FEE3201 Physical Electronics A

Introduction to quantum mechanics

Mwema

University of Nairobi

August 2023

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 1 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

physical processes involving very short lengths or very low energy

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 2 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

physical processes involving very short lengths or very low energy
Newtonian mechanics allows

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 2 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

physical processes involving very short lengths or very low energy
Newtonian mechanics allows
Continuous energy distribution among particles

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 2 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

physical processes involving very short lengths or very low energy
Newtonian mechanics allows
Continuous energy distribution among particles
Continuous spatial distribution of matter e.g., tea in a teacup

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 2 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

physical processes involving very short lengths or very low energy
Newtonian mechanics allows
Continuous energy distribution among particles
Continuous spatial distribution of matter e.g., tea in a teacup
Quantum mechanics treats these distributions as discrete w.r.t.

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 2 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

physical processes involving very short lengths or very low energy
Newtonian mechanics allows
Continuous energy distribution among particles
Continuous spatial distribution of matter e.g., tea in a teacup
Quantum mechanics treats these distributions as discrete w.r.t.
Position

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 2 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

physical processes involving very short lengths or very low energy
Newtonian mechanics allows
Continuous energy distribution among particles
Continuous spatial distribution of matter e.g., tea in a teacup
Quantum mechanics treats these distributions as discrete w.r.t.
Position
Energy

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 2 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

physical processes involving very short lengths or very low energy
Newtonian mechanics allows
Continuous energy distribution among particles
Continuous spatial distribution of matter e.g., tea in a teacup
Quantum mechanics treats these distributions as discrete w.r.t.
Position
Energy
Angular momentum, etc.

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 2 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Bound electrons in an atom have discrete energy and a spatial

distribution that exhibits distinct maxima and minima

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 3 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Bound electrons in an atom have discrete energy and a spatial

distribution that exhibits distinct maxima and minima

Quantum mechanics does not contradict classical mechanics

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 3 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Bound electrons in an atom have discrete energy and a spatial

distribution that exhibits distinct maxima and minima

Quantum mechanics does not contradict classical mechanics

Results from both tend to converge as energy increases in the classical
limit

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 3 / 55

Classical and quantum mechanics

Bound electrons in an atom have discrete energy and a spatial

distribution that exhibits distinct maxima and minima

Quantum mechanics does not contradict classical mechanics

Results from both tend to converge as energy increases in the classical
limit

This is Bohr’s correspondence principle

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 3 / 55

Classical mechanics

Instantaneous state of a particle is completely speci…ed by

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 4 / 55

Classical mechanics

Instantaneous state of a particle is completely speci…ed by

Its position, (x (t ) , y (t ) , z (t )) or (r (t ) , θ (t ) , φ (t ))

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 4 / 55

Classical mechanics

Instantaneous state of a particle is completely speci…ed by

Its position, (x (t ) , y (t ) , z (t )) or (r (t ) , θ (t ) , φ (t ))
Its momentum, (px (t ) , py (t ) , pz (t )) or pr (t ) , pθ (t ) , pφ (t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 4 / 55

Classical mechanics

Instantaneous state of a particle is completely speci…ed by

Its position, (x (t ) , y (t ) , z (t )) or (r (t ) , θ (t ) , φ (t ))
Its momentum, (px (t ) , py (t ) , pz (t )) or pr (t ) , pθ (t ) , pφ (t )
These quantities are referred to as the state variables of the particle

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 4 / 55

Classical mechanics

We consider only one spatial dimension say, x (t ), i.e., a particle with

motion constrained to the x-axis of the Cartesian coordinate system

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 5 / 55

Classical mechanics

We consider only one spatial dimension say, x (t ), i.e., a particle with

motion constrained to the x-axis of the Cartesian coordinate system
Position and momentum are thus, x (t ) and px (t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 5 / 55

Classical mechanics

We consider only one spatial dimension say, x (t ), i.e., a particle with

motion constrained to the x-axis of the Cartesian coordinate system
Position and momentum are thus, x (t ) and px (t )
For a particle of mass m, we can write,
d
px (t ) = mv (t ) = m x (t )
dt

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 5 / 55

Classical mechanics
It is also desirable to know the time evolution of the particle position
and momentum

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 6 / 55

Classical mechanics
It is also desirable to know the time evolution of the particle position
and momentum
These are supplied by Newton’s …rst and second laws of motion

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 6 / 55

Classical mechanics
It is also desirable to know the time evolution of the particle position
and momentum
These are supplied by Newton’s …rst and second laws of motion
First law: momentum of a particle is a constant in the absence of
external forces acting on the particle
d
px ( t ) = m x (t ) = const
dt

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 6 / 55

Classical mechanics
It is also desirable to know the time evolution of the particle position
and momentum
These are supplied by Newton’s …rst and second laws of motion
First law: momentum of a particle is a constant in the absence of
external forces acting on the particle
d
px ( t ) = m x (t ) = const
dt
Second law: force acting on a particle of mass m is proportional to
the time rate of change of momentum
d d2
fx = px ( t ) = m 2 x ( t )
dt dt

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 6 / 55

Classical mechanics
It is also desirable to know the time evolution of the particle position
and momentum
These are supplied by Newton’s …rst and second laws of motion
First law: momentum of a particle is a constant in the absence of
external forces acting on the particle
d
px ( t ) = m x (t ) = const
dt
Second law: force acting on a particle of mass m is proportional to
the time rate of change of momentum
d d2
fx = px ( t ) = m 2 x ( t )
dt dt

Newton’s second law of motion forms the basis for the introduction of
work and energy
WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 6 / 55
Classical mechanics

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

means of a force f (x ) acting on it, is de…ned as
Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 7 / 55

Classical mechanics

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

means of a force f (x ) acting on it, is de…ned as
Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 7 / 55

Classical mechanics

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

means of a force f (x ) acting on it, is de…ned as
Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

The energy of the particle can be

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 7 / 55

Classical mechanics

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

means of a force f (x ) acting on it, is de…ned as
Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

The energy of the particle can be
Purely potential, U (x )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 7 / 55

Classical mechanics

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

means of a force f (x ) acting on it, is de…ned as
Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

The energy of the particle can be
Purely potential, U (x )
Purely kinetic, Ek

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 7 / 55

Classical mechanics

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

means of a force f (x ) acting on it, is de…ned as
Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

The energy of the particle can be
Purely potential, U (x )
Purely kinetic, Ek
A combination of both kinetic and potential energy

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 7 / 55

Classical mechanics

When the total energy is purely potential, then E (x ) = U (x ) and

d
f (x ) = U (x )
dx

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 8 / 55

Classical mechanics

When the total energy is purely potential, then E (x ) = U (x ) and

d
f (x ) = U (x )
dx
For a purely kinetic total energy,
Zx
d2
E ( x ) = Ek = m x (t ) dx
dt 2
0

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 8 / 55

Classical mechanics

Now,

d2 d d d d dx dv
2
x (t ) = x (t ) = x (t ) =v
dt dt dt dx dt dt dx

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 9 / 55

Classical mechanics

Now,

d2 d d d d dx dv
2
x (t ) = x (t ) = x (t ) =v
dt dt dt dx dt dt dx

Thus, Z Z
dv 1 2 p2
E (x ) = mv dx = mvdv = mv =
dx 2 2m

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 9 / 55

Classical mechanics
If no external forces act on the particle, total energy is constant and
is the sum of kinetic and potential energy - conservation of energy
p2
E = Ek + U (x ) = + U (x )
2m

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 10 / 55

Classical mechanics
If no external forces act on the particle, total energy is constant and
is the sum of kinetic and potential energy - conservation of energy
p2
E = Ek + U (x ) = + U (x )
2m
The Newtonian formulation can be expressed in the Hamiltonian
formulation based on the particle energy

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 10 / 55

Classical mechanics
If no external forces act on the particle, total energy is constant and
is the sum of kinetic and potential energy - conservation of energy
p2
E = Ek + U (x ) = + U (x )
2m
The Newtonian formulation can be expressed in the Hamiltonian
formulation based on the particle energy
The Hamiltonian function H (x, p ) is de…ned for the total particle
system energy as
p2
H (x, p ) = + U (x )
2m

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 10 / 55

Classical mechanics
If no external forces act on the particle, total energy is constant and
is the sum of kinetic and potential energy - conservation of energy
p2
E = Ek + U (x ) = + U (x )
2m
The Newtonian formulation can be expressed in the Hamiltonian
formulation based on the particle energy
The Hamiltonian function H (x, p ) is de…ned for the total particle
system energy as
p2
H (x, p ) = + U (x )
2m
Partial derivatives of the Hamiltonian function w.r.t. x and p are then
∂ d
H (x, p ) = U (x )
∂x dx
∂ p
H (x, p ) =
∂p m

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 10 / 55

Classical mechanics

From
d
p=m x (t )
dt
we have
d ∂
x (t ) = H (x, p )
dt ∂p

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 11 / 55

Classical mechanics

From
d
p=m x (t )
dt
we have
d ∂
x (t ) = H (x, p )
dt ∂p
Similarly, from
d d
f = U (x ) = p (t )
dx dt
we have
d ∂
p (t ) = H (x, p )
dt ∂x

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 11 / 55

Quantum mechanics - QM

Two important characteristics of classical mechanics

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 12 / 55

Quantum mechanics - QM

Two important characteristics of classical mechanics

Continuous nature of particle position and momentum - particle can
assume any non-relativistic momentum and position

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 12 / 55

Quantum mechanics - QM

Two important characteristics of classical mechanics

Continuous nature of particle position and momentum - particle can
assume any non-relativistic momentum and position
Deterministic nature of time dependent processes - depends only on
the initial conditions

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 12 / 55

Quantum mechanics - QM

Two important characteristics of classical mechanics

Continuous nature of particle position and momentum - particle can
assume any non-relativistic momentum and position
Deterministic nature of time dependent processes - depends only on
the initial conditions
Physical processes are however not deterministic in the mathematical
sense

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 12 / 55

Quantum mechanics - QM

Two important characteristics of classical mechanics

Continuous nature of particle position and momentum - particle can
assume any non-relativistic momentum and position
Deterministic nature of time dependent processes - depends only on
the initial conditions
Physical processes are however not deterministic in the mathematical
sense
Temperature dependence of black body radiation spectrum observed
in experiments exhibits equal intensity I (λ) (Wm 2 λ 1 ) for all black
bodies at the same temperature and is supported by thermodynamic
arguments

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 12 / 55

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation: A recap
Rayleigh-Jones relation based on the laws of mechanics,
electromagnetic theory and statistical thermodynamics has the form
2π
I (λ) = kT
λ

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 13 / 55

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation: A recap
Rayleigh-Jones relation based on the laws of mechanics,
electromagnetic theory and statistical thermodynamics has the form
2π
I (λ) = kT
λ
k = R/NA = 1, 38 10 23 JK 1 is Boltzmann constant and T is
black body absolute temperature in K

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 13 / 55

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation: A recap
Rayleigh-Jones relation based on the laws of mechanics,
electromagnetic theory and statistical thermodynamics has the form
2π
I (λ) = kT
λ
k = R/NA = 1, 38 10 23 JK 1 is Boltzmann constant and T is
black body absolute temperature in K
This relation is valid only for long-wavelength radiation and breaks
down as λ ! 0 - the ultraviolet catastrophe

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 13 / 55

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation: A recap
Rayleigh-Jones relation based on the laws of mechanics,
electromagnetic theory and statistical thermodynamics has the form
2π
I (λ) = kT
λ
k = R/NA = 1, 38 10 23 JK 1 is Boltzmann constant and T is
black body absolute temperature in K
This relation is valid only for long-wavelength radiation and breaks
down as λ ! 0 - the ultraviolet catastrophe
Planck’s theory postulated that oscillating atoms of a black body
radiate energy only in discrete quantities (quanta) such that
2π 2π
E = }ω, 2}ω, . . . = }c , 2}c ,...
λ λ

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 13 / 55

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation: A recap
Rayleigh-Jones relation based on the laws of mechanics,
electromagnetic theory and statistical thermodynamics has the form
2π
I (λ) = kT
λ
k = R/NA = 1, 38 10 23 JK 1 is Boltzmann constant and T is
black body absolute temperature in K
This relation is valid only for long-wavelength radiation and breaks
down as λ ! 0 - the ultraviolet catastrophe
Planck’s theory postulated that oscillating atoms of a black body
radiate energy only in discrete quantities (quanta) such that
2π 2π
E = }ω, 2}ω, . . . = }c , 2}c ,...
λ λ
h = 6, 626 10 34 Js is Planck’s constant and
h
}=
2π
WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 13 / 55
Planck’s theory of black-body radiation

Planck’s formula for black body radiation is hence of the form

1
}ω 5 }ω
I = 3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT

which is in agreement with experimental observations

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 14 / 55

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation

Planck’s formula for black body radiation is hence of the form

1
}ω 5 }ω
I = 3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT

which is in agreement with experimental observations

The intensity peaks at wavelengths given by Wien’s law

λM T = const = 2880 µmK

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 14 / 55

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation

Planck’s formula for black body radiation is hence of the form

1
}ω 5 }ω
I = 3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT

which is in agreement with experimental observations

The intensity peaks at wavelengths given by Wien’s law

λM T = const = 2880 µmK

This predicts that the wavelength of maximum intensity shifts toward

the blue region of the spectrum with increasing temperature

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 14 / 55

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation

Planck’s formula for black body radiation is hence of the form

1
}ω 5 }ω
I = 3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT

which is in agreement with experimental observations

The intensity peaks at wavelengths given by Wien’s law

λM T = const = 2880 µmK

This predicts that the wavelength of maximum intensity shifts toward

the blue region of the spectrum with increasing temperature
At λM ,
hc
Emax = = 4, 98kT
λM

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 14 / 55

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation

Planck’s formula for black body radiation is hence of the form

1
}ω 5 }ω
I = 3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT

which is in agreement with experimental observations

The intensity peaks at wavelengths given by Wien’s law

λM T = const = 2880 µmK

This predicts that the wavelength of maximum intensity shifts toward

the blue region of the spectrum with increasing temperature
At λM ,
hc
Emax = = 4, 98kT
λM
i.e. nearly …ve times the thermal energy
WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 14 / 55
Postulates of QM

QM focuses on the complex wave function Ψ (x, y , z, t ) or

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 15 / 55

Postulates of QM

QM focuses on the complex wave function Ψ (x, y , z, t ) or

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
We consider a one-dimensional wave function Ψ (x, t ) and its
conjugate Ψ (x, t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 15 / 55

Postulates of QM

QM focuses on the complex wave function Ψ (x, y , z, t ) or

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
We consider a one-dimensional wave function Ψ (x, t ) and its
conjugate Ψ (x, t )
These provide a concrete meaning in the macroscopic physical world

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 15 / 55

Postulates of QM

QM focuses on the complex wave function Ψ (x, y , z, t ) or

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
We consider a one-dimensional wave function Ψ (x, t ) and its
conjugate Ψ (x, t )
These provide a concrete meaning in the macroscopic physical world
In QM, Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx is interpreted as the probability that a
particle will be found in the interval between x and x + dx - Max
Born’s interpretation

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 15 / 55

Postulates of QM

QM focuses on the complex wave function Ψ (x, y , z, t ) or

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
We consider a one-dimensional wave function Ψ (x, t ) and its
conjugate Ψ (x, t )
These provide a concrete meaning in the macroscopic physical world
In QM, Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx is interpreted as the probability that a
particle will be found in the interval between x and x + dx - Max
Born’s interpretation
Ψ (x, t ) is the QM description of the particle and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t )
hence referred to as the QM window to the real world

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 15 / 55

Postulates of QM

QM focuses on the complex wave function Ψ (x, y , z, t ) or

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
We consider a one-dimensional wave function Ψ (x, t ) and its
conjugate Ψ (x, t )
These provide a concrete meaning in the macroscopic physical world
In QM, Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx is interpreted as the probability that a
particle will be found in the interval between x and x + dx - Max
Born’s interpretation
Ψ (x, t ) is the QM description of the particle and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t )
hence referred to as the QM window to the real world
Unlike classical mechanics based on dynamic variables, QM is based
on operators

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 15 / 55

Postulates of QM

We saw that the classical dynamic variables or observables include the

time varying

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 16 / 55

Postulates of QM

We saw that the classical dynamic variables or observables include the

time varying
Particle position, x (t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 16 / 55

Postulates of QM

We saw that the classical dynamic variables or observables include the

time varying
Particle position, x (t )
Particle momentum, px (t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 16 / 55

Postulates of QM

We saw that the classical dynamic variables or observables include the

time varying
Particle position, x (t )
Particle momentum, px (t )
Particle total energy, E

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 16 / 55

Postulates of QM

We saw that the classical dynamic variables or observables include the

time varying
Particle position, x (t )
Particle momentum, px (t )
Particle total energy, E
In QM, dynamic variables are replaced by operators that operate on
Ψ (x, t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 16 / 55

Postulates of QM

We saw that the classical dynamic variables or observables include the

time varying
Particle position, x (t )
Particle momentum, px (t )
Particle total energy, E
In QM, dynamic variables are replaced by operators that operate on
Ψ (x, t )

QM postulates cannot be proven or deduced

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 16 / 55

Postulates of QM

We saw that the classical dynamic variables or observables include the

time varying
Particle position, x (t )
Particle momentum, px (t )
Particle total energy, E
In QM, dynamic variables are replaced by operators that operate on
Ψ (x, t )

QM postulates cannot be proven or deduced

These are hypotheses that are axioms (non-provable truths) when they
do not contradict nature (experiment)

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 16 / 55

First postulate of QM

Temporal and spatial evolution of a QM particle described by a

complex wavefunction

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 17 / 55

First postulate of QM

Temporal and spatial evolution of a QM particle described by a

complex wavefunction

Ψ (x, t ) describes the temporal and spatial evolution of a QM particle

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 17 / 55

First postulate of QM

Temporal and spatial evolution of a QM particle described by a

complex wavefunction

Ψ (x, t ) describes the temporal and spatial evolution of a QM particle

Ψ (x, t ) is hence a QM description of a particle with one degree of
spatial freedom

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 17 / 55

Second postulate of QM

The square of the magnitude of the wavefunction is related to the

probability of locating a particle in space

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 18 / 55

Second postulate of QM

The square of the magnitude of the wavefunction is related to the

probability of locating a particle in space

Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) is the probability density function of a QM particle

and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx is then the probability that the particle is to
be found in the interval [x, x + dx ]

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 18 / 55

Second postulate of QM

The square of the magnitude of the wavefunction is related to the

probability of locating a particle in space

Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) is the probability density function of a QM particle

and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx is then the probability that the particle is to
be found in the interval [x, x + dx ]
This means that
Z∞
Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx = 1
∞

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 18 / 55

Second postulate of QM

The square of the magnitude of the wavefunction is related to the

probability of locating a particle in space

Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) is the probability density function of a QM particle

and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx is then the probability that the particle is to
be found in the interval [x, x + dx ]
This means that
Z∞
Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx = 1
∞

i.e., the particle will be found somewhere in space

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 18 / 55

Second postulate of QM

The square of the magnitude of the wavefunction is related to the

probability of locating a particle in space

Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) is the probability density function of a QM particle

and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx is then the probability that the particle is to
be found in the interval [x, x + dx ]
This means that
Z∞
Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx = 1
∞

i.e., the particle will be found somewhere in space

When Ψ (x, t ) satis…es this integral, it is said to be a normalised wave
function

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 18 / 55

Second postulate of QM

The square of the magnitude of the wavefunction is related to the

probability of locating a particle in space

Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) is the probability density function of a QM particle

and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx is then the probability that the particle is to
be found in the interval [x, x + dx ]
This means that
Z∞
Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx = 1
∞

i.e., the particle will be found somewhere in space

When Ψ (x, t ) satis…es this integral, it is said to be a normalised wave
function

Hence, this integral is called the normalisation condition

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 18 / 55

Third postulate of QM

The wavefunction and its …rst spatial derive are continuous functions
of the spatial coordinates in an isotropic medium

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 19 / 55

Third postulate of QM

The wavefunction and its …rst spatial derive are continuous functions
of the spatial coordinates in an isotropic medium

This means that

lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x0 , t )
x !x 0

and
∂ ∂
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t ) jx =x0
x !x0 ∂x ∂x

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 19 / 55

Third postulate of QM

The wavefunction and its …rst spatial derive are continuous functions
of the spatial coordinates in an isotropic medium

This means that

lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x0 , t )
x !x 0

and
∂ ∂
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t ) jx =x0
x !x0 ∂x ∂x
Hence, Ψ (x, t ) is

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 19 / 55

Third postulate of QM

The wavefunction and its …rst spatial derive are continuous functions
of the spatial coordinates in an isotropic medium

This means that

lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x0 , t )
x !x 0

and
∂ ∂
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t ) jx =x0
x !x0 ∂x ∂x
Hence, Ψ (x, t ) is
Continuous and continuously di¤erentiable throughout an isotropic
medium

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 19 / 55

Third postulate of QM

The wavefunction and its …rst spatial derive are continuous functions
of the spatial coordinates in an isotropic medium

This means that

lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x0 , t )
x !x 0

and
∂ ∂
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t ) jx =x0
x !x0 ∂x ∂x
Hence, Ψ (x, t ) is
Continuous and continuously di¤erentiable throughout an isotropic
medium
Single-valued and …nite throughout space, i.e., all x in the 1-D case

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 19 / 55

Fourth postulate of QM
Operators operating on the wavefunction replace the classical
dynamic variables

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 20 / 55

Fourth postulate of QM
Operators operating on the wavefunction replace the classical
dynamic variables
Operators acting on Ψ (x, t ) and corresponding dynamic variables of
classical mechanics
dynamic classical QM operator operating on Ψ (x, t )
variable variable
position, x x xop = x (multiply by x)
momentum, p p = m ∂x∂t pop = }j ∂x∂ (di¤erentiate w.r.t. x)
2
p2 1 } ∂
k. E., Ek Ek = 2m Ek ,op = 2m j ∂x
(di¤erentiate twice w.r.t. x)
p. E., U U (x ) Uop = U (x ) (multiply by U (x ))
p2
total 2m + U (x ) Eop = }j ∂t∂
2
1 } ∂
energy, E = 2m j ∂x + U (x )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 20 / 55

Fourth postulate of QM

Recall that the classical Hamiltonian is of the form

p2
H= + U (x ) = E
2m

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 21 / 55

Fourth postulate of QM

Recall that the classical Hamiltonian is of the form

p2
H= + U (x ) = E
2m
Hence for a quantum particle,
2
} ∂ } ∂
Hop = Ψ (x, t ) = + U (x )
j ∂t j ∂x

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 21 / 55

Fourth postulate of QM

Thus, using the QM operators acting on Ψ (x, t ), we have

( )
1 } ∂ 2 } ∂
+ U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m j ∂x j ∂t

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 22 / 55

Fourth postulate of QM

Thus, using the QM operators acting on Ψ (x, t ), we have

( )
1 } ∂ 2 } ∂
+ U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m j ∂x j ∂t

Or
} ∂2 } ∂
Ψ (x, t ) + U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m ∂x 2 j ∂t

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 22 / 55

Fourth postulate of QM

Thus, using the QM operators acting on Ψ (x, t ), we have

( )
1 } ∂ 2 } ∂
+ U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m j ∂x j ∂t

Or
} ∂2 } ∂
Ψ (x, t ) + U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m ∂x 2 j ∂t
Where
2
∂ ∂2
)
∂x ∂x 2
since this is an operator

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 22 / 55

Fourth postulate of QM

Thus, using the QM operators acting on Ψ (x, t ), we have

( )
1 } ∂ 2 } ∂
+ U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m j ∂x j ∂t

Or
} ∂2 } ∂
Ψ (x, t ) + U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m ∂x 2 j ∂t
Where
2
∂ ∂2
)
∂x ∂x 2
since this is an operator

This the 1-D time-dependent Schrödinger wave equation

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 22 / 55

Fifth postulate of QM

Expectation values of dynamic variables are obtained through

operations on the wavefunction

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 23 / 55

Fifth postulate of QM

Expectation values of dynamic variables are obtained through

operations on the wavefunction

The expectation (average value or ensemble average) of a dynamic

variable u is calculated from the wave function as
Z∞
hu i = Ψ (x, t ) uop Ψ (x, t ) dx
∞

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 23 / 55

Fifth postulate of QM

Expectation values of dynamic variables are obtained through

operations on the wavefunction

The expectation (average value or ensemble average) of a dynamic

variable u is calculated from the wave function as
Z∞
hu i = Ψ (x, t ) uop Ψ (x, t ) dx
∞

uop is the appropriate operator of the dynamic variable u and Ψ (x, t )

is assumed normalised

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 23 / 55

Fifth postulate of QM

Expectation values of dynamic variables are obtained through

operations on the wavefunction

The expectation (average value or ensemble average) of a dynamic

variable u is calculated from the wave function as
Z∞
hu i = Ψ (x, t ) uop Ψ (x, t ) dx
∞

uop is the appropriate operator of the dynamic variable u and Ψ (x, t )

is assumed normalised
This allows computation of important average values of quantities
such as position, momentum, energy etc.

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 23 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The …ve postulates of quantum mechanics summarise the principles of

QM

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 24 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The …ve postulates of quantum mechanics summarise the principles of

QM
These have severe implications on the interpretation of macroscopic
physical processes

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 24 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The …ve postulates of quantum mechanics summarise the principles of

QM
These have severe implications on the interpretation of macroscopic
physical processes
QM smoothly merges with classical mechanics for macroscopic
physical processes - Bohr’s correspondence principle

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 24 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

We assume Ψ (x, t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 25 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

We assume Ψ (x, t )
Can be separated into a spatial and time function as
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 25 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

We assume Ψ (x, t )
Can be separated into a spatial and time function as
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t )
Has a harmonic time-dependence of the form ϕ (t ) = exp (j ωt )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 25 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

We assume Ψ (x, t )
Can be separated into a spatial and time function as
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t )
Has a harmonic time-dependence of the form ϕ (t ) = exp (j ωt )
Hence,
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 25 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

We assume Ψ (x, t )
Can be separated into a spatial and time function as
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t )
Has a harmonic time-dependence of the form ϕ (t ) = exp (j ωt )
Hence,
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t )
ψ (x ) is a stationary amplitude function of the spatial coordinate

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 25 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Using Ψ (x, t ) in the time-dependent Schrödinger equation, we obtain

} ∂2 } ∂
(ψ (x ) ϕ (t )) + U (x ) (ψ (x ) ϕ (t )) = (ψ (x ) ϕ (t ))
2m ∂x 2 j ∂t

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 26 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Using Ψ (x, t ) in the time-dependent Schrödinger equation, we obtain

} ∂2 } ∂
(ψ (x ) ϕ (t )) + U (x ) (ψ (x ) ϕ (t )) = (ψ (x ) ϕ (t ))
2m ∂x 2 j ∂t
Or
} 1 d2 } 1 d
ψ (x ) + U (x ) = ϕ (t )
2m ψ (x ) dx 2 j ϕ (t ) dt

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 26 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

For this equation to hold, we must have each term equal separately to
the same constant, i.e.,

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 27 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

For this equation to hold, we must have each term equal separately to
the same constant, i.e.,
Time or temporal di¤erential equation,
d E
ϕ (t ) = j ϕ (t )
dt }
E E
) ϕ (t ) = exp j t = exp ( j ωt ) , ω =
} }

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 27 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

For this equation to hold, we must have each term equal separately to
the same constant, i.e.,
Time or temporal di¤erential equation,
d E
ϕ (t ) = j ϕ (t )
dt }
E E
) ϕ (t ) = exp j t = exp ( j ωt ) , ω =
} }
Spatial di¤erential equation

} d2
ψ (x ) + U (x ) ψ (x ) = E ψ (x )
2m dx 2

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 27 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

For this equation to hold, we must have each term equal separately to
the same constant, i.e.,
Time or temporal di¤erential equation,
d E
ϕ (t ) = j ϕ (t )
dt }
E E
) ϕ (t ) = exp j t = exp ( j ωt ) , ω =
} }
Spatial di¤erential equation

} d2
ψ (x ) + U (x ) ψ (x ) = E ψ (x )
2m dx 2

The spatial di¤erential equation is the 1-D time-independent or

stationary Schrödinger’s equation
WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 27 / 55
Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Consider
E
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t ) = ψ (x ) exp (j ωt ) , ω =
}

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 28 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Consider
E
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t ) = ψ (x ) exp (j ωt ) , ω =
}
Let

ψ (x ) = A f1 + cos x g , jx j < π
= 0, jx j π

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 28 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM
We determine A from the second postulate or the normalisation
condition as
Z∞ Zπ
ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = A 2
f1 + cos x g2 dx = 1
∞ π

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 29 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM
We determine A from the second postulate or the normalisation
condition as
Z∞ Zπ
ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = A 2
f1 + cos x g2 dx = 1
∞ π
Or
Zπ 2
2 1 1
=A 1 + 2 cos x + + cos 2x dx = 1
2 2
π

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 29 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM
We determine A from the second postulate or the normalisation
condition as
Z∞ Zπ
ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = A 2
f1 + cos x g2 dx = 1
∞ π
Or
Zπ 2
2 1 1
=A 1 + 2 cos x + + cos 2x dx = 1
2 2
π
Which yields r
1
A=
3π

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 29 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM
We determine A from the second postulate or the normalisation
condition as
Z∞ Zπ
ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = A 2
f1 + cos x g2 dx = 1
∞ π
Or
Zπ 2
2 1 1
=A 1 + 2 cos x + + cos 2x dx = 1
2 2
π
Which yields r
1
A=
3π
Hence, the normalised wavefunction is given by,
r
1
ψ (x ) = f1 + cos x g , jx j < π
3π
= 0, jx j π
WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 29 / 55
Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The potential energy of the particle is minimum at x = 0

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 30 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The potential energy of the particle is minimum at x = 0

A particle placed in such a potential thus experiences a force that
attracts it toward this minimum

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 30 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The potential energy of the particle is minimum at x = 0

A particle placed in such a potential thus experiences a force that
attracts it toward this minimum
The wave function is hence localised around the position of minimum
potential energy

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 30 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

From the …fth postulate, the expectation of particle position is given

by
Z∞
hx i = ψ (x ) x ψ (x ) dx
∞

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 31 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

From the …fth postulate, the expectation of particle position is given

by
Z∞
hx i = ψ (x ) x ψ (x ) dx
∞

Multiplication of ψ (x ) by x makes it an odd function of x and since

ψ (x ) is an even function, then the integrand is odd

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 31 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

From the …fth postulate, the expectation of particle position is given

by
Z∞
hx i = ψ (x ) x ψ (x ) dx
∞

Multiplication of ψ (x ) by x makes it an odd function of x and since

ψ (x ) is an even function, then the integrand is odd
The integral of an odd integrand between symmetrical limits is zero
and hx i = 0

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 31 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

From the …fth postulate, the expectation of particle position is given

by
Z∞
hx i = ψ (x ) x ψ (x ) dx
∞

Multiplication of ψ (x ) by x makes it an odd function of x and since

ψ (x ) is an even function, then the integrand is odd
The integral of an odd integrand between symmetrical limits is zero
and hx i = 0
The probability of …nding the particle at x = 0 is highest for all time

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 31 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The spread of the wave function about the position of maximum

probability is given by the standard deviation of the position, i.e.,
q
σ x = hx 2 i hx i2

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 32 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The spread of the wave function about the position of maximum

probability is given by the standard deviation of the position, i.e.,
q
σ x = hx 2 i hx i2

We have
Z∞
2 π2 5
x = ψ (x ) x 2 ψ (x ) dx =
3 2
∞

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 32 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The spread of the wave function about the position of maximum

probability is given by the standard deviation of the position, i.e.,
q
σ x = hx 2 i hx i2

We have
Z∞
2 π2 5
x = ψ (x ) x 2 ψ (x ) dx =
3 2
∞

Thus, r
q
π2 5
σx = hx 2 i =
3 2

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 32 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The expectation of particle momentum is given by

Z∞
} ∂
h px i = ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = 0
j ∂x
∞

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 33 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

The expectation of particle momentum is given by

Z∞
} ∂
h px i = ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = 0
j ∂x
∞

Hence, the particle has no net momentum and remains spatially

localised at the same position - consistent with a stationary wave
function

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 33 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

When ψ (x ) and U (x ) are known, we can write

Z∞
}2 ∂2
hEk i = ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx
2m ∂x 2
∞

and
Z∞
hU (x )i = ψ (x ) U (x ) ψ (x ) dx
∞

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 34 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

When ψ (x ) and U (x ) are known, we can write

Z∞
}2 ∂2
hEk i = ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx
2m ∂x 2
∞

and
Z∞
hU (x )i = ψ (x ) U (x ) ψ (x ) dx
∞

Hence,
Z∞
}2 ∂2
hE i = hEk i + hU (x )i = ψ (x ) + U (x ) ψ (x ) dx
2m ∂x 2
∞

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 34 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Example (1)
The quantum particle is described by the one-dimensional wavefunction
π π
ψ (x ) = A cos kx, < kx <
2 2
= 0, otherwise

where
2π
k=
λ
is the wavenumber. Determine (a) The spread of the wavefunction about
the most probable position (b) The mean square momentum of the particle

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 35 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Solution (1)
(a) We have from the second postulate,

Z
π/2k
2
A cos2 kxdx = 1
π/2k

or r
h x iπ/2k 2k
A2 =1)A=
2 π/2k π

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 36 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Solution (1)
(a) The expectation of position is given by

Z
π/2k Z
π/2k
2 2 A2
hx i = A x cos kxdx = x (1 + cos 2kx ) dx
2
π/2k π/2k
2 Z π/2k
A sin 2kx sin 2kx
= x x+ x+ dx
k 2k 2k π/2k
2 π/2k
A sin 2kx x2 cos 2kx
= x x+ =0
k 2k 2 4k 4 π/2k

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 37 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Solution (1)
(a) and the mean square of position by

Z
π/2k
2 A2
x = x 2 (1 + cos 2kx ) d θ
2
π/2k
Z
A2 2 sin 2kx sin 2kx π/2k
= x x+ 2 x x+ dx
2 2k 2k π/2k
π/2k
A2 sin 2kx x2 cos 2kx
= x2 x + 2 x
2 2k 2 4k 2 π/2k
π/2k
x3 sin 2kx
+2
6 8k 2 π/2k

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 38 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Solution (1)
(a) or
π/2k
A2 x cos 2kx x3 A2 π 1 π 3
x2 = + = +
2 2k 2 3 π/2k 2 2k 3 3 2k
3 π 2 3
= 1+
2 2k 2π 2

Hence, s
π 3 3
σx = 1+
2k 2 2π 2

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 39 / 55

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM

Solution (1)
(b) For the mean square momentum, we have,

Z
π/2k 2
2 2 } d
h px i = A cos kx cos kxdx
j dx
π/2k
Z
π/2k
A2
= (}k )2 (1 + cos 2kx ) dx
2
π/2k
A2 π
= (}k )2 = (}k )2
2 k

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 40 / 55

Phasor representation of the wavefunction
In QM, we will often encounter integrals of the form
Z∞
hu i = ψ (x ) uop ψ (x ) dx
∞

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 41 / 55

Phasor representation of the wavefunction
In QM, we will often encounter integrals of the form
Z∞
hu i = ψ (x ) uop ψ (x ) dx
∞

For convenience, we will use the phasor representation of the

wavefunction, ψ (x ) = A exp ( jkx )

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 41 / 55

Phasor representation of the wavefunction
In QM, we will often encounter integrals of the form
Z∞
hu i = ψ (x ) uop ψ (x ) dx
∞

For convenience, we will use the phasor representation of the

wavefunction, ψ (x ) = A exp ( jkx )
And the instantaneous wavefunction then obtained using

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 41 / 55

Phasor representation of the wavefunction
In QM, we will often encounter integrals of the form
Z∞
hu i = ψ (x ) uop ψ (x ) dx
∞

For convenience, we will use the phasor representation of the

wavefunction, ψ (x ) = A exp ( jkx )
And the instantaneous wavefunction then obtained using
A cosine reference time function as
ψ (x, t ) = Re [ψ (x ) exp (j ωt )]

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 41 / 55

Phasor representation of the wavefunction
In QM, we will often encounter integrals of the form
Z∞
hu i = ψ (x ) uop ψ (x ) dx
∞

For convenience, we will use the phasor representation of the

wavefunction, ψ (x ) = A exp ( jkx )
And the instantaneous wavefunction then obtained using
A cosine reference time function as
ψ (x, t ) = Re [ψ (x ) exp (j ωt )]
A sine reference time function as
ψ (x, t ) = Im [ψ (x ) exp (j ωt )]

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 41 / 55

Phasor representation of the wavefunction
In QM, we will often encounter integrals of the form
Z∞
hu i = ψ (x ) uop ψ (x ) dx
∞

For convenience, we will use the phasor representation of the

wavefunction, ψ (x ) = A exp ( jkx )
And the instantaneous wavefunction then obtained using
A cosine reference time function as
ψ (x, t ) = Re [ψ (x ) exp (j ωt )]
A sine reference time function as
ψ (x, t ) = Im [ψ (x ) exp (j ωt )]

With no loss of generalisation (w.n.l.o.g.) the reference time function

will be assumed to be the cosine throughout this course
WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 41 / 55
Phasor representation of the wavefunction
The state of a quantum particle may then be described by a wave
packet of the form
+∆k
kZ
ψ (x, t ) = Ak 0 cos ω 0 t k 0 x dk 0
k ∆k

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 42 / 55

Phasor representation of the wavefunction
The state of a quantum particle may then be described by a wave
packet of the form
+∆k
kZ
ψ (x, t ) = Ak 0 cos ω 0 t k 0 x dk 0
k ∆k

This is illustrated below

1.5

LEGEND

1
red : 1 wavelet
magenta : 5 wavelets
green : 10 wavelets
yellow : 25 wavelets
0.5

Amplitude normalised to 2N
0
where N is number of wavelets

-0.5
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

x π

A wave packet
WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 42 / 55
de Broglie matter waves

According to Einstein, a photon has a relativistic mass such that

E = mc 2

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 43 / 55

de Broglie matter waves

According to Einstein, a photon has a relativistic mass such that

E = mc 2

With the energy of a photon given by

E = hf

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 43 / 55

de Broglie matter waves

According to Einstein, a photon has a relativistic mass such that

E = mc 2

With the energy of a photon given by

E = hf

We have,
hc
mc 2 = hf =
λ

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 43 / 55

de Broglie matter waves

According to Einstein, a photon has a relativistic mass such that

E = mc 2

With the energy of a photon given by

E = hf

We have,
hc
mc 2 = hf =
λ
Hence a photon has momentum given by
h
mc = p =
λ

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/31 43 / 55

de Broglie matter waves

By analogy, de Broglie postulated that the momentum of a classical

particle of mass m moving with velocity v could also be expressed as
h
mv = p =
λ

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de Broglie matter waves

By analogy, de Broglie postulated that the momentum of a classical

particle of mass m moving with velocity v could also be expressed as
h
mv = p =
λ
Or
h h
λ= =
p mv

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de Broglie matter waves

By analogy, de Broglie postulated that the momentum of a classical

particle of mass m moving with velocity v could also be expressed as
h
mv = p =
λ
Or
h h
λ= =
p mv
λ is called the de Broglie wavelength of the matter wave

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de Broglie matter waves

By analogy, de Broglie postulated that the momentum of a classical

particle of mass m moving with velocity v could also be expressed as
h
mv = p =
λ
Or
h h
λ= =
p mv
λ is called the de Broglie wavelength of the matter wave
Strictly, m is the mass of the particle at rest with a relativistic
correction

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de Broglie matter waves

By analogy, de Broglie postulated that the momentum of a classical

particle of mass m moving with velocity v could also be expressed as
h
mv = p =
λ
Or
h h
λ= =
p mv
λ is called the de Broglie wavelength of the matter wave
Strictly, m is the mass of the particle at rest with a relativistic
correction
The correction is however negligible for particles with low momentum
and …nite rest mass

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de Broglie matter waves

Example (2)
What is the de Broglie wavelength for an electron that has been
accelerated through a potential …eld of 100 V ?

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de Broglie matter waves

Solution (2)
We assume the electron is moving with a velocity v << c (nonrelativistic
motion). Thus,
p2 p
Ek = n ) pn = 2mn E
2mn
The electron gains an electrostatic potential energy
17
U = qV = 1, 602 10 J

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Example: de Broglie matter waves

Solution (2 continued)
Hence
24 1
pn = 5, 403 10 kgms
and
h
λ= 0, 1226 nm
p
which is roughly of the same order of magnitude as the interatomic
separation in a metal crystal

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de Broglie matter waves

The total energy of a classical particle of mass m moving with

velocity v is given by the Hamiltonian

p2
E = +U
2m
where U is the potential energy in the environment in which the
particle is moving

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de Broglie matter waves

The total energy of a classical particle of mass m moving with

velocity v is given by the Hamiltonian

p2
E = +U
2m
where U is the potential energy in the environment in which the
particle is moving
Hence, in general,
h
λ= p
2m (E U)

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de Broglie matter waves

The total energy of a classical particle of mass m moving with

velocity v is given by the Hamiltonian

p2
E = +U
2m
where U is the potential energy in the environment in which the
particle is moving
Hence, in general,
h
λ= p
2m (E U)

The wavelength of a particle with constant total energy

(conservative) will therefore change as the particle moves through
regions with di¤erent potential energy

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

In QM, particular pairs of observables referred to as complementary

pairs cannot be determined simultaneously to an arbitrary precision

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

In QM, particular pairs of observables referred to as complementary

pairs cannot be determined simultaneously to an arbitrary precision

Example complementary pairs include

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

In QM, particular pairs of observables referred to as complementary

pairs cannot be determined simultaneously to an arbitrary precision

Example complementary pairs include

momentum-position pair

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

In QM, particular pairs of observables referred to as complementary

pairs cannot be determined simultaneously to an arbitrary precision

Example complementary pairs include

momentum-position pair
Energy-time pair, etc.

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

The de Broglie wave of a particle is the superposition of in…nitely

many waves and has the form
2π E
Ψ (x, t ) = A sin (ωt kx ) , k = , ω = 2πf =
λ }
where Ψ (x, t ) is now referred to as a wave packet

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

The de Broglie wave of a particle is the superposition of in…nitely

many waves and has the form
2π E
Ψ (x, t ) = A sin (ωt kx ) , k = , ω = 2πf =
λ }
where Ψ (x, t ) is now referred to as a wave packet
By use of Fourier integral methods, it can be shown that for wave
motion of any type

∆k 1 1
∆x = ∆x ∆
2π λ 4π

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

The de Broglie wave of a particle is the superposition of in…nitely

many waves and has the form
2π E
Ψ (x, t ) = A sin (ωt kx ) , k = , ω = 2πf =
λ }
where Ψ (x, t ) is now referred to as a wave packet
By use of Fourier integral methods, it can be shown that for wave
motion of any type

∆k 1 1
∆x = ∆x ∆
2π λ 4π

And
E 1
∆t∆f = ∆t∆
h 4π

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

∆x is the spread of the wave packet in space,

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

∆x is the spread of the wave packet in space,

∆k is the range of reciprocal wavelength,

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

∆x is the spread of the wave packet in space,

∆k is the range of reciprocal wavelength,
∆f is the range of frequencies

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

∆x is the spread of the wave packet in space,

∆k is the range of reciprocal wavelength,
∆f is the range of frequencies
∆t is a measure of the time the wave packet requires to go past a
given point in space, i.e., the duration of observation

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

∆x is the spread of the wave packet in space,

∆k is the range of reciprocal wavelength,
∆f is the range of frequencies
∆t is a measure of the time the wave packet requires to go past a
given point in space, i.e., the duration of observation
The ∆’s should be understood as standard deviations

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

From de Broglie’s relation, the wavelength of an x-directed particle is

given by
1 px
=
λ h

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

From de Broglie’s relation, the wavelength of an x-directed particle is

given by
1 px
=
λ h
Thus,
px 1
∆x ∆
h 4π
or
}
∆x ∆px
2

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

From Einstein’s energy relation,

E 1
∆t∆
h 4π
or
}
∆t∆E
2

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle puts a limit on the precision with

which

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle puts a limit on the precision with

which
Particle position can be determined when particle momentum is known
- particle position and its momentum cannot be determined
simultaneously

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle puts a limit on the precision with

which
Particle position can be determined when particle momentum is known
- particle position and its momentum cannot be determined
simultaneously
Observation time required to determine the energy with arbitrary
precision - in…nite observation time will be required for this!

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle puts a limit on the precision with

which
Particle position can be determined when particle momentum is known
- particle position and its momentum cannot be determined
simultaneously
Observation time required to determine the energy with arbitrary
precision - in…nite observation time will be required for this!
Suppose ∆x = 0, 1 nm, then for the free electron of example (2),

}
∆px
2∆x
or
∆px 5, 272 10 25
kgms 1

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

And
∆px
∆vx
mn
or
∆vx 5, 79 105 ms 1

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Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

And
∆px
∆vx
mn
or
∆vx 5, 79 105 ms 1

i.e., an error on the same order of magnitude as the electron thermal

velocity!

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