACTICAL MPRMT2A20

Original document compiled by Robert Haegele

Edited by
Dr BM Kanyane and Mr A Shamase
January 2024
Contents
PREFACE .................................................................................................................................. 1
LABORATORY SAFETY INFORMATION AND RULES .................................................... 2
4 GOLDEN RULES .................................................................................................................. 3
ORGANIZATION OF THE PRACTICAL ............................................................................... 4
a) Groups ............................................................................................................................ 4
b) Experiments ................................................................................................................... 4
c) Report ............................................................................................................................. 6
d) Graduate attribute/s ........................................................................................................ 7
e) Marks ............................................................................................................................. 9
f) Safety ........................................................................................................................... 15
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES ........................................................................................ 16
CRUSHING ............................................................................................................................. 16
a) Crushing: Practical Procedure ...................................................................................... 16
i. Manual screening procedure ..................................................................................... 16
ii. Crusher Operating Procedure ................................................................................ 17
b) SIEVE SHAKER OPERATING PROCEDURE ......................................................... 18
SAMPLING AND SAMPLE SPLITTING .............................................................................. 19
a) Types of Sampling Methods ........................................................................................ 19
i. Spinning riffler operation .......................................................................................... 19
ii. Jones Riffler operation........................................................................................... 20
iii. Manual sampling methods ..................................................................................... 20
b) Sampling Practical Procedure ...................................................................................... 22
RELATIVE GRINDABILITY _ MILLING TESTS ............................................................... 24
a) Mill Operating Procedure............................................................................................. 24
b) Milling Practical Procedure ......................................................................................... 25
SCREENING ........................................................................................................................... 26
a) Dry Screening Practical Procedure .............................................................................. 26
i. Dry screening (varied screening time) ...................................................................... 27
ii. Dry screening (varied sample mass) ...................................................................... 27
b) Wet-Screening Operating Procedure ........................................................................... 29
c) Wet Screening Practical Procedure .............................................................................. 30
REPORT WRITING FOR MINERALS PROCESSING PRACTICAL ................................. 32
a) Title Page ..................................................................................................................... 32
b) Contents Page ............................................................................................................... 33

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 c) Summary/Synopsis....................................................................................................... 33
d) Introduction .................................................................................................................. 33
e) Principles of the Process .............................................................................................. 34
f) Experimental procedures / methods ............................................................................. 34
g) Results .......................................................................................................................... 34
h) Observations and Discussions ...................................................................................... 35
i) Conclusions and recommendation ............................................................................... 35
j) References .................................................................................................................... 35

List of Figures

Figure 1: Black Mountain ore process flow sheet ..................................................................... 5

Figure 2: An example of how to construct a PSD graph for the determination of a D80 ......... 18
Figure 3: Spinning riffler ......................................................................................................... 19
Figure 4: Jones riffler (Gerlach et al., 2003) ............................................................................ 20
Figure 5: Cone and quartering ................................................................................................. 21
Figure 6: Pattern sampling ....................................................................................................... 22
Figure 7: Sampling and sample splitting route ........................................................................ 23
Figure 8: Dry screening route .................................................................................................. 27
Figure 9: Wet screening route .................................................................................................. 31
Figure 10: 2-Cycle log graph for size distribution of a riffled sample .................................... 35
Figure 11: Examples of graphs ................................................................................................ 36

List of Tables
Table 1: Marking Rubric for Minerals Processing 2A - assessment of GA4 ........................... 7
Table 2: Report marking scheme (feeds to the GA4 rubric in Table 1) ................................. 10
Table 3: Example of results for screen analyses ...................................................................... 16

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 UNIVERSITY of JOHANNESBURG
LABORATORY EXERCISES/EXPERIMENTS

PREFACE

The main objective of this write-up is to detail the required experiments, the equipment to be
used and the procedures. The practical exercises form an integral part of the subject Mineral
Processing 2A and must therefore be attended by all students; the mark obtained for the
practical contributes 40% to the semester mark for the subject. Apart from that, the practical
experiments assess graduate attributes (GAs) 4 & 8 of which more is explained in the learner
guide and the practical manual. The exercises should deepen the understanding of the
techniques used in mineral dressing and require the student to put into context and interpret
experimental findings in writing, a necessary skill for any metallurgist.
The practical exercises consist of typical ore-preparation (comminution) experiments to be
carried out in small groups [minimum three - maximum five] members. The procedures are
prescribed; the respective reports must be composed by each group and submitted as a group
effort, requiring the input of all members of the group.
The typical ore dressing exercises involve basic preparation steps like Crushing, Milling,
Sample splitting and Screening. The upgrading or separation of the ore follows after
preparation. The following upgrading methods will be done in the Minerals Processing 2B
practical, i.e., Flotation, Gravity separation and Magnetic separation.
The following exercises must be carried out in this Module:

• Crushing experiments of the Black Mountain ore

• Sampling experiments of the Black Mountain ore
• Milling experiments of the Black Mountain ore
• Screening experiments of the Black Mountain ore

The results include the particle size analysis of the ore (data table and the particle size
distribution [PSD] graph). These results must be presented and discussed in the report and
orally. However, the correct execution of the experiment and obtaining acceptable results will
contribute more to the final mark obtained.

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 LABORATORY SAFETY INFORMATION AND RULES

The information and rules are to be briefed to all Extraction Metallurgy Learners in B-Eng,
learners from other Departments in the Faculty, other UJ personnel, contractors and external
personnel making use of the laboratories. Staff members are also required to familiarise
themselves with the safety information and rules. Copies of these rules are posted up at the
laboratory access points and on the board. Groups of students from other Departments working
in the laboratory must be supervised by a permanent employee from that Department who will
be responsible for their health and safety.
1. Obey all Safety Signs posted in the laboratory. This is obligatory.
2. In line with UJ policy, smoking is not permitted in the laboratories.
3. Clowning around in the laboratories is forbidden.
4. Running is forbidden in the laboratories.
5. Drinking water is obtainable from the water dispenser. All other water points should be
regarded as not safe to drink.
6. Water must only be drunk from the polystyrene containers provided and NOT from
beakers or other glassware.
7. No eating in the lab.
8. No eating after working with chemicals or ore samples etc. until you have thoroughly
washed your hands with soap.
9. Persons entering the laboratory must wear closed shoes. Sandals of any kind are
forbidden. This also applies to visitors.
10. Students, staff or contractors who are wearing loose clothing will not be allowed into
the laboratory. Girls must wear jeans or slacks and not dresses.
11. Visitors are not allowed into the laboratory without the express permission of the
instructor. Visitors must obey all the regulations, particularly with respect to the dress
code concerning loose clothing and footwear.
12. Dust masks must always be worn when working with ore samples. Each student will be
issued with 1 dust mask which should last for the semester. Please name your mask so
that you can identify it throughout the semester. You must show your dirty dust mask
before you are issued a new one.
13. All Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) must be looked after and anyone found
damaging or destroying this equipment will be disciplined.
14. When operating the crushers, all PPE must be worn i.e. face shield, hearing protection,
dust musk, gloves, closed shoes and a lab coat.
15. Hearing protection must be worn when noisy equipment is being used i.e. sieve shakers,
mills, crushers, pulveriser and compressor amongst others. If a student is found
without hearing protection a warning will be issued. After two warnings there will
be a disciplinary hearing and a student maybe suspended from using the lab.
16. Designated walkways must be kept clear. Do not stand, leave chairs or samples on
the walkways
17. If a piece of equipment is defective, it must be reported to the lecturer or technician in
charge or any staff member present in the laboratory immediately.

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18. Any unsafe conditions must be immediately brought to the attention of the persons in
the immediate vicinity and the situation made safe by the attending lecturer or
technician. If this is not immediately feasible, then the area must be closed off by the
lecturer or technician until a permanent remedy/solution is put in place.
19. It is the responsibility of all persons using the laboratory to report immediately any
unsafe act or condition caused by any other person to the attending Lecturer or
Technician.
20. Be on the lookout for wet floors and tripping hazards. It is not always possible to ensure
that these hazards are totally eliminated during practical sessions in the laboratory.
21. Before using the filter press, ask for instructions from your lecturer or technician. The
pressure must be released by opening the pressure release valve before the filter is
opened.
22. When working with the rod/ball mills, shaking tables or any other moving piece of
equipment, make sure that you stand a safe distance away from the moving machinery.
23. Heavy objects should be moved using the trolley provided. Some items may require
two people.
24. Make sure that you use the correct lifting procedure as demonstrated by the lecturers
and technicians.
25. Make sure that you are familiar with the location of the Emergency Exits from the
laboratory. If these are locked, report it to the technician or lecturer immediately.
26. Make sure that you are familiar with the Fire Drill Procedure for the laboratory.
27. Make sure that you are familiar with the location and operation of the Distribution
Boards in the laboratory. In the event of an emergency you may be required to trip the
main power supply using the trip wire.
28. All electrically powered equipment undergoing maintenance must be locked out as per
the lockout procedure. Maintenance staff are to make use of the named padlocks
provided.
29. Areas demarcated by red and white tape are strictly out of bounds.
30. The use of the crane is strictly limited to a person with a crane license.
31. Before leaving the laboratory, make sure your work area is clean, tidy and dry –
observe good housekeeping. Also ensure that all gas, water, vacuum and air valves are
completely turned off.
32. If you do not understand any of the above information or rules, ask for more explanation
from your lecturer or technician.

4 GOLDEN RULES
1. Before starting a practical, READ the relevant section in the manual from the beginning
to end.
2. When you think that you have finished a practical, READ the section again from the
beginning to the end to ensure that you have not forgotten anything.
3. When you write your report, READ the notes again from the beginning to the end to
ensure that you have not forgotten to include everything required.
4. If after reading the notes you want to ask questions, please do not be shy to ask.

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 ORGANIZATION OF THE PRACTICAL
Some general remarks on how to go about the practical.

a) GROUPS
The experiments are carried out in groups. A group should consist of preferably four students
each; this number could either be increased to five or reduced to three to fit the number of
students attending the practical. The distribution into the various groups will be done at the
beginning of the practical and determined by the Laboratory Supervisor. The group stay
together for all prescribed practical.
It is recommended that each group elect a group leader. He/she is responsible for the
organisation of the work. Who does what, progress of the report writing, coaching the group
for the oral examination and above all keeping the deadline of the submission of the report in
mind. This is a good exercise to learn about working as part of the group, taking responsibility,
exercising and yielding to authority, teamwork will most certainly assist the group in achieving
its goals.
The experiments must be carried out by the entire group and there must be no silent partner.
Each student should participate in the actual practical, it is not allowed that a particular student
only weighs samples or operate the pycnometer or write the reports, each student should have
hands on experience of how each equipment works. The group should meet regularly to discuss
progress and obtained results (whether the results make sense and can be reported, or the
experiments should perhaps be repeated). Each member of the group should have an input
in the final report and familiarize himself/herself sufficiently to answer any question posed in
the oral exam.

b) EXPERIMENTS
All the experiments must be carried out and reported during the semester, the Laboratory
Supervisor sets the sequence for each group. The group leader can negotiate any changes with
the Laboratory Supervisor. The feed material and the flowsheet are discussed below:
(i) Feed material
The feed material used for all the comminution practical exercises is an ore from the Black
Mountain in the Northern Cape. The Black Mountain ore (BM) is a sulphide ore rich in copper
(Cu), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) and silver (Ag). The valuable minerals in the BM ore are chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2, density 4.2 t/m3), galena (PbS, 7.5 t/m3) and sphalerite (ZnS, 4.0 t/m3); there is also
some magnetite (FeFe2O4 5.1 t/m3). The main gangue mineral is quartz (silica, SiO2, 2.5 t/m3).
(ii) Flow sheet
A process flow sheet shown in Figure 1 will be followed in this practical. The BM ore is
crushed, milled and then treated in a differential flotation of Cu, Pb, Zn sulfide. Silver is mostly
collected with Pb, and Zn concentrates. Thickeners are used to decant concentrates after
flotation.

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 Jones Riffler
CRUSHING SAMPLING
MILLING
Sample A
5 kg BM ore Cone-crusher-product
B1 B2 B3 B4
Screen – 10 min,
Screen, Spinning Riffler Weigh fractions,
Weigh fractions, Recombine
Recombine
Mill - 5 min Mill - 10 min Mill - 20 min Mill - 30 min
Screen - 10 min Screen - 10 min Screen - 10 min Screen – 10 min
Jaw crusher Weigh fractions, Weigh fractions, Weigh fractions, Weigh fractions,
A1 Recombine Recombine Recombine Recombine

Screen,
Screen Jones Riffler Sample C
Weigh fractions,
10 min
Recombine
Jones Riffler SCREENING
Weigh
Cone crusher fractions
A2 ~ 500 g C1 C2 C3 C4
Screen,
Weigh fractions,
Screen Pattern or grab or Screen _5 min Sample D Mix 1000 ml water
Recombine
10 min Weigh fractions, Dewater, dry,
Multi-grab or
Recombine Screen _10 min Dry screen – 10 min
Cone-quartering Recombine
Roll crusher Weigh
Weigh fractions,
Mix 1000 ml water
Screen _10 min Recombine
fractions A3 ~ 500 g Weigh fractions,
Wet screen 75 µm
Recombine
Screen,
Weigh fractions,
Screen D1 D2 + 75 µm
10 min Screen _20 min - 75 µm
Recombine Weigh fractions, Dewater, Dewater,
Recombine Dry, Dry,
Weigh D2a D2b Weigh Dry screen_10min,
Sample A fractions Screen _10 min Weigh
Weigh fractions, Screen - 10 min
Recombine Weigh fractions,
Recombine all samples and re-name it Sample B
Recombine

Figure 1: Black Mountain ore process flow sheet

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For this module, the flowsheet includes crushing, sampling, screening and milling. The
upgrading process (flotation) will be covered in the subsequent module.
The experiments should be done in the following sequence:
1. Crushing
2. Sampling
3. Milling and
4. Screening
NB! Care should be taken when labelling the samples as the samples produced in each process
are the feed material for the subsequent process. The products produced from milling will be
the feed for the flotation practical therefore samples should be labelled and stored correctly.

c) REPORT
The development of the theory or a practical investigation (as is the case) is only complete
when it is reported. If everything that was thought would have only resided in Einstein’s brain,
we would not know about relativity; only by making your thinking or findings known to the
rest of the mankind is your task to be fulfilled. The detail on report writing is in the appendix
in page 25. Please note the following, all members of the group should participate in report
writing, follow the format stipulated under report writing section.

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d) GRADUATE ATTRIBUTE/S
In the Minerals Processing 2A practical, the assessed graduate attribute is GA 4 and GA 8.

4: Investigations, Learning outcome: Conduct investigations of broadly defined problems through locating, searching and
experiments and data selecting relevant data from codes, data bases and literature, designing and conducting experiments,
analysis analysing and interpreting results to provide valid conclusions.
Where is outcome Experiments - Practical report
assessed?
How is this outcome Students do 4 sets of practical work in the laboratory. The practical’s include comminution stages
assessed? (crushing, milling), screening and sampling.
Students must do research on each topic before the commencement of the practical. During the
practical, students create data by analysing the properties of the samples produced. The student’s
analysis the data and writes a report comparing the theoretical data they searched and the experimental
data.
The students are assessed during the practical, whether they understand the operations and data
collection. The final report is assessed for data analysis whether they can discuss their experimental
data versus the theoretical data.
What is satisfactory When the students demonstrate understanding of the process by accurately discussing their findings
performance? against theory. Demonstrating application of the theory.
What is the consequence If the final average mark of 3 reports is < 50%, the students (as group) are not competent in GA4.
of unsatisfactory The group will be given a second chance to re-write at least one report, the resubmitted report’s
performance? mark will be kept at 50%. If the re-submitted report/s are still not satisfactory, the total mark is
capped at 35% and the module is failed.

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8: Individual, team and Learning outcome: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of engineering management principles
multidisciplinary working and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team and to manage projects.
Where is outcome Practical Experiments, Report and Oral presentation
assessed?
How is this outcome Learners were divided into groups of 5. They are required to research relevant information pertaining
assessed? to the theory of the practical they are conducting. Students should demonstrate the ability to do
research, operate the equipment safely, and collect the relevant data. Students do experiments and write
a report as a group to assess their teamwork capabilities. Individual work is assessed during the oral
assessment at the end of the experiment.
What is satisfactory If the student can work with others without causing disputes and distraction of productivity as well as
performance? contribute significantly towards the final report writing, they are deemed competent on teamwork.
For individual work the student is deemed competent when they can accurately answer the oral
questions based on the knowledge of the practical, they have undertaken. The oral assessment mark
should be above 50% to be satisfactory.
What is the If the oral assessment mark is <50%, the student is given a second chance to undergo the oral
consequence of assessment. The second chance oral assessment mark will be kept at 50. If the oral assessment mark
unsatisfactory is still not satisfactory, the total mark is capped at 35% and the module is failed.
performance?

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 Table 1: Marking Rubric for Minerals Processing 2A - assessment of GA4 and GA8

DESCRIPTION MARK RESULTS

Two or more GAs not demonstrated. 0 - 30 Student fails
One GA not demonstrated 35 - 45 Student may resubmit; Final
mark will be capped at 50
All GAs are demonstrated and all the answers are of 50 - 60 Student passes
acceptable standard.
▪ Some significant issues in answering the questions
which do impact on the overall standard of the work.
• Introduction and literature study are of acceptable
standard
• Results presented are not sufficient and do not justify
the conclusion
• Poor discussion/comparison of results to theory
• Poor referencing of the work
All GAs are demonstrated and all the answers are of 60 - 70 Student passes
good standard
- Few significant issues or errors which do not
significantly impact on the overall standard of the work.
All GAs are demonstrated and all the answers are of 75 - 85 Student passes with
excellent standard distinction
- Errors and issues are minor,
All GAs are demonstrated and all the answers are of 85 - 100 Student passes with
exceptional standard distinction
- Very few minor errors, the report standard completely
exceeds expectations

e) MARKS
Once the experiment and the report are completed, the group submits the work to the Lecturer.
On submission, the entire group must be present whereupon each member will be subjected
to a brief oral examination to see whether he/she understood what was done by the group and
in particular scrutinise his/her contribution.
The mark for each reported experiment will be assigned to the whole group. The marking
scheme is given in Table 2. It sets out the variation criteria according to which a mark is given.
The emphasis is on the quality of the obtained results, the discussion of these results, and finally
the knowledge of the group members in respect to the experiment. The marks allocated in
Table 2 feeds to Table 1 to determine whether the GA’s are demonstrated.

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 Table 2: Report marking scheme
Obtained
Full marks Section Criteria
Marks
Cover page contains:
• UJ Logo
• name of the faculty
• department
• the course 2
• experiment title
• surname, initials, student number of all
2 Cover page
group members
• date of submission
Comments

A clear aim and objectives 1

Must contains auxiliary equipment 1

A brief experimental procedure 1

Practical Findings 1
5 Abstract

A conclusion is clearly stated 1

Comments

10
 Contents contains headings and
subheadings with page number as 2
presented in the core of report.
Contents, list of List of tables and figures has been inserted 1
3 figures and
Comments
tables

Define the experiment, e.g. What is

1
Crushing?
Aim and objectives of the report are
2
cleared stated
Briefly describe how the experiment was
1
done
5 Introduction
A brief history of the ore used 1

Comments

Successfully provides relevant information

to the topic including in-text referencing.
Well-Structured with subheadings that
convey great understanding of the topic.
15
Theory behind the experiment.

Literature You may include applicable statistics

15 theory.
review
Include benefits and limitation the methods
Comments

11
 Include Materials and experimental
2
procedure.
Gives enough details which ensure
replication of procedure (Experimental
procedure must not be copied from manual 5
– zero mark will be given), equipment used
10 Methods must have manufacturer and model no.

Include experiment flowsheet 3

Comments

Open with effective statement of overall

5
findings.

Present visuals clearly and accurately. Log 5

Successfully integrate verbal and visual

5
15 Results representations.
Comments

12
 Open with effective statement of overall
3
findings
Back up statement with reference to
appropriate findings (compare your 4
obtained results that with the theoretical).
Provide sufficient and logical explanation
of the statement. Use Statistics to support 5
your statements.
20 Discussions Clearly state the optimum (or accurate)
4
conditions based on the findings.
Discuss any deviation of data (to the
4
theory) and how to rectify those deviation.
Comments

Briefly state whether the aim has been

successfully achieved and provide a 5
summary of the results.

5 Conclusion Comments

13
 Citations and references adhere to proper
3
format (Harvard style)

Format of tables and figures is correct. 2

Report is written in scientific style: clear to

the point (New Times Roman 12, spacing
1.5, Justified the document, page at the 3

10 Presentation bottom, headings, and subheadings), begin

each section/heading on a new page

Grammar and spelling are correct. 2

Comments

Has successfully learned how to conduct

1
the experiment and compile a report
Demonstrate clear and thoughtful scientific
2
inquiry.

Overall Accurately measure and analyse data for

5 2
assessment lab findings.
Comments

Late submission penalty -5

Obtained points 100

Marks Obtained 50

Competent in GA4?

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As indicated in the scheme, there is a penalty for late submission of a report. The group should
take any effort to submit on time. The laboratory supervisor sets a reasonable deadline to carry
out the experiment and finish reporting. You need a very good reason to make a case for late
submissions.
The group submits the report; when submitting, each member of the group is interviewed and
obtains an individual mark (50% weight towards the final mark of the Practical).

f) SAFETY
None of the designed experiments is particularly hazardous. However, there is always a chance
that someone may get hurt, be it by touching an electrical wire with wet bare hands, drink acid,
alkali, slipping on a wet floor, squeezing finger underneath a turning mill or other things. It is
suggested that the group leader assesses potential risks together with the Laboratory Supervisor
before an experiment is started, ensuring that all the prescribed personal protective equipment
is faithfully won all the time exactly like at an industrial plant. It is good practice.

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 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

CRUSHING
Introduction
The first stage in comminution on a metallurgical plant normally takes the form of crushing
that is a coarse size reduction stage. An important parameter in the assessment of crusher
performance is the “reduction ratio”. The main aim of the crushing experiment is to
determine the value of the “Reduction Ratio” for the individual crushers when used on
the material tested.
What is a “Reduction ratio”?
There are various ways in which this may be defined, but for the purposes of this experiment
we shall use the following relationship
D80 passing (screen) size for the feed
Reduction ratio =
D80 passing (screen) size for the product

a) CRUSHING: PRACTICAL PROCEDURE

1. Collect the sample from the lab technician: ~4kg Black Mountain ore
2. Screen the ore using a Manual screening procedure

i. Manual screening procedure

• Prepare polymer screens in a descending order (big size on top, smallest size at the
bottom) [100, 80, 50, 40, 19, 13, 8 and 5] mm
• Put the ore on the top screen (allow the material to fall through the apertures)
• Remove the material remaining on top of the screen and weigh the material
• Remove the top screen without spilling the material
• Remove and weigh the material on the subsequent screens until you reach the final
screen
• Weigh the material remaining below the final screen
• Construct a table as shown in Table 3 (screen size, mass, mass %, cumulative %
passing)

Table 3: Example of results for screen analyses

Size Fraction (microns) Weight (grams) Weight % Cum. % passing

+ 4000 26 2.4 97.6
-4000 +2360 344 31.4 66.2
-2360 +1700 162 14.8 51.5
-1700 +1180 147 13.4 38.0
-1180 +1000 45 4.1 33.9
-1000 +850 41 3.7 30.2
-850 +600 74 6.8 23.4
-600 257 23.4 -
Head 1096 100.0 -

16
 3. Estimate the D80 passing size for the feed material in its state
4. Crush the ore with a jaw crusher using a crusher operating procedure below

ii. Crusher Operating Procedure

• Cover the sample collector with a plastic provided (to minimise sample
contamination)
• Ensure that the sample collector is in place to avoid spilling the sample to the ground
• Ensure that safety procedures are followed (PPE worn, no hazards around the
crusher, stay clear of moving machinery) before starting the crusher
• PPE required: goggles, face shield, gloves, lab coat, closed shoes, ear plugs,
dustmask
• Start the crusher (before feeding the material) – press the green button
• None of your body parts should be inside or touching the crusher
• Use a scoop to feed the crusher
• Feed the material through the crusher slowly until all the feed is crushed (do not
overfil the crusher as this may cause blockage or get the crusher stuck)
• Stop the crusher before removing the crushed material (press the red button)
• Remove the material (pull out the sample collector)

5. Screen the crushed ore using the procedure in point 2 above

6. From the screen analysis of the products, construct a graphical presentation of the data
plot screen aperture size (x-axis) versus cumulative % passing (y-axis) [see Figure 2
for the demonstration of reading D80 from a graph]
7. From the graph, determine D80 screen size for the crusher product
8. From the D80 estimated in step (3) and the D80 derived in step (7) determine the value
of the “Reduction ratio” of the crusher used
9. Crush the jaw-crusher-product with a cone crusher
10. Repeat steps (5 to 7)
11. Repeat step 8 but use D80 screen size in step (7) as D80 screen size of the feed
12. Crush the cone crusher product using a roll crusher
13. Collect the following screen sizes from the lab technician (4 mm, 2.8 mm, 2.0 mm,
1.4 mm, 1.0 mm and 0.71 mm)
14. Screen the crushed ore (for 10 minutes) using the sieves provided, use a sieve shaker
operating procedure in page 12
15. Repeat steps 6 to 8 (use D80 screen size for a roll crusher product as a D80 screen size
of the cone crusher feed)
16. Recombine the weighed sample fractions _ name it Sample A
The final results will be THREE “REDUCTION RATIOS” describing the performance of
the 3 crushers used in the tests.

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b) SIEVE SHAKER OPERATING PROCEDURE
The screening procedure outlined below is used for dry screening using a sieve shaker. PPE
required: ear plugs, goggles, lab coat, closed shoes. Stay clear of the moving machinery.

1. Collect the required sieves from the lab technician

2. Ensure that all the sieves are in good condition (damaged sieves should not be used)
3. Sequentially put together a sieve stack starting with a collecting pan at the bottom,
followed by the smallest mesh size
4. Weigh the sample and place it on the top sieve (biggest mesh size)
5. Close the top sieve with the lid
6. Fasten the sieve stack on the sieve shaker
7. Set the sieving time on the sieve shaker
8. Press start/on to begin sieving
9. Set the speed / amplitude of the shaker
10. After the sieving time has ended, carefully remove the sieve stack from the shaker
11. Weigh the material remaining on each sieve and on the collecting pan
12. Determine the mass of each fraction
13. Construct a table as shown in Table 3

Figure 2: An example of how to construct a PSD graph for the determination of a D80

18
 SAMPLING AND SAMPLE SPLITTING

a) TYPES OF SAMPLING METHODS

Sampling and screening exercises form the basis of laboratory work in most laboratories, and
it is thus important to understand the importance of being able to conduct the correct sampling
procedure and ensure that subsequent samples are adequately screened. The basic theory of
sampling is described in B.A. Wills (pages 39-51, 7th edition) and will not be further discussed.

The sampling methods to be used are as follows: —

i. Spinning riffler operation

This piece of equipment is the ultimate as far as sample splitting is concerned. As shown in
Figure 3, the device consists of a rotating table on which is mounted ten removable containers.
The faster the speed of the rotating table, the greater the expected reproducibility between
sample containers. The example shown in Figure 3 is suitable for small samples; larger samples
should be reduced using a Jones riffler before splitting in a Spinning riffler.
PPE required; lab coat, dust mask, closed shoes. Stay clear of the moving machinery, do not
touch the equipment while in operation.
1. Ensure that the hopper and the collecting bins are clean
2. Pour the sample into the feed hopper
3. Start the rotating table (press the on button)
4. Start the vibrating feeder (press the start button)
5. When the material is finished switch off the machines
6. Weigh the material in each sample cup
7. If your weight is more than the required amount, repeat the process until you reach the
weight of the sample you require

Figure 3: Spinning riffler

19
 ii. Jones Riffler operation

The Jones riffler divides the sample into two halves by virtue of an even number of small
chutes, situated side by side but alternating in their direction of discharge. This feature results
in a very accurate split when the sample is poured through the riffler (Figure 4). As a rule of
thumb, the riffler gaps should be 3 to 4 times the largest particle size in the sample. Smaller
openings result in particles bridging across the gaps while larger gaps reduce the sampling
accuracy across the width of the sample stream by reducing the number of splits that are made.
Bias in the way the sample is poured out of the container into the riffler and imperfections in
the manufacture of the riffler itself can upset the accuracy of the results. To reduce the risk of
bias, it is standard practise to alternate the direction from which the sample is poured into the
riffler. Take the above remarks into consideration when using the riffler.
1. Ensure that the sample collectors are in place.
2. Ensure that there is no material inside the Jones Riffler or sample collectors.
3. Scoop the sample using the sample scoop provided in each of the Jones Rifflers.
4. Carefully pour the sample into the Jones Riffler as demonstrated in Figure 4.
5. Weigh the sample in each sample collector.
6. If the sample is more than required repeat steps 3 and 4 until the required mass is
reached.

Figure 4: Jones riffler (Gerlach et al., 2003)

iii. Manual sampling methods

1. Cone and Quartering (Cornish Sampling)

• Pile the sample into a cone

• Mix the sample manually
• Spread out the sample in a circle and walk around the pile gradually widening the circle
with a scoop until the material is spread out to a uniform thickness, see Figure 5

20
• Mark the flat pile into quarters and reject two opposite quarters
• Mix the sample again by shovelling the material into a conical pile, taking alternate
shovelfuls from the two quarters
• Repeat the process of piling, flattening, and rejecting two quarters until the sample is
reduced to the required size.

Figure 5: Cone and quartering

2. Grab Sampling

• Form a conical pile

• Take two single samples: one from the top of the pile and one from the bottom of the
pile
• Repeat until the required sample size is reached

3. Multiple Grab Sampling

• Form a conical pile

• Take multiple samples from various points on the pile
• Repeat until the sample size is reached

4. Pattern Sampling

• Form a conical pile

• Flatten the conical pile to make a circular disc of about 50 mm thick as shown in
Figure 6
• Make up a pattern as shown in Figure 6 and with care remove circular or square
mini-samples from the points as shown

21
 Figure 6: Pattern sampling

• Ensure that you reach the bottom of the pile when sampling (do not take the top sample
only)
• Repeat until the required sample size is reached

b) SAMPLING PRACTICAL PROCEDURE

Three sampling methods will be used, Spinning Riffler, Jones Riffler and one of the manual
sampling methods. The sampling experiment route is shown in Figure 7. A fixed screening
time of 10 minutes is to be used. The data should be presented as shown in Table 3.

1. Collect Sample_A from your crushing experiments (cone-crusher-product)

2. Split Sample_A using a Spinning Riffler
3. Set aside one cup from the Spinning Riffler _Sample A1
4. Recombine the remaining samples (9 cups)
5. Take the sample in Stage (4) and split it using a Jones Riffler
6. Set aside ~500g _Sample A2
7. Recombine the remaining sample in Stage (6)
8. Split the sample in Stage 7 using one of the manual methods i.e. (grab sampling or
multiple-grab sampling or pattern sampling or cone and quartering)
9. Set aside ~500g _Sample A3
10. Recombine the remaining samples
11. Collect the following screens from the lab technician [4 mm, 2.8 mm, 2 mm, 1.4 mm,
1.0 mm, 0.71 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.355 mm]
12. Screen each sample (Sample A1, Sample A2 and Sample A3) for 10 minutes
using the sieve shaker procedure
13. Weigh each sample fraction and record the masses
14. Recombine all the samples _name it Sample_B
15. From the screen analysis of the products, construct a graphical presentation of the data
plotting the screen aperture size (x-axis) against cumulative % passing (y-axis) as
shown in Figure 2 (do not determine D80)
Since the spinning riffler will give samples that are most representative of the bulk sample,
the spinning riffler results may be used as a control with which to compare the other
sampling methods.

22
 SAMPLING

Sample A
Cone-crusher-product

Spinning Riffler

A1

Screen Jones Riffler

10 min

Weigh
fractions
A2 ~ 500 g

Screen Pattern or grab or

10 min
Multi-grab or
Cone-quartering
Weigh
fractions A3 ~ 500 g

Screen
10 min

Weigh
fractions

Recombine all samples and re-name it Sample B

Figure 7: Sampling and sample splitting route

23
 RELATIVE GRINDABILITY _ MILLING TESTS
Introduction
Grindability refers to the ease with which materials can be comminuted and data from
grindability tests are used to evaluate and predict crushing and grinding efficiency. The most
widely used parameter in this case is the Bond Work Index (Wi). Wi is dependent on the
breakage characteristics of the ore being examined. A hard ore will have higher Wi than a soft
ore; equally; an ore having breakage planes to a particular size but hard grains below that size
may be given two values of Wi.
Work indices are therefore specific to a particular size of grind that is relevant to the milling
operation under consideration. The bond work index test requires specialist equipment and will
not be used here. Instead, an ore on which flotation is to be conducted, will be milled for various
lengths of time to achieve a fineness of grind that ensures that the minerals to be recovered are
free and liberated. In this respect, and given a mill feed charge of acceptable size, the amount
of milled product passing through a stated fine size increases linearly with time up to about
90% passing size. The equation of the line is:
𝑦 = 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑐
Where:
x = milling time,
y = mass of a product passing stated size,
c = original mass percent of feed passing stated size
r = milling rate = mass of ground passing through stated passing size/unit time

a) MILL OPERATING PROCEDURE

Required PPE (lab coat, goggles, ear plugs, closed shoes)
Take a clean milling pot;
1. Determine mill characteristic and working condition – to design the mill specification
you need to determine the following:
• Determine the maximum ball size,
• Establish the % grinding media in the mill {choose from 30 – 40%},
• Measure the diameter (inside) and length (inside) of the mill,
• Sample specific density,
• Determine the ball distribution.
[an example of the spreadsheet will be supplied as a supplementary document and
explained in class during the first week of milling experiment].
2. Fill the mill with the required size and number of balls
3. Add 1000 g of sample and 1000 l to make 50% solids
4. Close the mill by attending the lid and tightening the bolts
5. Carry the milling pot to the milling rollers (use the trolley provided, do not lift the
mill with your hands)

24
 6. Set the required mill speed on the mill controller
7. Set the required time on the mill controller
8. Start the mill, stay clear of the moving machinery

Also double check with your personal watch to stop the mill incase the timer is
malfunctioning.

9. When the mill has stopped, take the milling pot to the milling bay and off load the
sample
10. Open the mill carefully and wash all solids adhering to the lid down into the mill. Use
minimum water
11. Place a clean bucket underneath the sink in the milling bay and pour off the sample
through the screen into the bucket
12. Use filter presses to remove excess water
13. Dry the sample at 105 °C

b) MILLING PRACTICAL PROCEDURE

1. Collect Sample B from the Lab technician

2. Split Sample_B into 4 samples using Jones Riffler namely: Sample B1, B2, B3 and B4
3. Collect the following screens from the lab technician [2 mm, 1.4 mm, 1 mm, 0.71 mm,
0.5 mm, 0.355 mm, 0.15 mm, 0.106 mm and 0.075 mm]
4. Screen Sample_B1 (for 10 minutes) using the dry screening procedure
5. Weigh the fractions, record the mass and recombine
6. Mill Sample_B1 for 5 minutes
7. Filter, dry and screen for 10 minutes with screens in Step (3)
8. Repeat step (5)
9. Mill Sample_B2 for 10 minutes
10. Repeat step (7) and step (5)
11. Mill Sample_B3 for 20 minutes
12. Repeat step (7) and step (5)
13. Mill Sample_B4 for 30 minutes
14. Repeat step (7) and step (5)
15. Plot your cumulative % passing vs passing size as shown in Figure 2
16. Plot the cumulative % passing 75 µm (y-axis) against the milling time (x-axis)
17. From the graphs in step 16, determine the constants [r and c] in the equation below
𝑦 = 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑐
18. Recombine Sample-B1 and Sample_B2 and name its Sample C. NB! SAMPLE_C is
your feed for screening experiments.

25
 SCREENING
Introduction
In ore processing plants, particle size is one of the most important parameters. As part of a
programme of metallurgical accounting, samples for size analysis are taken regularly around a
treatment plant to assess performance of equipment and sections such as mills and crushers.
The results of such sampling exercises are usually presented in the form of a table (see Table 3)
or the results are plotted in graphs [Figure 2]. The most frequently used graphical representation
is the linear log plot of cumulative percentage passing size against passing size and the
Rosin-Rammler plot of log-log 100/R against LOG X where R is the cumulative percent
retained on the screen and X is the screen aperture. The Rosin-Rammler equation has been long
established as approximating the size distribution of crushed rock and has the form:
R = 100 exp (-X/Xc)n
Where Xc = characteristic size
N = index of uniformity
The Rosin-Rammler presentation is suitable for expressing the size distribution mathematically
as it is possible to determine values of “n” and “Xc” from the graph. It is also found that a
sample that produces a straight-line graph will, when crushed, produce another straight-line
graph that is parallel or near parallel to the line of the coarse sample. This is useful to bear in
mind when reduction ratios and equipment scale-up are to be considered in plant design.
The ideal dry-screening result is to achieve a monolayer of particles on each screen; i.e., all
particles have had an opportunity to be presented to the screen apertures many times and at
various angles. If particles have not gone through, it must be assumed that, even in their
smallest area presentation, they must be larger than the screen aperture.
In practice, a monolayer does not exist and the screening time is a function of the number of
particles that have to be presented to the screen apertures and to the characteristics of the
articles themselves. These characteristics cover particle shape factor, density range within the
size fraction due to the presence of a variety of minerals and the spread of sizes within the size
fraction that leads to segregation and stratification effects.
Dry-Screening Operating Procedure
Use the Screening Procedure outlined in page 11, it is used for dry-screening using a sieve
shaker. The DRY SCREENING ROUTE is shown in Figure 8.

a) DRY SCREENING PRACTICAL PROCEDURE

1. Collect Sample_C from the lab technician
2. Split Sample_C to 4 samples using Jones Riffler_ namely C1, C2, C3 and C4
3. Collect screens from the lab technician (2 mm, 1.4 mm, 1 mm, 0.71 mm, 0.5 mm,
0.355 mm, 0.15 mm, 0.106 mm and 0.075 mm)

26
 DRY SCREENING ROUTE

Sample C

Jones Riffler

C1 C2 C3 C4
Combine C1 and C2

Screen - 5 min Sample D

Weigh fractions, Screen - 10 min

Recombine Weigh fractions,

Screen - 10 min Recombine

Screen - 20 min Jones Riffler

Weigh fractions,
D1 D2
Recombine
Screen - 10 min
D2a D2b
Weigh fractions,
Tabulate results Screen - 10 min

Plot graphs Tabulate results Weigh fractions,

Figure 8: Dry screening route

i. Dry screening (varied screening time)

4. Screen Sample_C1 for 5 minutes

5. Weigh fractions, record weight and recombine the fractions
6. Screen Sample_C1 for 10 minutes
7. Repeat Step 5
8. Screen Sample_C1 for 20 minutes
9. Repeat Step 5

ii. Dry screening (varied sample mass)

10. Combine Sample_C1 and Sample_C2 name it Sample_D

11. Screen Sample D for 10 minutes

27
 12. Repeat Step 5
13. Split Sample_D to two samples using Jones riffler (Sample_D1 and D2)
14. Screen Sample D1 for 10 minutes
15. Repeat Step 5
16. Split Sample_D2 to two samples (Sample_D2a and D2b)
17. Screen Sample_D2a for 10 minutes
18. Repeat Step 5

The sets of results are to be tabulated as shown in Table 3. Plot cumulative % passing size
against passing size as shown in Figure 2:

(i) Plot the three fixed size data on one graph [plot C1-5, 10 and 20 minute screening data],
(ii) Plot the three fixed time data on one graph, [plot D, D1 and D2a data]
Comment on the results from each graph and draw conclusions about the best sample weight
and the best time to use for this particular ore. Interpret the result of the graphs above and make
comments to support the conclusions you made for graphs in steps (i) and (ii) above.
NB: ENSURE THAT THE SAME SCREEN SHAKER IS USED THROUGHOUT THE
TESTWORK

28
b) WET-SCREENING OPERATING PROCEDURE
Introduction
This is an extremely important technique that must be used whenever wet samples of finely
distributed ore are encountered. Grinding-mill discharge and cyclone overflows ahead of
leaching or flotation processes contain particles that are smaller than 10 microns and some that
are sub-micron; i.e. -1 micron in size. In addition, the slurry frequently contains dissolved salts
that crystallize out when the sample is dried.
To take such a sample with the intention of dry-screening it presents a number of problems as
follows:
• Filtering the sample to remove water becomes progressively more difficult as the particle
diameter decreases. Commensurate with the decrease in particle diameter is the decrease in
the cross-sectional area of the capillaries that provide pathways for drainage of liquid. As
the capillary cross-sectional area reduces, the pressure differential across the sample that is
required to remove the water out of the capillary also increases.
• The dissolved salts as they precipitate out in the drying process have a cementing effect
that aggregates fine particles into larger ones. The dried sample may appear perfectly well
distributed, but closer microscopic examination will reveal the aggregates. These are very
difficult to break up and screening a sample containing such aggregates will give a false
result.
• Attempting to dry-screen a sample with a large volume of fines will result in the screen
cloth being rapidly blinded by the near-size particles contained in the fines. This will
seriously impede movement of particles and the accuracy of the screen analysis will suffer.
IN PRACTICE THEREFORE, DRY-SCREENING OF SAMPLES CONTAINING
SIGNIFICANT QUANTITIES OF -100 MICRON MATERIAL IS LIKELY TO BE
INACCURATE
To get rid of the salts and fine material in one go we resort to the practice of wet screening.
In this procedure, the finest size screen of the set to be used is selected and the sample
wet-screened through it to produce two wet products. The wet undersize is a final product and
may be dewatered, dried and weighed. The oversize from the wet screening exercise is now
free of salts and a large percentage of the fine particles and may be treated like any sample that
is suitable for dry-screening: i.e., it is dried at 105 °C, dry-screened and the fractions weighed
and tabulated.
It will be found that some dry fines will be produced; indicating that the wet-screening process
was not completely efficient. Add dry-screen fines to the wet-screened fines to obtain a total
mass of fines.
The wet screening process is never as efficient as dry-screening and is not intended to be. It
should not therefore come as a surprise to find -75 micron material in the receiver pan after the
dry screening of the oversize has been completed. As already mentioned, this fraction must be
added to the -75 micron fraction obtained from wet screening to construct the PSD graph.

29
c) WET SCREENING PRACTICAL PROCEDURE
For Wet-screening, only a 75 µm screen is used. PPE required; lab coat, goggles, hearing
protection, closed shoes)
1. Ensure the sieve shaker has power, the vibrating setting is optimal do not change any
settings
2. Place the screen/s on the sieve shaker with the receiving pan as the base
3. Add the sample, use a water bottle to wash all your sample onto the top screen
4. The underflow pipe of the shaker should be placed in a bucket to collect the under flow
stream
5. Close the top screen as tightly as necessary
6. Begin the vibration, press the -on button (to start the screen shaker) before you
introduce water
7. Open the valve of the water gently to prevent over filling the screen
8. Ensure your sample does not overflow on the screen
9. Monitor the appearance of the underflow, initially the stream will have muddy fail
water, as the process continues the water will be clearer
10. Stop the screening when the underflow stream is clear
11. First switch off the water and allow your underflow to finish flowing
12. Then switch off the vibration of your screen shaker

Follow the procedural route in Figure 9 as follows:

1. Mix Sample_C3 with 1000 ml water
2. Dewater and dry Sample_C3
3. DRY-Screen Sample_C3 for 10 minutes (with given screens)
4. Mix Sample_C4 with 1000 ml water
5. Wet screen Sample_C4 with a 75 µm screen
6. Dewater, dry and weigh the (-75 µm) fraction
7. Dewater and dry the (+75 µm) fraction
8. Carefully break up any lumps or crusts that have formed in the drying process
9. DRY screen the (+75µm) fraction for 10 minutes (with given screen sizes)
10. Any (-75 µm) in step 9 should be added to the (-75 µm) in step 6 to give the total -75µm
11. Weigh fractions and plot graphs

30
 WET SCREENING ROUTE

Sample C

Jones Riffler

C1 C2 C3 C4

Mix with 1000 ml water Mix with 1000 ml water

Dewater and dry Dewater and dry

DRY screen – 10 min Wet screen @ 75 µm

Weigh fractions - 75 µm + 75 µm

Dewater and dry Dewater and dry

Tabulate results Weigh DRY screen – 10 min

Weigh fractions

Plot graphs Tabulate results Mix both -75 µm

Figure 9: Wet screening route

31
REPORT WRITING FOR MINERALS PROCESSING PRACTICAL
These are guidelines to follow when writing your report. The layout of contents and the brief
description of what is expected in each section is given below.
Please note:
o Pages must be numbered
o Figures, images and tables should be captioned, the contents of these should be
explained in the text
o Times/Times New Roman font 12 should be used,
o The spacing in the text should be single
o Begin each section/heading on a new page

The structure of the report should cover the following sections:

a) Title page
b) Rubric
c) Contents page
d) Summary/synopsis
e) Introduction
f) Principles of the process (Background)
g) Experimental procedures / methods
h) Results
i) Observations and discussion
j) Conclusions and recommendations
k) References

a) TITLE PAGE
A title page should have the same features as the title page of this manual (see below and first
page) include the title of the experiment, the initials, surnames, student numbers of the group
members, group number and the submission date of the experiment.

32
 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
SCHOOL OF MINING, METALLURGY AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGY

MINERALS PROCESSING 2 PRACTICAL MPRMT2A20

Crushing experiment

Names: AB Cncbcvbcb 214345267

BC Cvbvnvmv 214508797

Submission date:

A page number should not be inserted on the title page. Failure to adhere to this format may
lead to marks deduction.

b) CONTENTS PAGE
The contents page consists of a list of contents (sections, captions) and their page numbers, this
is to allow the reader to locate different sections with ease.

c) SUMMARY/SYNOPSIS
In this section the following should be briefly discussed:
o Why the project was done (motivation/aims)
o What was done (methods)
o Results (findings)
o What was your conclusions
One should not go into detail with what was done, briefly summarize the whole experiment in
few sentences e.g. the sample was screened using screen sizes this, this and that…at variable
intervals. The screening time influences the particle size distribution etc. Screening for 20
minutes improved size distribution etc.

d) INTRODUCTION
Introduction should be brief and state why you did the project, why are you writing this report
[aims and objective]. Answer questions like; why was the work done, what were you aiming
to achieve or understand through the experiment etc. Avoid vague statements like “some

33
parameters affecting dry screening were tested”. It is not only about what you know but also
how you present your work, make a good impression to the reader. Introduce the ore used as
well.

e) PRINCIPLES OF THE PROCESS (LITERATURE REVIEW)

List the vital equipment and explain how the equipment works based on theory. Include the
expected correlations e.g. wet screening and dry screening, how do these differ, what are the
disadvantages and advantages for each one, what to expect when you are using the equipment.
Which parameters are important, e.g. how does time affect grinding, how does time affect
screening, how does sample size affect screening efficiency. The theory you discuss here will
be compared with your results when you get to the discussion section. Referencing is covered
in point (j) below, each time that you quote or use the information from another source you
need to acknowledge that source at the end of the sentence or at the end of the caption of the
image copied. In the text, you write the surname of the quoted author and the year of
publication. Failure to cite properly is plagiarism, this is a punishable offence at UJ, therefore
familiarise yourself with correct citation practices. Provide a citation list at the end of the
document.

f) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES / METHODS

Details of the procedures undertaken should be given in this section. Clearly describe the
methods used to perform the experiment such that another person may be able to repeat what
you have done. For example: “To weigh the sample, a clean bowl was initially weighed and
tared, the sample was carefully poured onto the weighing bowl on the scale, the sample mass
was recorded on the logbook”.

g) RESULTS
Record the results from each exercise in a clearly labelled table similar to that shown in Table 3.
The table should have 4 columns, screen size, material weight (grams), materials weight
percent (wt. %), and cumulative % passing.
Plot the cumulative % passing against passing screen size (microns) using excel. The screen
size should be in the X-axis, and the cumulative % passing should be in the Y-axis. Convert
your X-axis to a log - scale by right clicking on the X-axis, format axis, check the logarithmic
scale tick box.
Present the results as is, distribution curve should be on the results section but the PSD table
should be reported on the Appendix, (do not duplicate information on the results). Table 3 and
a graph in Figure 2 are standard formats for setting out screen sizes and recording results from
screen analyses.
Include captions on the figures and explain in the text what the figure entails. Other examples
of graphs are given in Figures 10 and 11. If you are comparing different conditions you must
plot the data in one graph so that it is easy to compare the results.

34
 100
90
80
Cumulative % passing size

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100 1000 10000
Passing screen size (microns)

Figure 10: 2-Cycle log graph for size distribution of a riffled sample

h) OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

• Comment on how the results relate to theory (as discussed in the background section),
• Explain any unexpected trend or behaviour in your results (any deviation from theory),
• Discuss what your results mean based on your objectives

i) CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

Conclusions should be short, concise and to the point. State your findings based on observation.
State your important points first. Write a critical account of your results based on the parameters
tested and the aim of the experiment. Recommend how you think the experiments can be
improved, what were your challenges etc.

j) REFERENCES
Harvard referencing style should be used in the reports. In the text, only the surname of the
author and the publication year must be inserted at the end of the quoted statement e.g.
(Twindle, 1984), if there are more than one authors, write as follows (Nheta et al., 2013). At
the end of the report make a list of the sources of information you used in your report, books,
articles etc. The following format is used for journals, conference papers and books
respectively:

35
For a journal article:
Twidle, P.C., 1984. Developments in the flotation of copper at Black Mountain. Journal of the
Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 84(6), pp.164-178.
For a book:
Wills, B.A. and Finch, J., 2015. Wills' mineral processing technology: an introduction to the
practical aspects of ore treatment and mineral recovery. Butterworth-Heinemann.
For a conference article:
Nheta, W. and Makhatha, M.E., 2013. Leaching of nickel from a jarosite precipitate with
hydrochloric acid. International Conference on Chemical and Environmental Engineering
(ICCEE'2013).
Note! The examples of TABLES and FIGURES are given in this manual, PLEASE STICK TO
THE SAME FORMATS. Each figure and table must be captioned accordingly. Unorganised
report will affect your final mark.
Using the Microsoft excel, one is able to change the scale to log, this is helpful for plotting size
distribution curves.

Figure 11: Examples of graphs

References:
Twidle, T. R., Engelbrecht, P. C. and Koel, J. W. S., Improvements in stabilizing control at
Black Mountain. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1986, 86
(1), 15-24.
Young, M. F., Pease, J. D., Johnson, N. W. and Munro, P. D., Developments in milling practice
at the lead/zinc concentrator of Mount Isa Mines Limited from 1990. In AusIMM Sixth Mill
Operators Conference, Madang, Papua New Guinea., 6-8 October, 1997, pp. 3-12.
Williams, N.R. and Holtzhausen, S., The impact of ore characterization and blending on
metallurgical plant performance. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, 2001, 101(8), 437-446.
Gerlach, R . and Nocerino, J.M., Guidance for obtaining representative laboratory analytical
subsamples from particulate laboratory samples, 2003,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242671015_Gerlach

36