School of Science and Technology

ENGG10111
Innovation and Engineering Solutions
Manufacturing Laboratory Manual

Name: Isabel Howard Student ID: N1263461

Objectives
1. To observe the working principles of various mainstream manufacturing
methods
2. To research and document the application, advantages, and limitations of
various manufacturing methods
3. Understand health and safety requirements and apply safe working practices
in a laboratory environment

Schedule

Session Manufacturing Method 1 Manufacturing Method 2

Session 1 3D Printing Manual Milling and Lathe

Session 2 Laser Cutting CNC Milling and Routing

Session 3 Injection Moulding Vacuum Thermoforming

How to use this manual

1. Observe the manufacturing method in the laboratory sessions and answer all
the questions (9 sections) in the spaces provided.
2. Your answers must be based on your observation as well as research
3. Once finished, submit a copy of the filled-out manual on the NOW dropbox
before the assessment submission deadline.

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1. 3D Printing

1. How does this manufacturing method work?

3D printing or additive manufacturing is the manufacturing process of joining material
under computer control to create a 3D object from digital models. There are many printer
types with the most common/ popular being:
Stereolithography (SLA), Digital light processing (DLP), Selective laser sintering
(SLS) and Fused deposition modelling (FDM). (How does a 3D printer work?: CDW)
Ultimaker printers work via FDM where the object is created by a motor pushing a
spool of thermoplastic filament up the tube which is then heated by a heater in the back of
the machine until its melting point, so it is flowing and then pushed through a smaller
diameter nozzle. The nozzle draws one 2D layer of the design via the predefined paths
from the sliced CAD model, then moves up and does another layer on top fusing them
together along the X, Y and Z axes.
This is mainly used for prototyping, low volume manufacturing and custom products.

2. What materials can be used/processed using this manufacturing method?

The most common material used is PLA and is used for roughly 90% of prints. This
is due to the fact it is hard, cheap, easy to print, versatile, smooth (making it easy to paint),
eco-friendly and fairly non-toxic as well as absorbing water at a very low rate so has a fairly
long shelf life. However, it is brittle and has low chemical, temperature and impact
resistance. There are also other modified versions of PLA such as PLA+ which is more
resistant and Eco PLA which is recycled and biodegradable, but both are more expensive.
Other materials are:
- TPU
- Nylon
- PETG
- ABS
- CPE

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 - PC, TPU95A, PP, Breakaway
However, these materials are less common due to the expense and difficulty to
store.

3. What engineering sector makes the most use of this manufacturing method?
Due to its versatile and customisability of products 3D printing is used by many
sectors. The main sector is prototyping and product development as it allows for quick
iteration and testing of designs. As well as the aerospace and automotive sectors for small
parts allowing weight reduction, quick maintenance and repair, material efficiency, complex
geometry creation and flexible and rapid part creation. The fastest growing adopters of this
method is the medical and dental sector as it allows personalised healthcare with patient
specific devices like implants and prosthetics. It can also save lives due to the rapid local
creation of the devices making the production efficient. In the future this could even develop
into the printing of human tissue for skin grafts. (Industrial applications of 3D printing: The
Ultimate Guide 2021)

4. What are the advantages of using this manufacturing method?

The main advantages of this method are how it is cost effective, customisable and
fast manufacturing. 3D printing can create parts within hours and on demand due to
it not needing a large or varied stock or special tools as it is mainly used for low
volume production. Furthermore, as it is additive manufacturing it minimises waste
as material doesn’t have to be subtracted from a larger workpiece. The small
amount of waste is from supports or excess that can be easily trimmed and then
recycled back into filament to be used again making it even more cost effective and
waste minimal. Another advantage is no human intervention meaning more
complex designs can be achieved with no practical training on machine that makes
it safe and accessible as well as improving accuracy due to minimal human error. In
addition, one of the main and most desirable advantages is the customisability and
uniqueness of designs available. This is perfect for small production runs of
prototypes that needs to be tested and altered multiple times as they can be
reprinted rapidly and efficiently. The printers themselves are robust, durable and
energy efficient due to no need for secondary tools like cooling systems making
them suitable for education and accessible. Furthermore, 3D printers can
manufacture remotely and be flexible on production making it more efficient as it
can vary based on amount of demand and location of customers as production can
be done remotely reducing transport costs and can be either scaled up or down
based on demand. (Additive Manufacturing Advantages & Disadvantages
2024)

5. What are the limitations of this manufacturing method?

Some disadvantages of 3D printing is the limited materials available to use due to
limited materials being able to be temperature controlled enough to be printed and not
absorb water from the surroundings making it not able to print. Therefore, this also means

3
 that the materials used aren’t always suitable for certain projects as they aren’t as strong or
durable due to their layered design as under certain force can delaminate or break due to
their brittle nature. Another limitation is the low-quality finish left on products which means
they normally must go through another post production process to remove supports, excess
material or obtain a smooth finish that adds time and effort for the manufacturer and
requires other tools. Also due to the limited variety in nozzle diameter it isn’t always easy to
obtain detail and a high resolution on the final product without post processing. In addition,
this method isn’t always suitable due to its restricted build size due to small print chambers
larger products would need to be separated into parts then later combined which adds cost
and time. Also this means only a few parts can be printed at a time, limiting mass
production and speed of production. Furthermore, 3D printers can sometimes be
temperamental and need to be observed due to printing issues such as the print not
sticking to the bed. The printers need constant maintenance and adjusting to ensure the
same reliability and quality as other methods such as bed levelling, rail lubrication, belt
tension and nozzle clearing. Without these prints will fail wasting time and material. Some
printers such as the Ultimaker S3 have been designed to overcome this by installing
sensors to detect errors however sometimes these can be faulty and prevent printing.
From another perspective another limitation is intellectual property concerns as it may
enable unauthorized reproduction of counterfeit products raising copyright concerns as well
as safety concerns as the products won’t have quality control. (3D printing and IP Law
2017)

6. Capture image (s) of the machine you observed in lab and provide it in the
space provided below. Label the most important parts of the machine

Print head cable

and Bowden tube

Print bed

Build plate clamps

SD card slot

Touchscreen display

4
 Print head

Feeder

Filament/Spool
holder

7. Based on your observation, in a step-by-step manner, describe the

manufacturing procedure (conversion of raw material to final product) of this
manufacturing method

1. Design/prepare a CAD model of your product and export as an STL file to ultimaker
software.
2. Alter the orientation, infill, resolution and supports as required and slice your design.
3. Set up your printer- select the material and load into the printer, calibrate the settings
e.g. nozzle temperature and print bed.
4. Send file to printer via a data storage device (USB drive/SD card) or if on the same
network, remotely.
5. Start the printing. Check the print sticks to the print bed to ensure a successful print.
6. After the print is complete allow for it to cool and the material to shrink so it can “pop” off
the print bed. If not take a scraper at a shallow angle to the corner of the product to lift
off.
7. Post production processing- remove/ trim supports and any excess material. If needed,
sand, polish or paint product until desired finish.
8. Check Quality of product is to required standard.

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2. Laser Cutting

1. How does this manufacturing method work?

Laser cutting works by a laser beam hitting the surface of material that heats it so
extremely melts or vaporizes it. This works by a laser resonator generating a laser that is
guided to the cutting head via a path of mirrors and then intensified by a lens that
concentrates the laser multiplying its cutting power and improving the precision of the cut
depending on the size of the focused spot. To ensure the laser beam is coherent and
amplified it Is passed through an active laser medium that can either be a solid, e.g. a
crystal, a fibre or a gas mixture comprised of normally oxygen or carbon dioxide lasers use
a gas mix of CO2, nitrogen and helium. In order to keep the cutting area clean compressed
gas is used to remove from the cutting area molten or vapourised material. This also keeps
it cool therefore assisting the process and preventing overheating. (Carmel, The Ultimate
Laser Cutting Guide by Sculpteo 2021)

2. What materials can be used/processed using this manufacturing method?

One of the reasons laser cutting is popular is due to its versatility in materials. Many
can be laser cut but usually only if they are under 20mm. These include:
- Woods- most commonly plywood and MDF as they are cheap, natural and easy to
engrave, stain and paint. However can leave rough and burnt surfaces and also
aren’t waterproof. Also includes hard woods e.g. birch and soft woods e.g. poplar.
Also all can sometimes be dangerous if they have resin or been oil as they’re a fire
hazard.
- Plastics- most commonly acrylic as it cuts cleanly and leaves polished edges. This
can also be two toned to allow for engraving and it cheap and leaves a good finish
however can be brittle and scratchable. Also includes ABS, Delrin, Mylar, PETG,
Styrene and more.

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 - Thin metals- usually cut by fibre lasers e.g. steel, aluminium and brass but can also
be done by CO2 lasers. This isn’t suitable as some metals can reflect the laser and
cause a safety hazard.
- Foam- e.g. deform foam- can be used for RC planes or packaging.
- Cardboard- light yet rigid, inexpensive, recyclable but is affected easily by fire or
water. Can be used to make models, prototypes and for packaging.
Other examples include clothes, Teflon, glass, cork and more
On the other hand there are particular materials you cannot cut like any materials
including chlorine as when cut emits acids and toxic fumes that can damage the
operator and the machine. Also materials that smoke highly cannot be cut as they will
cloud the optics and clogs the machine. In addition, polystyrene and polypropylene
cannot be cut as they catch on fire too easily. (What materials are suitable for laser
cutting? 2024)

3. What engineering sector makes the most use of this manufacturing method?
Many sectors use laser cutting for example:
- Aerospace- used for the cutting and fusion welding of alloy sheets, drilling and more.
- Fashion- for mass production and engraving of synthetic fabrics and leather. Allows
for accurate clean cuts that don’t stretch the fabric and prevents fraying by sealing
the edges.
- Electronics and robotics- cutting of parts like circuit boards and MicroSD cards and
mobile phones. Leaves good edges and is highly efficient with accurate
measurements and can also engrave easily.
Can also be used for signage, customisation of products, artwork, jewellery making,
packaging, education and more (Top 7 industries that benefit from laser cutting
technology 2024)

4. What are the advantages of using this manufacturing method?

Advantages of laser cutting include the efficiency, as there is no need for tool change
and it is highly automated which also speeds production and lowers labour costs. Also due
to contactless cutting there is no friction on the tools to wear them down making it last
longer and stay continuously accurate and also no material contamination. It is also
relatively cost affective as the materials are thin and therefore on the cheaper side. Another
advantage is the high 2D complexity it can achieve as well as detailed engraving making it
multipurpose and allows customisation of products. Furthermore, it is a relatively low waste
process as the accuracy of the laser allows the maximal number of shapes to be cut from
one sheet. Also due to the laser a clean and smooth edge is left which minimises
postproduction processes saving time, tools and manual labour.

5. What are the limitations of this manufacturing method?

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 Disadvantages of laser cutting include the limited thickness of materials as they can usually
only go up to 20mm and the limited type of materials as some are too challenging to cut with lasers
(as discussed above) which limits it versatility of products. Furthermore, lasers are complex and
initially expensive to set up which reduces their accessibility as some training may be required due
to safety concerns from the dangerous nature of lasers. Also, laser cutting has an environmental
affect as some materials release fumes when cut, this also increases the cost as you must ensure
proper ventilation is installed. Another limitation is the high energy consumption which also
increases cost. Finally due to the nature of the cutting it leaves behind a heat affected zone near the
edge that can affect the materials properties.

6. Capture image (s) of the machine you observed in lab and provide it in the
space provided below. Label the most important parts of the machine

Lid

Slide control
system

Controls
Laser head

Laser generator
nozzle

Work bed

8
7. Based on your observation, in a step-by-step manner, describe the
manufacturing procedure (conversion of raw material to final product) of this
manufacturing method

1. Design your digital CAD model and save as a DXF file.

2. Export to laser settings and chose vector or raster file.
3. Prepare the laser- adjust the power, speed and focus as required.
4. Choose and setup material on the printer bed ensuring its aligned.
5. Start the cut via the software/controls.
6. After the cut allow the material to cool and solidify if needed
7. Postproduction processing- any treatment, cooling or filing needed.
8. Quality inspect your product making sure it is satisfactory.

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3. Manual Milling

1. How does this manufacturing method work?

Manual milling works by the rapid rotation of a multi-toothed tool that is fed into
clamped material to remove it therefore shaping it. The table the material is clamped to
moves in 3 directions: X is the long horizontal axis and Y is the short horizontal axis which
are moved by handwheels and power feeds, as well as Z, the vertical axis which is moved
by the Z crank. They can all be then locked to hold the position. End mills and drill bits are
the most common tools used and come in different diameters lengths and shapes with the
larger diameters being more precise as smaller one's wobble.

2. What materials can be used/processed using this manufacturing method?

Many materials can be processed on the manual mill due to the variability in tool bits,
their size and their speed as well as the skill of operator and type of mill. Common materials
are:
- Metals- for example- steel, aluminium, brass and bronze. Lighterweight and softer
metals are normally milled as they are easier to remove material from without
needing special tools
- Plastics- for example- Acrylic, Polyethene and polypropylene. Normally used for
signage and packaging
- Wood- Hardwoods (e.g. oak) used for furniture and décor and softwoods(e.g. pine)
- Composites- for example- fiberglass and carbon fibre. With appropriate tools can be
mill for things like automotive goods.
Other material examples include- ceramics (with specific strong diamond bits), rubber,
paper and cardboard, graphite and foam.

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 3. What engineering sector makes the most use of this manufacturing method?
Nearly all engineering sectors use this process due to it being so cost-effective,
simplistic and versatile meaning it is in most workshops. Although CNC milling is more
precise and automated, manual milling is still highly used as it is quicker and perfect for
small batch production and adjustments. (MNB Precision, 2020)
These sectors include aerospace, automotive, electronic, construction and metal.

4. What are the advantages of using this manufacturing method?

The advantages of manual milling are that it is much more traditional and cheaper
than other CNC machines therefore making it a efficient and economical solution
for small batch production or one-off creations. Due to the manual nature of the
machine, it is perfect for small fixes or changes on products as operators have
control and freedom over the milling, so you do not have to spend time creating
digital models and programming and doing the long set up process of other
processes. Furthermore, overall, the manual mill is much cheaper and smaller than
bigger CNC machines so can fit into a workspace much easier. (MNB Precision,
2020)
5. What are the limitations of this manufacturing method?
The disadvantages of manual milling are that it is slow and require a lot of manual
labour and skill as it is not automated and therefore requires a lot of time and is difficult to
large volume production. Furthermore, due to having to be operated there a much higher
safety risks when producing a product and it also means repeatability is more difficult due to
no automation, higher rates of human error and operator fatigue. This also means there is
more waste as human error is more likely to occur meaning products might not be to certain
quality. Also due to the shape of the tool bits you cannot achieve sharp internal corners like
other processes unless you use very small tool bits however, they aren’t always accurate
as due to the smaller diameter they are more vulnerable to wobbling due to the high
amount of force. Another limitation is due to the fact there is mechanical friction between
the tool and the material, tool wear occurs, this can lead to high costs in order to replace
them as well as inconsistences in products. In addition, complex shapes are more difficult
to achieve therefore limiting customisation of products without a highly skilled operator.

6. Capture image (s) of the machine you observed in lab and provide it in the
space provided below. Label the most important parts of the machine

11
 Head

Digital read out

and control panel
Cutter

Knee Table power read

Crank Handles

Vice

Table

7. Based on your observation, in a step-by-step manner, describe the

manufacturing procedure (conversion of raw material to final product) of this
manufacturing method

1. Set up the machine- adjust the cutting tool, the speed, power and the Knee.
2. Clamp the workpiece/ material into the machine.
3. Zero the machine to ensure exact position and set workpiece co ordinates.
4. Begin the milling process and move the workpiece to shape it as desired and
apply coolant as required.
5. Allow to cool and then remove the workpiece, complete any final postproduction
processing as required.
6. Quality control- check the product is as desired.

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4. Manual Lathe

1. How does this manufacturing method work?

A lathe is a cutting tool that removes material by a secured and stationary tool that
has rapidly rotating material pressed into it. It is usually used to cut cylinders, tapers
and threads. It is capable of 3-axis movement. (Sarthak, Lathe machines - DTS UK)

2. What materials can be used/processed using this manufacturing method?

Like manual mills, manual lathes are very versatile so therefore most metals and
plastics can be used. The materials that can be used depend on their hardness,
machinability and the availability of suitable cutting tools. For example:
- Metals- softer metals like aluminium (the most common), brass and copper are used
due to their machinability. As well as steel and stainless steel however, these are
more challenging as they’re harder.
- Plastics- thermoplastics such as acrylic, nylon, polyethene and polypropylene.
- Wood- Hardwoods (e.g. oak) and softwoods (e.g. pine)
- Composites- for example- fiberglass and carbon fibre (With appropriate tools).
Other material examples include- ceramics like alumina and zirconia (with specific
strong tool bits), rubber, Teflon and graphite.

3. What engineering sector makes the most use of this manufacturing method?
The main sector that uses this process is the metal-working sector. Lathes are
commonly used for thread cutting, taper turning and more. Due to the fact the machine is
manually operated simple and quick changes can be made making it perfect for
customisation for small parts that can be further then used in the automotive, aerospace
and prototyping sectors. It can also be used in woodworking to create detailed furniture and
décor due to its ability to making complex geometries.

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 4. What are the advantages of using this manufacturing method?
Advantages of manual lathing include its cost-effective simplicity. For smaller
workshops or small size production it is a much cheaper, better and time efficient
method as you do not have to spend time programming like with CNC machines.
This also means it is great for rapid prototyping as with operator skill you are easily
able to achieve small and quick fixes and also easily customise a product. Due to
its simplistic nature is means there is also reduced maintenance required and in
case of breakdowns, downtime is usually much shorter as the machines are easier
and cheaper to fix. Furthermore, manual lathes are more accessible as they are
cheap and small so don’t take up as much space. Also due to no need for
programming the parts the operator doesn’t need to be skilled in computers but
allows skill development.

5. What are the limitations of this manufacturing method?

Disadvantage of manual lathing include the fact it can only move in straight lines
therefore not being able to perform freeform curves and also due to the simplicity of the
machine as well as being unautomated means you cannot achieve complex geometry and
the detail available depends on the skill of the operator. Also, due to being unautomated
only one tool can be used at a time and it is much slower than CNC machines therefore
being unsuitable for mass production or rapid prototyping. In addition, manual lathes are
much less efficient as there is more room for human error which increases scrap and waste
and is viable to operator fatigue so therefore cannot run 24/7. Furthermore, as it is a hands-
on machine it can be dangerous to operators due to the sharp and rapid moving parts.

14
 6. Capture image (s) of the machine you observed in lab and provide it in the
space provided below. Label the most important parts of the machine

Headstock
Tailstock

Saddle handle
Cross slide

Lathe bed

Control
panels

Tool post

15
 7. Based on your observation, in a step-by-step manner, describe the
manufacturing procedure (conversion of raw material to final product) of this
manufacturing method

1. Ensure the lathe is clean and clear and then mount the raw material securely
between the headstock and the tailstock. Ensure it is aligned.
2. Set up the machine- chose the suitable tool depending on material and desired
finish, set the lathe speed, feed rate and depth of cut.
3. Start the machine and move the cutting tool close to the desired starting point.
4. Engage the cutting tool and start to remove material as desired ensuring to cool
and lubricate the material if needed.
5. Stop the machine and remove the tool.
6. Complete any needed postproduction processing as required such as filing and
polishing.
7. Clean up the lathe.
8. Complete a quality check of your product

5. Injection Moulding

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 1. How does this manufacturing method work?
Injection moulding works to create products by heating and injecting material under
immense pressure into a metal mould tool to shape it as it cools and hardens via a
specialized hydraulic or electric machine. It is one of the most common processes to large
scale produce plastic products. With the growth rate of the market to increase by 4.6% in
2028. (What is plastic injection molding and how does it work? | essentra ... 2023)

2. What materials can be used/processed using this manufacturing method?

Many materials can be used in injection moulding if they can be melted and then
hardened, this makes the machine very versatile. They can also be used to recycle
materials such as waste 3D prints therefore lowering cost and waste.
The most common materials used are:
- Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Stryrene (ABS)- leaves a smooth and rigid finish, great for
products requiring strength.
- Nylons (PA)-good chemical and temperature resistance can absorb moisture.
- Polycarbonate- high stability and impact strength, some electrical properties
- Polypropylene- good heat and fatigue resistance, tough, translucent and semi rigid
- Other thermoplastics- Polyethene, PVC, PET
- Other thermosetting plastics- Polyurethane, Epoxy resins
- Biodegradeable plastics- polylactic acid, PHA
- Metal powders- stainless steel, titanium
- Ceramic powders- alumina, zirconia
Other materials include silicone rubber, composite materials and more.

3. What engineering sector makes the most use of this manufacturing method?
The sectors that use these the most is the toy industry and packaging industry for
example LEGO. Due to the highly repeatable nature of the machine. They can recreate
robust and safe toys for children. Household items are commonly made this way from
toiletries bottles, kitchenware and more. (Smoothy, Popular Injection Moulding products
explored: Get it made 2023)

4. What are the advantages of using this manufacturing method?

Advantages of injection moulding include the rapid mass production ability of the
machine. Due to the same mould used for products, parts are repeatable to precise
uniformity. Furthermore because of the moulds you can use a versatile number of
materials and colours in the same shape to the same accuracy. It also allows for
complex geometries with tight tolerances efficiently. In addition, material can ne

17
 reused as the trimmings and excess as well as waste products can be melted and
reinjected into the mould again. The process is also easily automated so therefore
there are low labour costs. Also, there is low need for postproduction processing
with advanced moulders and are used by huge companies like LEGO.

5. What are the limitations of this manufacturing method?

The main limitation of injection moulding is the high initial costs. Machines
themselves can cost upwards of £100,000 and moulds can cost upwards of £10,000.
Moulds must be made from strong metals like aluminium and steel so are hard to make and
difficult to put details into so take time and money and make it unsuitable for rapid
prototyping or changes. The machines are also very large so are not accessible for smaller
workshops furthermore, the products themselves are limited in size as its not suitable for
quite large parts.

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6. Capture image (s) of the machine you observed in lab and provide it in the
space provided below. Label the most important parts of the machine
Hopper

Controls
Capstan

Injector valve Heater

Mould clamp
Mould

Large scale moulder labelled.

Mould
close up

Material
granulator

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 7. Based on your observation, in a step-by-step manner, describe the
manufacturing procedure (conversion of raw material to final product) of this
manufacturing method

1. The product is designed.

2. Based on the product design a mould is created in 2 parts- cavity and the core.
The moulds are normally made from aluminium or stainless steel.
3. Machine set up- set to correct temperature and pressure.
4. Raw material is granulated.
5. Fed down pipes in factory where mixed with relevant dyes then fed to machine.
6. Material is fed into the hopper and then heated until molten roughly 230-310
degrees Celsius for plastic.
7. Under high pressure the molten material is injected into the mould filling the
cavity and taking its shape.
8. The material is held whilst it cools and hardens in the mould and is then ejected.
9. Postproduction processing- remove and trim the excess material and spurs from
around the product.
10. Quality control check is then conducted.

6. CNC Milling

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 1. How does this manufacturing method work?
CNC Milling is a very accurate, automated subtractive process that uses computer
controls to move rapidly spinning rotary tools into clamped material therefore removing it
and shaping the product. They are most commonly 3-axis machines but can also be 4 or 5
axes to create undercuts. As well as automated cutting It also includes automatic tool
changes meaning the tool is perfect for mass production and can be left unattended.
(Smoothy, What is CNC milling? A complete guide: CNC milling services 2023)

2. What materials can be used/processed using this manufacturing method?

Most materials can be used due to CNC millings large variety of tools and strength of
the machine. However, materials that are commonly used for this process are usually
metals as they are harder and more difficult to process on different machines. They include
Stainless steel, titanium, aluminium, brass, copper and also plastic. (Guide to CNC milling
machines 2022)

3. What engineering sector makes the most use of this manufacturing method?
CNC milling is usually used on a large scale due to their cost and size. For example,
in the automotive and aerospace sectors where many metal parts are created due to the
machines strength, versatility and high accuracy. This high accuracy also leads to the
electronics accuracy on CNC milling as the very small parts cannot more be manufactured
manually due to the precision needed and the small size of the parts. (Guide to CNC milling
machines 2022)

4. What are the advantages of using this manufacturing method?

Advantages of CNC milling includes its very high precision allowing complex
geometry and high details due to zero human error possible. Furthermore, it is very
fast and efficient allowing you to create many parts in a short amount of time. This
combined with the precision makes products repeatable to tight tolerances. One of
the reasons they are so efficient is due to the rotating tool carousel which allows
different types of cuts rapidly therefore reducing production time hugely as you
don’t have to reassemble the machine every time. In addition, due to the strength of
the machine and the variety of tools available it means there is a large range of
compatible materials. Also due to the automation of the machine it reduces the
need for staffing and increases productivity as they can run 24/7 all days of the
year. (Lee, CNC milling: Advantages and disadvantages clearly explained 2021)

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5. What are the limitations of this manufacturing method?
Disadvantages of CNC milling includes the high upfront cost of CNC machines over
traditional machines, as well as this maintenance costs are also higher due to the
more advanced technology of the machine and maintenance itself takes longer
therefore increasing downtime. In addition, due to the automation of the machine it
leads to unemployment and skill loss as not as many operators are required and
can also lead to operator error as if programmed wrong will cut straight away
without realising. Another disadvantage is the higher wastage due to the fact it is
not an additive process like 3D printing. Also, as there is limited bed size it creates
size limitations of products. (Lee, CNC milling: Advantages and disadvantages
clearly explained 2021)

6. Capture image (s) of the machine you observed in lab and provide it in the
space provided below. Label the most important parts of the machine

cutter

collet

tailstock
vice
Tool turret

Safety door

22
7. Based on your observation, in a step-by-step manner, describe the
manufacturing procedure (conversion of raw material to final product) of this
manufacturing method

1. Design the CAD file and import to the machine.

2. Set up the machine ensuring all required tool are in the carousel, the tool length,
the speed and power of the machine and any other required factors.
3. Insert the material you are using into the vice ensuring it is flat and level.
4. Zero the machine.
5. Shut the door and start the cutting process. Make sure coolant is used when
needed.
6. Monitor the process to check success.
7. After it is finished remove the product and complete and postproduction
processing like polishing, deburring and cleaning.
8. Complete a quality control check.

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7. CNC Routing

1. How does this manufacturing method work?

CNC routing cuts materials using computer-controlled machinery. The CNC router
uses programming to automate the tool path therefore allowing it to make more effective
cuts. This is usually used for engraving, cutting and carving on a mass production scale or
for much more detailed products that can’t be achieved manually. (What is CNC routing?
and it's uses). The router works by moving to tool to the programmed x,y and z coordinates
in the work bed where the high speed tool then removes the material.

2. What materials can be used/processed using this manufacturing method?

Many materials can be processed due to the strength of the machine, variability of
tool, Common materials are:
- Woods- all types of wood due to being weaker then metal has minimal wear on the
machine
- Metals- mainly aluminium
- Plastics- soft and hard.
- Composite laminates
Other material examples include- ceramics, stone, foam and more (Claire, A guide to CNC
router materials 2022)

3. What engineering sector makes the most use of this manufacturing method?
CNC routers are used in many industries such as:
- Aerospace, automotive, prototyping, electronics

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 The sector that uses CNC routing the most is woodworking sector with furniture
creation as it allows large cuts and details whilst allowing rapid and large-scale
production which if handmade would have taken days. Furthermore, due to their
accuracy and precision they can easily repeat products to a high and consistent
standard.

4. What are the advantages of using this manufacturing method?

Advantages of CNC routing includes its high efficiency as it is much quicker than
manual methods and can be active 24/7 and all year round therefore decreasing
production time. Furthermore, due to its automated nature it means the machine can
mass produce products as it is much quicker, can-do multiple parts at a time and due
to its precision identical parts can be made meaning there is consistent quality. This
accuracy and precision also reduce waste as you can maximise the number of
products from the raw material. Furthermore, CNC routers are safer to use as they
release fewer fumes than other processes (e.g. laser cutting) and also due to the
closed workspace any chippings or dust emitted are removed via the extraction
system which protects the operator making it safe. Another advantage is due to the
fact it is automated there is less training and practice required for the operator
making it more accessible to use. Also, as they are so advanced they are durable,
have more cutting tool options and can cut much stronger and versatile materials to
a much better quality with more detail and complex geometry. (CNC Router: Pro's
& Cons: Why Buy A CNC? 2024)

5. What are the limitations of this manufacturing method?

The biggest disadvantage of CNC routers is their extremely high initial cost from
£10,000 to £100,000+ meaning they are more suitable for large scale production and large
business’ making it less accessible and less suitable for prototyping. Also due to its
automated nature it is not as easy to make quick small changes due to time to program and
set up therefore also making it less suitable for prototyping. As they are so complex this
means they are more delicate so require regular maintenance and may experience longer
periods of downtime if things break. Furthermore, this would require a specialist or highly
trained operator making operation costs more expensive as they would need to be
thoroughly trained in the machine as well as the CAD software. Another disadvantage is the
large space requirements for the machine and the large versatile number of tools,
compared to other processes making it inaccessible to smaller workshops. In addition,
there are some constraints of cutting such as some CNC routers having a limited z-axis
therefore creating limited depth as well as size constraints due to the fact the material sheet
has to fit into the router. (CNC Router: Pro's & Cons: Why Buy A CNC? 2024)

25
 6. Capture image (s) of the machine you observed in lab and provide it in the
space provided below. Label the most important parts of the machine

Lid/ Guard Extraction fan

Collet

Vice Cutting
tool

Work table router

7. Based on your observation, in a step-by-step manner, describe the

manufacturing procedure (conversion of raw material to final product) of this
manufacturing method

1. Design your product in CAD and import it.

2. Set up the machine.
3. Secure the material into the vice ensuring its flat and level.
4. Select the appropriate tool and instal it.
5. Configure the cutting depth, tool length etc.
6. Start the machine and the cut.
7. Remove the material and complete any postproduction processing.

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8. Vacuum Thermoforming

1. How does this manufacturing method work?

Vacuum thermoforming works by heating plastic sheets until it is pliable and able to
stretch. It is then stretched over a mould and sealed airtight with a frame then uses vacuum
pressure to ensure it is fully pulled against the mould and gives the final shape. It is then
cooled and removed from the mould where excess material is trimmed away.
There are 2 types of moulds- female and male.
Vacuum forming uses either male or female moulds. With male moulds, the
thermoplastic sheet is placed over the mould. With female moulds, the thermoplastic sheet
is placed inside the mould. Male moulds are used when the inside dimensions of the plastic
part are a priority. Female moulds are used when outer dimensions are more important
than inner dimensions. (Introduction to vacuum forming)

2. What materials can be used/processed using this manufacturing method?

Materials that can be used normally have to be under 4mm-5mm in order for it to be
formed. The materials used are also usually thermoplastics as they need to be easy
malleable when heated. These include:
- Acrylic, PMMA, ABS, Polycarbonate, PETG, polyethene, and PVC.

3. What engineering sector makes the most use of this manufacturing method?

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 Vacuum thermoforming is most commonly used in the packaging and displays
sector. This is for disposable packaging as it is thin and therefore has cheap material costs
and can also be fitted exactly to the product. Also, if used for food packaging as it can
produce parts that are easy to sanitise and is compatible with food grade plastic.
(Introduction to vacuum forming)

4. What are the advantages of using this manufacturing method?

Advantages of vacuum forming include the rapid producing making it very good for
large scale production. Furthermore, due to the fact you are using a mould it can be
automated and can also produce consistent and repeatable products. Due to the
thin material, it is also low cost. For small scale production it is also cheap and easy
to create moulds however for larger scale to make them durable moulds should be
made from aluminium. In addition, as the plastic can be molten It means any scrap
of trimmings can be recycled therefore reducing material costs.

5. What are the limitations of this manufacturing method?

Limitations of vacuum forming include the thickness of products available. Due to
thin materials, it can also mean warping, webbing and bubbling can occur making products
unusable. Also due to the thin material it may not always lead to uniform wall thickness as
the plastic can stretch differently. In addition, another limitation is the limitation of detail and
complex geometry as well as the need for draft angles making the design of products
limited. Another limitation is the postproduction processing that increases cost as trimming
may be necessary and there are surface finish limitations. (D&D plastics 2020)

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 6. Capture image (s) of the machine you observed in lab and provide it in the
space provided below. Label the most important parts of the machine

Fans / cooling
system
Heater

Clamping Controls
frame

Thermoplastic
holder

Mould example
Example: of webbing on a
product

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 7. Based on your observation, in a step-by-step manner, describe the
manufacturing procedure (conversion of raw material to final product) of this
manufacturing method

1. Design the mould in a CAD software.

2. Make the mould ensuring it has draft angles to allow the product to be removed
easily and ensure it is permeable.
3. Insert the mould into the machine ensuring it is tightly clamped.
4. Insert the thermoplastic above the mould and clamp and seal it.
5. Set up the machine with the correct temperature.
6. Position the heater above the plastic allowing it to become malleable.
7. Move the mould up into the plastic.
8. Turn on the vacuum former allowing all the air to be sucked out allowing the
plastic to shape to the mould.
9. Turn it off and allow to cool then apply a small shoot of cool air to the bottom of
the product to pop it off the mould in order to remove it.
10. Post product processing- trim the excess material from around the product.
11. Quality check- ensure the product is to an acceptable standard with no webbing.

9. What manufacturing method is most suited for the manufacturing

of a functional knuckle joint assembly required for demonstration
purposes only? Also, prepare the necessary file required for
manufacturing the parts of the assembly (1:2 scale) and provide the
image of the preview (with details like material required,
manufacturing time etc.) in the answer below. You are required to
use the Knuckle Joint Assembly (or parts) that you prepared in
Term 1 to prepare the necessary files.

I believe the most suited manufacturing method is 3D printing. This is due to the fact
it is only a demonstrative model therefore not needing the strength of materials used in the
more complex machines like CNC milling and routing. Furthermore, as it is a one-off

30
production there is no need for a mould to be made therefore meaning injection moulding
and vacuum thermoforming are unsuitable. In addition, as it is a 3D project and is solid, not
thin material, laser cutting is not suitable. Also, 3D printing is suitable as it is perfect for
rapid prototyping and also is an additive process so minimises waste and as its automated
can be left to be made and can achieve the more accurate and complex geometry of the
knuckle joint without the high cost unlike manual milling and lathing. Furthermore it leaves a
good finish so doesn’t require much postproduction processing.

For the knuckle joint to be fully functional the parts should be printed separately and
assembled in post-production. With this the time taken is longer than printing it all together
roughly taking 9 hours for all the parts. The material used is generic PLA and 27g -3.36m is
used. To strengthen the joint, I have used infill to 22% in a grid pattern. Have also used
supports and adhesion to make sure the print is successful. In addition, used the settings
extra fine- 0.06mm to increase detail and minimise the post production processing needed.
If you wanted production to be faster, you could print the parts separately in different
printers or experiment with the rotation of the parts.

However, if the joint does not need to be in parts you can print it all together
therefore minimising time taken. As shown below:

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References
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https://www.cdwg.com/content/cdwg/en/articles/hardware/how-does-a-3d-printer-
work.html#:~:text=It%20works%20by%20exposing%20a,depends%20upon%20the%20print
er%20type. (Accessed: 06 February 2024).

- Additive Manufacturing Advantages & Disadvantages (2024) Prototal UK. Available at:
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0will%20protect%20the%20originality,obtain%20relief%20under%20copyright%20law.
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20tooling%20equipment. (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
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https://fractory.com/what-can-laser-cutters-cut/ (Accessed: 08 February 2024).

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laser-cutting-
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molding/what-is-plastic-injection-molding-and-how-does-it-work (Accessed: 10 February
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