( 1) Speed of transverse progressive pulse in a taut String

Wave Speed on a Stretched String

The speed of a wave is related to the wave's wavelength and frequency is given by v  f   ,
but it is set by the properties of the medium. If a wave is to travel through a medium such as
water, air, steel, or a stretched string, it must cause the particles of that medium to oscillate as it
passes, which requires both mass (for kinetic energy) and elasticity (for potential energy). Thus,
the mass and elasticity determine how fast the wave can travel. Here, we find the wave speed
through a medium in terms of these properties
First Method: Dimensional Analysis
In dimensional analysis we carefully examine the dimensions of all the physical quantities that
enter into a given situation to determine the quantities they produce. In this case, we examine
mass and elasticity to find a speed v, which has the dimension of length divided by time, or
LT 1
For the mass, we use the mass of a string element, which is the mass m of the string divided by
the length  of the string. We call this ratio the linear density ., of the string. Thus,  = m
/  ,its dimension being mass divided by length, ML
1

You cannot send a wave along a string unless the string is under tension, which means that it
has been stretched and pulled taut by forces at its two ends. The tension T in the string is
equal to the common magnitude of those two forces. As a wave travels along the string, it
displaces elements of the string by causing additional stretching, with adjacent sections of
string pulling on each other because of the tension. Thus, we can associate the tension in the
string with the stretching (elasticity) of the string. The tension and the stretching forces it
produces have the dimension of a force-namely, MLT ( From F = ma).
2

We need to combine , (dimension ML ) and T (dimension MLT ) to get v (dimension

1 2

LT ). 1

A little juggling of various combinations suggests

T
v C …………………………………( 1)

In which C is a dimensionless constant that cannot be determined with dimensional analysis. In
our second approach to determining wave speed, you will see that Equation ( 1) is indeed
T
correct and that C = 1, so v
……………..( A)

Second Method: Derivation from Newton’s second Law
Let us consider a single symmetrical pulse such as that of Figure-I, moving from left to right
along a string with speed v.
For convenience, we choose a reference frame in 
which the pulse remains stationary; that is, we run
along with the pulse, keeping it constantly in view. T  T
R
In this frame, the string appears to move past us,
from right to left in Figure-I, with speed v. O

Consider a small string element of length  within the pulse, an element that forms an arc of
a circle of radius Rand subtending an angle 2 at the center of that circle. A force T with a
magnitude equal to the tension in the string pulls tangentially on this element at each end. The
horizontal components of these forces cancel, but the vertical components add to form a radial

restoring force F . In magnitude,

F  2T sin   2T   T ( force)……………( 1)
R

1
 Where we have approximated sin as  for the small angles  in Figure-I. From

that figure, we have also used 2 = . The mass of the element is given by
R
m   (mass), ……………( 2)
where  is the string's linear density.
At the moment shown in Figure -I, the string element  is moving in an arc of a circle. Thus, it
has a centripetal acceleration toward the center of that circle, given by
v2
a (acceleration). ……………………..( 3)
R
Equations ( 1), ( 2), and ( 3) contain the elements of Newton's second law. Combining them in
the form
force = mass X acceleration
 v2
gives T     
R R
Solving this equation for the speed v yields
T
v (speed), …………………….( 4)

In exact agreement with Equation ( A) if the constant C in that equation is given the value unity.
Equation ( 4) gives the speed of the pulse in Figure-I and the speed of any other wave on the
same string under the same tension.
Equation ( 4) tells us:
The speed of a wave along a stretched ideal string depends only on the tension and linear
density of the string and not on the frequency of the wave.
Third Method [ Application of wave equation using Newton’s laws of Motion]
Consider a string of linear density, fixed at x = 0 and x =  in y

which a transverse progressive pulse is moving with speed v

along positive x- axis as shown in the figure -I. Now consider
a hypothetical cut MN on the deformed string with co-
ordinates as shown in figure II. x
O x=0 x=L
Figure-I
 
Since T1 & T2 are not same above to curve nature of string but
*
T1 cos   T2 cos       T0  Slinky Approximation

Fx = force acting on the MN of sting along x-axis Y T2

= [+ T2 cos ( + )- T1 cos ](+ î ) = 0 y2 = y+y
N +

Fy =Force acting on the portion MN of the string along y-axis
M
y1 = y
= [+ T2 sin( + ) - T1sin  ] (+ ĵ )= T0[ tan ( + )  tan](+ ĵ )…..( 1)  y+y
y
y1 y T1 X
tan     
x x O x+x
x
y   y y  2 y Figure-II
tan       2  (y  y)  (y  x)   x
x x x x x x2
Putting the value of tan and tan( + ) in equation ( 1), we have
2
  2   y
Fy = T0  y   2y x  y  (+ ĵ ) = T0 2 x(  ˆj) ……….( 2)
 x x x  x

2
 Since we consider a very small portion of the string of length x , so it can be assumed that each
 2
particle have same acceleration, which is equal to a   2y   ˆj  . Using Newton’s Second law, we
t
2 2 2 2
can writ  x.  y
= T0  y
x . y
=( T0 /)  y
t 2 dx2 t 2 dx 2
T0
v  Speed of transverse sound wave in the string =

FORTH METHOD [ Using concept of Impulse momentum theorem]
What determines the speed at which the pulse moves along the string? Figure-I shows a
segment of a string along which a pulse is traveling in the positive x direction. The source is
somewhere to the left of the segment shown. We take the positive y direction upward. At some
time t, the leading edge of the pulse just reaches the previously undisturbed point on the string
at x, as indicated by the kink (sharp corner) at that point in Figure -I. The string to the left of x is
distorted by the pulse. Upward displacement of the point at x begins at t.
T Fy
vy
vy
Kink ( Leading edge of pulse) vy
T vy vy
vy
vy
x x+dx dy

 T
x x+dx
dx
Figure-I: The leading edge of a pulse traveling Figure-II: Greatly magnified picture of the infinitesimal
from the left has just reached the point x string element immediately to the right of x. The
on a string under tension T. The time is t. time is t + dt, and the leading edge of the pulse
has just arrived at the point x + dx. The entire
element is moving upward in the y direction
with speed vy. The element makes an angle 
with the x axis and is subject to an unbalanced
force Fy. The kink—the boundary between the
disturbed and undisturbed parts of the string—
is moving in the x direction with speed v.
The magnification in Figure-II shows an infinitesimal element of the string, located immediately
to the right of x, at time t + dt. By that time, the leading edge of the pulse has moved from x to x
+ dx. During the time interval dt, the part of the string to the right of x begins bit by bit to follow
the point at x in moving upward, as the leading edge of the pulse moves with velocity v. What
is the length dx of the part of the string that has been set into motion over the time interval dt ?
According to definition of wave speed, it is the product of the time with the wave speed:
dx = v dt………………..( 1)

The string is under tension. That is to say, every segment of it experiences equal forces of
magnitude T at its left and right ends. Distorting a segment of the string changes the directions
of these tensile forces because such forces must always lie along the string. We know that the x
components of the two forces must remain equal in magnitude because no segment of the string
moves to the left or the right. Introducing the pulse into the string stretches the string slightly, and
this increases the tension slightly. But, if the pulse is small and the string long, we can neglect
the change in T. We restrict our consideration to such small pulses, in which the maximum
transverse displacement, called the pulse amplitude A, is very much smaller than the
length of the string. Pulses on strings often conform to this restriction quite well. For example,
you can make a piano string sound quite loudly without producing an easily visible transverse
displacement.
We do not know the exact shape of the string element distorted during dt. Because of its
infinitesimal length, however, we introduce no error in the present analysis if we represent the
element as straight. The element makes an angle  with the x axis. The angle is fairly large in

3
Figure-II, but this is for clarity only. In fact,  is quite small; this is a consequence of the restriction
to small pulses.
In representing the infinitesimal string element as straight, we imply that all parts of it are moving
upward at the same speed vy. (The displacement is smaller toward the right because points to
the right begin to move later as the leading edge of the pulse travels to the right.) The point at x
has been moving upward with speed v y for the entire time interval dt, and so its transverse
displacement is
dy = v y dt …… ……………. ( 2)
(Remember that v y and v are quite different quantities.) Using Equations ( 1) and ( 2). we can
write
dy v y dt

dx v dt
You can see by inspecting Figure- II that the slope of the segment is dy/dx = tan. It follows
that
v y  v tan  …………………………..( 3)
The entire element from x to x + dx is moving with speed vy at time t + dt. At time t, the element
was entirely at rest. Thus its momentum has been changed over the time interval dt by an
amount v y dm, where dm is the mass of the element. The impulse responsible for this change in
momentum is due to the unbalanced force on the element in the y direction. As long as the
leading edge of the pulse has not reached the right end of the element, the tensile force of
magnitude T on the right end of the element is in the x direction and has no y component. But
the tensile force of equal magnitude T on the left end has a y component
Fy  T sin  …………………………..( 4)
Thus Fy is the magnitude of the net transverse force exerted on the element over the time
interval dt. (Before and after this time interval, the leading edge of the pulse lie outside the
element, and hence Fy = 0 except during dt.) The impulse imparted by Fy is thus
Fy dt  T sin  dt
We now equate the impulse to the momentum change:
T sin  dt  v y dm
Using the value of vy given by Equation ( 3), we can write this equation in the form
T sin  dt  v tan  dm .
We now exploit the fact that  is small, so sin = tan. This allows us to write the simplified
relation
T dt  v dm ……………………….( 5)
The mass dm of the infinitesimal segment depends on the segment length dx and on the mass
per unit length  of the string:
dm =  dx.
Substituting this value into Equation ( 5) and rearranging give
T dx
v
 dt
According to definition of wave speed, the derivative dx/dt is just the wave speed v. So we have
T T
 v2  v  …………………………..( A)
 
A pulse on a stretched string travels with a speed proportional to the square root of the
tension and inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per unit length of the string.
This result makes sense physically. The greater the tension, the greater the unbalanced force Fy
and the greater its tendency to pull the string upward and "snap the kink along." The greater
the mass per unit length, the greater the inertia of the string, which tends to make it resist
being snapped.

4
Fifth Method: Using radius of curvature of the medium due to presence of wave
As we know that radius of curvature any point of the medium can be given as
2 AB=2R
 y 
v2   
RP   t  ……….( 1) A B
apn aP
T T
If we consider an elementary very small portion of
string AB, length 2R( where 0) in top most region,
then each particle of this region has zero
vP =0
 y  
velocity   0  and acceleration directed downward.
 t 
Direction of propagation
2T sin  T of pulse
apn  ap   , and RP  R .
2R R
Putting these value in equation ( 1) ,we get
v2  0
2
T T T
R  v2  R   v
T R  
R

5
( 2) Propagation of waves in Solid
( A) Transverse Wave in Rod
Figure ( a) shows along, solid bar of uniform cross-sectional area ‘a’. In Figure ( b), the bar has
been struck transverse to its length at the point labeled x = 0. Such a disturbance might be
produced by striking a railroad rail with a hammer.
The disturbance moves along the bar in both directions, as shown in Figure( c). The motion of
the disturbance is uniform. That is, all points on the same cross section (at the same x)
experience the same displacement y at the same time t. All such points define a two-
dimensional surface that we call a wave front. As time passes, the wave front moves with the
wave speed v characteristic of the material of which the bar is made.
The statements of the preceding paragraph hold equally well if the disturbance is periodic, as in
Figure ( d). At any time t, all points in the bar that are located on am cross-sectional plane
(such as the plane at xa) experience the same transverse displacement and lie on the same
planar wave front. Each such plane is analogous to a single point on a vibrating string. We can
think of the wave as a series of planar wave fronts traveling along the bar. We therefore call the
wave a plane wave. It is possible to draw an infinite number of wave fronts, but it is usually most
useful to draw a particular set of wave fronts that lie one wavelength  apart, as shown in Figure
( d).

x
O x=0

Figure ( a): A long , solid, undisturbed Bar Figure ( b): A transverse disturbance is
produced in the bar. The displacement y is
much exaggerated for clarity
y Wave y
Wave
front 
front

v v v v

x x
O x=0 O x=0
Figure ( c): The disturbance travels as a Figure ( d): A periodic wave travels along the
pulse in both direction along the bar, with bar. The wavelength  separates two wave
speed v. Two wave fronts are shown fronts having same phase. As in figure , the
transverse displacement is much exaggerated
for clarity
If the plane wave happens to be sinusoidal, it can be represented by a wave function identical
with the wave function that represents a sinusoidal wave on a string:
y(x,t)  A cos  kx  t   
Because the argument or phase kx  t    of the cosine is the same for all points on the
wave front, these points are said to be in phase with one another.

6
Speed of Transverse Waves in a Solid
As you learned, a wave can propagate through a medium only if there is a restoring force that
tends to resist the distortion imposed on the medium by the wave. For a stretched string, the
restoring force arises from the externally imposed tension in the string. A solid bar, however,
need not be under external tension to resist transverse distortion because its resistance to shear
(expressed quantitatively by the shear modulus G) provides the necessary restoring force.
With this difference between strings and bars in mind, we can find the speed of transverse
waves in a solid bar by modifying the derivation of speed of wave in string slightly.
Fy

y 
v

x x+dx
Kink
Figure-I: The leading edge of a disturbance, shown as a sharp kink, propagates down a bar of
cross-sectional area a. A short piece of the bar is shown at time t + dt, when the kink has
reached x + dx. At time t, the kink was at x, and so the propagation speed is v = dx/dt. All
parts of the green segment, through which the kink has just passed, are moving upward with
speed uy; the cross section at x has been displaced through dy = vy dt.

Figure –I shows the leading edge of a pulse, idealized as a sharp kink, propagating through a
bar. The figure is analogous to Figure stretched string with kink; the time is t+dt, and the kink
has reached x + dx. The kink is moving to the right at the wave speed v, so dx = v dt. Elements
of the bar immediately to the left of the kink are moving in the y direction; this movement must
be due to a net transverse force Fy acting on the segment between x and x + dx. The
infinitesimal length of the segment allows us to represent it as straight, just as we did for the
string segment. Thus all parts of the segment are moving upward with speed vy, so dy = vy dt.
Just as for the string, the speeds v and vy bear the relation
dy
vy  v ……………………..( 1)
dx
Over the time interval dt, the force Fy has imparted to the segment dx an impulse Fy dt. Over
the same time interval, the segment has acquired an upward momentum v y dm . So we
have, just as for the string, the impulse-momentum relation
Fy dt  v y dm ………………………( 2)
The mass dm of the segment is the product of its density  and its volume a dx. We use this
relation and Equation ( 1) to rewrite Equation ( 2) in the form
dy
Fy dt  v  a dx ………………………( 3)
dx
Because v = dx/dt, we can divide this equation through by dt and rearrange to obtain
Fy 1
   v 2 ……………………( 4)
a dy
dx
The quantity Fy/a is the shear stress , defined as the shear force (force applied parallel to the
surface) per unit area of the surface to which it is applied. Corresponding to this shear stress is a
shear strain . The left surface of the bar segment is displaced through dy relative to the right
surface. As, the shear strain is defined as the ratio of the displacement to the thickness. In the
present case, we have

7
 dy
 …………….( 5)
dx
The left side of Equation ( 4) can therefore be written in terms of the shear stress and the shear
 
strain as the ratio . But this ratio is the shear modulus G defined as G  . Thus
 
Equation ( 4) assumes the simple form G   v
2

Solving for the wave speed v, we obtain

G
v  For transverse wave…………………..( 6)

Because the transmission of transverse waves through a solid has to do with the shear
properties of the solid, such waves are often called shear waves. According to Equation (6), the
speed of shear waves is greatest in solids that are stiff (difficult to shear) and that having low
density.

( B) Longitudinal wave in Rod

Longitudinal Waves
So far, we have considered transverse pulses and periodic waves. We now turn to pulses and
waves that propagate from a source that disturbs the medium longitudinally—back and forth
along the axis of propagation. Pulses and waves produced in this way are called longitudinal
pulses and longitudinal waves. In Figure I( a), a long bar of a solid material is disturbed by
being struck at one end with a flat-headed mallet. As a result of the blow, the element of the bar
in the immediate vicinity of the end is compressed. The darker blue shading represents the
(small) local increase in density of the solid. Because the solid is elastic, the compression
produces restoring forces. As shown in Figure I ( b), the tendency of the compressed element is
to expand to its original length. In doing so, the element exerts a compressive force on the
neighboring element immediately to the right. Continuation of this process results in the
propagation of a pulse along the bar with a speed v characteristic of the material, as shown in
Figure I( c). As the pulse passes through any part of the bar, matter is displaced first to the right
and then to the left, back to its undisturbed position. This forward-and-back motion is longitudinal
to the axis of propagation.
Figure I: Excitation and propagation of a longitudinal pulse,
Material being
compressed

Material
expanding
Figure I( a)

Figure I( b)

Figure I(a): A mallet blow on the end of a Figure I(b): the end element is in the
solid bar compresses the element of the bar process of expanding, as elastic forces
adjacent to the end. The darker blue shading restore it to its original density. The exertion
in this element represents the small increase of these restoring forces results in the
in density. The red arrow represents the compression of the neighboring element to
displacement of a typical bit of matter within the right. The red arrows represent the
the element during compression; displacements of typical bits of matter as the
end element expands and the neighboring
element is compressed,

Figure I( c) Figure I( d)

Figure I(c): A region of compressed matter Figure I(d): A device (not shown) attached to the

8
propagates through the bar with speed v. end of the bar drives it back and forth over a
small displacement (exaggerated for clarity). As a
result, a periodic longitudinal wave propagates
down the bar. The periodic variation of blue
shading represents the time-independent
variation in density along the bar at a particular
time t.

 max

x
0

max Figure I( e)

Figure I( e): A more convenient and more quantitative way of representing the variation of density
about the undisturbed value p0, with amplitude max .
Because solids are quite rigid, a small displacement of a bit of matter relative to its neighbor is
accompanied by a considerable stress. As a result, the displaced matter is restored to its
undisturbed state without ever having moved very far. As you have seen, small displacement is
typical of transverse waves as well.
Now consider a source at the end of the bar that alternately pushes and pulls on the end of the
bar. As a result, the density of the end element periodically rises above and falls below its
undisturbed density . These density variations propagate along the bar as a periodic
longitudinal wave, as shown in Figure I( d). A useful way to represent these density variations is
shown in Figure I( e). Note that the ordinate axis represents not displacement y but density
change  . Do not be misled into thinking that the oscillatory curve represents a
transverse wave.
In spite of the physical differences between longitudinal and transverse waves, the wave
functions that represent them have very much the same mathematical form. If the longitudinal
wave is sinusoidal, we can represent it by the function
(x,t)     cos  kx  t   
0 max

In this expression, the amplitude max is the magnitude of the external change of density from
the undisturbed value  0
. Most commonly, max is very much smaller than 0
Speed of Longitudinal Waves
To derive an expression for the speed of longitudinal waves in a solid, we need make only a
few modifications to the derivation for shear waves. Figure II shows an idealized longitudinal
pulse propagating through a bar whose undisturbed density is  0
.The pulse is abrupt; the
discontinuous increase of  at the leading edge corresponds the kink at the leading edge of
the transverse wave. At all locations through which the leading edge of the pulse has passed,
the density is increased to    . This density increase is accomplished by a force Fx,
0

which displaces the material of the bar to the right with velocity vx. We consider a bar segment of
undisturbed thickness x i to x i  dx extending from dx. Figure II ( a) shows the situation at time
t, when the pulse has just arrived at x,. Figure II ( b) shows the situation at time t + dt, when
the pulse has just completed its passage through the segment, to which it has imparted an
impulse Fx dt .

9
Figure II: An idealized longitudinal pulse passes through a bar segment of undisturbed thickness dx.
 

0   0  
v v
0 x 0 x
xi xi xi + dx

Figure II( a) Figure II( b)

Figure II(a): Graph of (x, t), the density of the Figure II(b): Graph of  (x, t + dt), when the pulse has
bar as a function of position at t, the time at reached x i  dx .
which the pulse enters the segment at x i .
Because the pulse is abrupt, it results in a
discontinuous increase in the density of the
material from 0 to 0   at all loca-
tions x  xi .
ds

Fx
v

dx
xi xi + dx

Figure II( c)

Figure II(c): At time t + dt, the increased density  of the entire segment may be thought of as produced
by a compression that displaces the left end of the segment through a distance ds.

At this time, all the matter in the segment has acquired velocity vx; its momentum therefore vx
dm. So we have
Fx dt  v x dm ……………….( 1)
We first evaluate the left side of this equation. At time t + dt, the material left end of the
segment has moved to the right through the infinitesimal distance
ds  v x dt …………………..( 2)
While the material at the right end has not quite begun to move; see Figure II( c). Thus the
segment has experienced a compressive strain of magnitude
ds
 ………………………….( 3)
dx
Fx
This strain is due to the uniaxial compressive stress 
. For small strains, the stress and
a
the strain are related by Young's modulus according to Equation   Y  . Equating these
two expressions for  gives
F
Y  x ……………………( 4)
a
Rearranging this equation and multiplying both sides by dt, we obtain
Fx dt  Y a dt ………………………( 5)

10
 We now evaluate the right side of Equation ( 1), with a view to re-expressing v x dm in
terms of the wave speed v instead of the displacement speed v x. From Equation ( 2), the
displacement speed is v x = ds/dt. Because the pulse propagates at the wave speed v =
dx/dt, we have
v x ds dt ds
     v x  v
v dx dt dx
And, because the mass of the element is dm =  a dx, the momentum of the segment
at time t + dt is
. v x dm  vadx …………………….( 6)
We now have values for both sides of Equation ( 1). Substituting Equations ( 5) and ( 6)
into Equation ( 1), we obtain
Y dt  vdx
Y
Now if we divide through by dt and obtain  v 2 , or

Y
v  For longitudinal waves.

Because the transmission of longitudinal waves through a solid has to do with the
compressional properties of the solid, such waves are often called compressional
Y G
waves. Compare Equation v with Equation v  for shear waves, As we
 
know that, the value of Young's modulus is about three times that of the shear modulus
for most materials. It follows that, in most materials, the speed of compressional waves
exceeds that of shear waves by the approximate factor 1/3.
Second Method
Consider a rod whose young’s modulus is Y and volume density is . The equilibrium pressure
at Rod is P0 , when there is no wave in the rod .
M N M M1 N N1

P2
P1
A B A B B1
A1
O x x + x O x
x=0 M’ N’ x=0 M’ M1' N’ N1'
Figure –I : State medium in absence of wave Figure –II : State medium in presence of wave
Consider a very small portion of medium, bounded by two cross-sections MM’ and NN’ at
distance x and x+ x. from O as shown in the figure –I in absence pf wave pulse. Consider two
particles at point A and at point B on the layers MM ' and NN ' respectively before passing
through the pulse.
PA = PB = P0 , and AB = x
When wave passes through the medium, the cross-sectional layers shifted to position M1M1'
and N1 N1' as shown in the figure -II. Due to propagation of pulse through the layers, particles at
point A and at point B are displaced to point A1 and point B1 respectively. The pressure at point
A1 and the pressure at point B1 will be P1 and P2 respectively.
A1B1= AB + BB1 – AA1 = x + ( y +y) – y = x + y= x +  y x 
 x 
 y  y  y
 = elongation in AB (x) =  x  x x   x = x  Strain = 
  x x x
P1  P  P0  p , and

11
 p
P2  P  P  P0  p   P0  p   P0  p    p   P0  p  x
x
Here p is the variation in pressure at layer due to presence of wave

Stress p y
Y=  p=Y …………….( 1)
strain y x
x
F = Pressure force acting on the portion of medium bounded by layers MM ' and NN ' due to
2
motion of pulse = S P2 - S P1 = S P0  p  p x   S P0  p = S p x = S = S  y
x
 x  x x 2
2 2 2 2
  S x  2y  Y S  2y x   2y = Y  2y
t x t  x
Y
 v = Speed of wave =


12
( 3) Speed of Compressional Waves in Fluids (Sound wave in gas:
Longitudinal wave)
Consider a gaseous medium whose Bulk modulus is B and volume density is . The equilibrium
pressure at each point of gaseous medium is P0 , when there is no wave in the medium .
M N M M1 N N1

P2
P1
A B A B B1
A1
O x x + x O x
x=0 M’ N’ x=0 M’ M1' N’ N1'
Figure –I : State medium in absence of wave Figure –II : State medium in presence of wave
Consider, a very small portion of medium, bounded by two cross-sections MM’ and NN’ at
distance x and x+ x. from O as shown in the figure –I in absence pf wave pulse. Consider two
particles at point A and at point B on the layers MM ' and NN ' respectively before passing
through the pulse.
PA = PB = P0, and AB = x
 V  S x  Initial volume of selected element of gaseous medium
When wave passes through the medium, the cross-sectional layers shifted to position M1M 1'
and N1 N1' as shown in the figure -II. Due to propagation of pulse through the layers, particles at
point A and at point B are displaced to point A1 and point B1 respectively. The pressure at point
A1 and the pressure at point B1 will be P1 and P2 respectively.
A1B1= AB + BB1 – AA1 = x + ( y +y) – y = x + y= x +  y x 
 x 

  y  
 V '  S  x   x    Final volume of selected element of gaseous medium
  x  

y y V y
V = Change in Volume =S x  x   S x = S x  Volume Strain = 
 x  x V x
P1  P  P0  p , and
p
P2  P  P  P0  p   P0  p   P0  p    p   P0  p  x
x
Here p is the variation in pressure at layer due to presence of wave
B = Excess pressure  p  p = B y …………….( 1)
Volume strain y x
x
F = Pressure force acting on the portion of medium bounded by layers MM ' and NN ' due to
2
motion of pulse = S P2 - S P1 = S P0  p  p x   S P0  p = S p x = BS  2y x
 x  x x
2 2 2 2
  S x  2y  B S  2y x   2y = B  2y
t x t  x
B
 v = Speed of wave =


13
Second Method
The derivation of the wave speed, which can be carried out just as in the elastic
medium case, yields equation

E
v


We must take care, however, to interpret the quantity E in a way that is meaningful for a fluid.
For fluids, we speak of the pressure change p rather than the uniaxial stress  . But, as we
know that , the two are related: p =  . In the same spirit, we can interpret the uniaxial strain 
in terms of the fractional volume change of the element. The undisturbed volume is dV = adx,
and the fractional change is  V/V. So we can write Y in the form

 p p 1
Y   V B [ 1/B =   compressibility B bulk modulus]
 V / V V 
p
Now  V is the bulk modulus of the fluid, so in this present case, we have E= B and the
V
wave speed can be written by
B 1
v   For wave propagating through fluid
 
Although we have been dealing here with the propagation of a single compressional pulse
through a fluid, the result applies just as well to a periodic wave, which consists of alternating
compression and rarefaction (reduction of pressure to below the undisturbed value).
Speed of Sound in Air
B
Equation v expresses a result published by Newton in 1687. Newton took one more step,

applying the result to the most important special case: the propagation of sound in air. To do
P
this, he used Boyle's law to set B = P. He then obtained the result v . But Newton and

others found that the value of the speed of sound thus calculated is smaller than measured values
by about 18%, a discrepancy too large to be ascribed to experimental error.
It was not until 1802 that Laplace discovered the source of the discrepancy. Boyle's law applies
to isothermal conditions only. But the rapid compression and rarefaction of a gas as sound
waves pass through it is essentially adiabatic. Even at the lowest sound frequencies—
approximately 20 Hz—negligible heat flows from a region warmed by compression to the
neighboring regions cooled by rarefaction before the wave moves on and reverses the temperature
differences.
Laplace correction for sound wave
We know that for adiabatic process
 2
PV  = (P + p) (V  v)    1  P   1  V  = 1 +  V   (   1)  v   ...
 P   V  V 2!  v 
Discarding the higher power of the Binomial expression, we have
V P 1 1 1 1
    [V is negative]  =
V P P P B P

V / V
1 P
v = Speed of longitudinal wave in liquid = 
 

14
Note: When two forces are acting on the free surface of liquid, One is due to surface tension and
other is due to radius of curvature, upward displacement of perpendicular to the free rest
surface developed at the rest surface.
For the surface at a large depth, both force will act
g 2S
v= 
2 
g 2S g 2S
If  is more, overcomes , so v =  gravity wave and if  is small, overcomes
2  2 
g 2s
, so v =  Ripples/Capillary wave
2 
This can also be explained in following way
 B
Newton's expression for the speed of sound  equation v   is not wrong. But in order to
  
obtain the correct value for the speed of sound in a gas, we must use not the isothermal (Boyle's-
law) bulk modulus Biso = P but the adiabatic bulk modulus Ba.
It remains to calculate the adiabatic bulk modulus for an ideal gas. (For our present purpose, air
under ordinary conditions approximates an ideal gas quite well.) We write the bulk modulus in the
form of the general definition
dP
B  V ………………( 1)
dV
dP
for an adiabatic process. From equation P V = constant , we

We now evaluate the derivative
dV
have
dP dP
P V   c  P  V  1  V   0  V  P …………….( 2)
dV dV
With the help of equations ( 1) and ( 1), we have
Ba   P

That is, we must write

Ba
v …………………( 3)


Inserting this result into equation ( 3) gives the desired value of v.

P
v

For air, the value of  is close to 1.40. Taking into consideration the factor
  1.40  1.18 , we can account for the 18% discrepancy between Newton's calculation
 P
and the measured speed of sound. The corrected result  equation v   agrees very
  
well with measured values.
P RT
For ideal gas PV  nRT   , where M0 is molar mass of gas, so
 M0
RT
v
M0

15
FACTOR AFFECTING VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR
(A) Temperature:

Velocity of sound is directly proportional to the square root of absolute temperature of air medium
v1 T1
v T  
v2 T2
For a range of 30C to 80C, when temperature of gas changes from  to (  1)C, the change in
v
velocity is  0 [v0 is the velocity of sound at 0C in gas]
546
(B) Pressure and Density:
Velocity of sound does not depend upon the pressure and density of gas provided temperature
remains constant
(C) Humidity:
Velocity of sound increases with increase of humidity.
v
vm 
0.378f
1
p
where, f is the saturated vapour pressure of water vapour p is the Total pressure of humid air

TRAVELLING /PROGRESSIVE MECHANICAL WAVES

The wave, in which energy is continuously transferred from one part of the medium to another, is
called progressive waves. The velocity of traveling wave in a medium having density  and
elasticity constant E will be E

Waves in a medium Speed Comment
Transverse wave in a T M r 2  d 2 
taut string v ; T = Tension in the    r 2  
   4
string,  = mass per unit length of M = Total mass of string of length ℓ having
the string radius r (diameter d) with volume density
.
Longitudinal wave in Y Here, sheer (sideways motion) and
a solid rod v ; Y = Young’s Modulus torsional (Twisting motion) are neglected.

 = volume mass density
Longitudinal wave in B 1
gas v  , B = Bulk
 x
Modulus
x = compressibility of gas
Shock wave g 2S g
v  v1   velocity of gravity wave
2  2
= v12  v 22 2s
v2  = velocity of ripple or capillary

wave
S = surface tension
Surface wave in the B 4
liquid medium in the v 
 3
form of ripples

16