Saimaa University of Applied Sciences

Technology, Lappeenranta
Double Degree Programme
Civil and Construction Engineering

Fedor Zakharov

Reconstruction of foundations in Russia

Bachelor’s Thesis 2015

ABSTRACT
Fedor Zakharov
Reconstruction of the foundation in Russia, about 45 pages
Saimaa University of Applied Sciences, Lappeenranta
Technology, Civil and Construction Engineering
Double Degree Programme in Civil and Construction Engineering
Tutors: Sami Kurkela, Saimaa University of Applied Sciences, Lappeenranta
Alexander Derendyaev, LLC “Technopolis”, Saint-Petersburg.

The purpose of the work was to analyze and to review the field of the foundation
reconstruction in Russian Federation. It was necessary to investigate the
modern appearance causes of the reconstruction necessities and to determine
the strengthening goals of the foundations. And finally, it was required to identify
the most popular methods of the reconstruction, to compare them with the most
popular Finish ones and to confirm them by the real structural examples.

For these goals, the scientific works of the leading Russian experts in the field
of geotechnical engineering were used. A large number of materials of the
research papers, theses, textbooks and publications were analyzed. Also,
project materials of the real objects from different design companies were used.

All results of the researches can be found in this work. All major reasons of the
foundation reconstruction and strengthening in Russia are given below. The
most popular methods of strengthening were chosen and the details and
conditions of use were presented and compared with Finish situation. The
problems of foundation reconstruction on the objects, which are influenced by
the dynamic loads, were also examined. The features of such objects and the
difficulties, which arise there, were analyzed. All methods are supported by
examples of real reconstruction works. In the end, a short reference
comparative table of these methods was created.

Keywords: reconstruction of the foundations, reasons of reconstruction, static

and dynamic influences, methods of reconstruction, foundation soil, foundation
footing.
CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 4
2. REASONS OF THE RECONSTRUCTION............................................................. 5
2.1. Reconstruction of the building (include overhaul and heightening of additional
floors) ............................................................................................................................ 6
2.2. Breakdown of the foundation’s materials and reduction of its dampproofing....... 7
2.3. Disturbance of stability conditions of the building during maintenance ............... 9
2.4. Development of large deformations of the building ............................................ 11
2.5 Violation of building and structure stability on the slopes ................................... 15
3. SYSTEMATIZATION OF THE DEFORMATION CAUSES .............................. 17
4. METHODS OF THE RECONSTRUCTION ......................................................... 20
4.1. Foundation widening............................................................................................ 21
4.2 Injections ............................................................................................................... 25
4.4 Foundation slab ..................................................................................................... 31
4.5 Pressed piles .......................................................................................................... 33
4.6 In-situ piles ............................................................................................................ 36
4.7 Grout-injected piles ............................................................................................... 46
4.8 Complex cases....................................................................................................... 52
4.8.1 Shopping center in Ufa....................................................................................... 53
4.8.2 Business center in Moscow ................................................................................ 55
4.8.3 The building of the Admiralty in St. Petersburg ................................................ 57
5. COMPARISON OF RUSSIAN AND EUROPEAN METHODS OF
FOUNDATION RECONSTRUCTION ..................................................................... 61
6. SELECTION OF METHODS OF FOUNDATION RECONSTRUCTION .......... 69
7. DYNAMIC INFLUENCE ...................................................................................... 71
7.1 Features of the dynamic effects on structures and foundation soil ....................... 71
7.2 Features of the survey of foundations and foundation soils under dynamic loads 73
7.3 The increase in mass and stiffness of foundations in their strengthening ............. 75
7.4 Regulation of oscillation parameters in the reconstruction of machinery
foundations .................................................................................................................. 82
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 87
REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 92
APPENDIX №1 .......................................................................................................... 96
1. INTRODUCTION

In the 20th century in Russia (Soviet Union) there was a significant gap in the
development of industry, science, construction and many other areas. If we talk
about buildings, that were built large structures (cosmodroms Plesetsk and
Baikonur, St. Petersburg and Moscow underground, nuclear power-stations,
etc.) as well as the most common structures (social buildings, roads, bridges,
tunnels, etc) across whole country.

Unfortunately, the development of infrastructure does not always go without

leaving a trace. In that time the motto was "We build, build, build!", but for
preservation of the existing buildings there were not so much attention. At the
same time, the development of underground structures (underground passages,
parkings, subway, etc.) has led to changes in soil conditions under existing
buildings. And this is just one of the reasons why the issue of foundation
reconstruction in Russia is on the leading positions.

Despite the power of the Soviet Union in view of construction quality, in 90s
after the collapse of the country, Russia has turned into something that
resembled only vaguely the great building power. Crime, theft, negligence led to
the fact that the structure, which were built about 20-25 years ago, also in need
of renovation. Engineering surveys were conducted poorly, materials supplied
with understated properties than which were ordered, money were stolen, and
the process of building was controlled badly.

There are many other reasons for the need of reconstruction of foundations. It
should be remembered that Russia is so vast, that it is very easy to find all
kinds of geological, natural and weather conditions in its territory. In view of the
changes, a lot of structures are not meet the requirements, according which
they were built during the recent renovations or first arrangement.

Also, the science and building technologies are developed now rapidly. The
ideas of reconstruction, maybe, are the same as they were 50 years ago, but

4
the way of execution of these ideas are changed radically. The number of
technology is growing. Some of them are successful, some as yet unknown, but
all of them could be applied. In addition, in Russia there are many historic areas
and buildings, sites and monuments. Caring for them is also require the most
advanced technologies and fast response, especially in places with such weak
and unstable soils, as St. Petersburg.

It is because of all these reasons, the issue of the foundation reconstruction in

Russia is very relevant today. However, naturally, carrying out such work
involves not only the selection of the first available method of strengthening and
its performance. This is a big task, which requires:

1. Determination of the strengthening reasons;

2. Accomplishment a thorough research of geotechnical conditions, the
condition of the foundation, the superstructure of the building. In general,
the full picture of the situation;
3. Determination of all possible acceptable methods of work and careful
final choice of technology;
4. Finally, the implementation of a range of works on strengthening and
further maintenance of the situation.

About the main reasons of the strengthening and the most popular methods of
the foundation reconstruction in Russia is the next text.

2. REASONS OF THE RECONSTRUCTION

As a rule, the need of reinforcement and reconstruction of the foundations and

hardening of the foundation soils appears during reconstruction of whole
building, including its overhaul and heightening of the additional floors. This
questions are also appears when there are relative settlement of the building,
equalization of building’s heeling, underground services laying, building of
foundation in cramped conditions and in other cases, when there are no normal

5
conditions to maintenance. The common reasons, which follow the need of
reconstruction, in 4 parts can be grouped.

• Reconstruction of the building (include overhaul and heightening of

additional floors);
• Breakdown of the foundation’s materials and reduction of its
dampproofing behavior;
• Disturbance of stability conditions of the building during maintenance ;
• Development of large deformations in the building (Polischuk 2004).

2.1. Reconstruction of the building (include overhaul and heightening of

additional floors)

Reconstruction of the building in most cases binds with rising of the foundation
and foundation soil. It concern not only dead load, but live load too, because of
changing old technical equipment, rising of its amount, installation of heavy
bridge crane and so on. As a result, the pressure under foundation’s footing can
exceed the design resistance of the soil. So that, it demands to make the
foundation’s footing bigger or make the soil stronger if there is no reserve of
veering capacity of the foundation soil.

Figure 2.1 Deformations of maintained buildings in time of the construction of

new buildings near them (a) or contiguity it to new buildings (b). [32]

The problem of the influence of adjacent buildings on the footing of each other
should be also taken into account.

6
In time of reconstruction of the ready-made areas in the city and during rising of
the building density, implementation of the new building near legacy one will
follows irregular deformation and settlement with appearance of cracks
especially next to the area of building connection. Data of Saint-Petersburg
State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering says, that there are 128
building, new buildings were made near which in Saint-Petersburg and about
80% are have serious deformations because of it. There is the same situation in
Tyumen, Tallinn and other cities. The reasons are follows:

• Changes in mode of deformation of foundation footing;

• Technological influences ( vibration during notching, soil freezeing, piping
and others).

2.2. Breakdown of the foundation’s materials and reduction of its

dampproofing

Breakdown of the foundation’s materials and reduction of its dampproofing

behavior often happens because of aggressive ground water influence. It
appearances because of the solution of salt in the ground, chemical bath leaks
from sewer net and other things. Because of the interaction of salt solutions with
foundation structures in the voids of the foundation material a lot of pressure
due to the crystallization of salt appears. This reduces the strength of the
concrete, mortar of brick masonry and gradual destruction of the foundations.

Sometimes some dynamic actions could be a reason of foundation crumbling.

These dynamic actions are vibration from transport, work of different
mechanisms, pile driving and so on.

The common reason of foundation’s materials breakdown is the problem with

waterproofing. Most of all it is popular reason for old building because of the
rising of the cultural layer. The result is that the horizontal waterproof sinks
under surface of the soil and ground water could go into the structure materials
without any problems and destroy the construction in time.

7
In history, there are many examples of material breakdown because of the
groundwater level changes. The most typical example is rot process of wooden
piles in place of their connection with grillage after decreasing of the
groundwater lever (see figure 2.2). It leads to mutilation of a head part of the
pile under loads and to the significant relative settlement of the building. It
happened with building of Maly theatre in Moscow and center part of Turku city
because of the installation of many engineering services. The settlement was
stopped only after reconstruction of foundations with help of armo piles,
reinforced concrete piles “Mega” and multisectional steel piles “Gustavsberg”
(Tishkov 2014).

Figure 2.2 The rot process of wooden piles. [45]

Sometimes in reinforced concrete elements the reinforcement is broken down

due to the corrosion. The most popular reasons are availability of vagabond
currents or aggressive environment influence (soil, acid, alkali solutions) (see
figure 2.3). Corrosion leads to reduction of reinforcement sizes. So that, in

8
foundations take place the development of the cracks and reduction of working
area of foundation bed what leads to additional settlement.

Figure 2.3 The corrosion of the reinforcement. [30]

2.3. Disturbance of stability conditions of the building during maintenance

The disturbance of stability conditions of the building during maintenance

appears by several reasons. The most common are changes in hydrogeological
conditions of the area, water leakage from the utilities (water supply system,
sewerage system, heating networks), bad control of surface water and so on.
The additional ground moistening leads to degradation of the mechanical
properties of the soil and to the attenuation of the ground footing. As a result,
excessive foundation settlement, deformation of another parts of the structure
and risk of failure. In some cases, the weakening of the base by reducing the
strength characteristics of the soil leads to the emergency condition building.

9
Researches show that in some industrial Russian cities noted intensive
groundwater rising. For example, for the period from 1965 to 1977 the
groundwater level raised on 10-15 m in Dnepropetrovsk, Zaporozhye, Hersone,
Rostov-na-Dony and other cities. The reasons for this are intensive
development of the territories, which violates the terms of surface runoff,
leakage of communications, tanks, and water flooding through the construction
of dams and reservoirs (Konovalov 2000).

In researching for industrial building in Dnepropetrovsk, the groundwater was

not found even on the depth of 30 m. The building was designed and built with
short (10-12 m) vibroshtamp piles. By the time of delivery of the building in
operation was recorded significant settlement with a tendency of increasing in
time. It was found that the cause of settlement is a rising groundwater level to a
depth of 14 m. Due to the significant deformation of the building, it was not
taken over and was in need of perform the expensive works to strengthen the
foundations of columns with jacking piles up to 30 m (Konovalov 2000).

There are cases of foundation footing instability under dynamic effects, karstic-
piping processes with the formation of sinkholes under the foundations, with
intensive decomposition of organic substances in the soil, as well as additional
moistening of the soils. The disturbance of foundation stability conditions is
observed on the permanently frozen soil, which happens due to the defrosting
process of the base after the penetration of the heat flows, and in some other
cases.

Excavation development next to the existing foundations leads to loosening of

the soil base and to reducing their strength characteristics. To reduce the
impact on the foundations, the careful fencing of the existing foundations is
required.

Thus, the disturbance of the ground stability leads to the serious damages of
the buildings and then, to the need of time-consuming repair work.

10
2.4. Development of large deformations of the building

Development of large deformations of the building in most cases is explained by

mistakes during exploration, projecting, implementation and maintenance of the
building.

Not enough amount of researches is the most popular mistake in exploration. It

means that not enough boreholes and pits were made and that leads to
incorrect and incomplete data about ground footing. There could be some
geological element (peat, pulp, another soft soil) on several depth, which have
low compression strength or can decompose well, because of which the
building will have deformation. Not enough amount of researches leads also to
lack of data about karstic deposit or underground vesicle in base, during
providing the geotechnical investigations sometimes, there are cases of
incorrect determination of the soil properties, mainly strength and deformation.
This is due to the violations in the selection, transportation and storage of
samples (Polishuk 2004).

In practice of exploration for residential buildings of low and medium-size, the

depth of boreholes usually does not exceed 8-10 m. It is considered sufficient to
characterize the properties of the soil and make the necessary calculations of
the foundation. However, this principle does not work when buildings stand on
the peaty areas, which are composed ground plant residues, including layers or
lenses of the buried peat.

A year after taking over, the three-story brick building got the increasing in time
irregular settlement. The observation of the technical documentation showed
that at the base of the building laid a thick layer of moraine refractory plastic
loam (see figure 2.4). However, the growth of the building’s settlement
continued, so that, it was decided to carry out additional geotechnical
observations. After drilling a borehole with 15 m depth (before this, the standard
depth does not exceed 8 m), the lens of peat (thickness is 6 m or more), which
was widely developed in the plan, was found. The presence of strongly pressed

11
soil, which was not detected at the stage of research, became the cause of the
building deformation.

Figure 2.4 The destruction of the building part (1) due to the band of soft soil (2)
availability. [31]

Distorted data of the soil properties can be obtained by the prediction error of
groundwater level changes and by the overall assessment of the
hydrogeological conditions of the site. There are examples of getting the false
information about the strength and deformation characteristics of soil as a result
of incorrectly chosen research techniques, as well as due to the lack of attention
to the chemical properties of groundwater.

Among the errors in the design of foundations, there is wrong assessment of

specific soil properties and foundation bearing capacity during freezing and
thawing of the seasonally frozen ground, possibly increasing level of
groundwater, infiltration of salts, acids and other chemical solutions into the soil.
Design errors are caused by the underestimation of the composition and nature
of the load transfer, acting on the foundation. The additional settlements and
unacceptable roll structures may incur under repeated alternating loads
(Polishuk 2004).

12
Errors during construction were the cause of strengthening and reconstruction
works a lot of times, especially in construction of buildings and structures in
complex engineering-geological conditions. In one of the areas of mass building
of Moscow there was 12-storey house built. According to research materials,
there was filled-up ground on the surface, with thickness 3.5-4.0 m and the
alluvial deposits (loams, peats) were under it. These deposits had low
loadbearing capacity and high deformability. Below, at a depth of 10-18 m thick
layer of sand was located. The project decision was the installation of pile
foundation with 12 m piles. Due to the different depth of the sand layer, ends of
piles under part of the building were buried in the sand, and the other part, as a
result of poorly studied area, were in the middle layer of loams.

During the process of building erection, the differential settlements started to

appear. The researchers showed that the settlement difference to the end of
erection could be about 12-13 cm.

The development of large building and structure deformations are caused,

sometimes, by incorrectly selected design models and methods of design
calculation. There were cases, when the design of the buildings on the highly
compression grounds did not include the activities to increase the spatial rigidity
of the building. It led to unacceptable cracks in the walls and deformation of the
other building structures. The absence of settlement joint at the junction parts in
the buildings with different height parts, as well as a significant difference of
pressure on the foot of the basements in the same building, caused the
development of differential settlement of the foundations.

Mistakes, which are made in constructing of footings and foundations, are the
most common in practice of the construction and cause the development of the
unacceptable deformations of the buildings and structures. The problems
appear in disturbance of the soil structure due to improper organization of the
dewatering work on the site and pumping water from the pits, during the
development of trenches and other excavations at the sites with weak clay soils.
Development of inadmissible deformations of the buildings and structures in the
construction process occurs sometimes, due to the freezing and thawing of the

13
soil under inopportune filling cavities of the foundations or absence of basement
frost protection.

In recent years, the number of cases of significant and uneven settlements of

the buildings in use is increased significantly because of the pile unsinking up to
design levels. The reason for this is mainly a wrong selection of pile-driving
equipment.

Settlement of a paper machine factory near Imatra (Finland), as a result of pile

unsinking up to design levels, was 150 mm. To correction, the resulting bank a
challenging work and high costs were demanded.

In the practice of construction, there are cases when there is no control over the
quality of performed work and the bases and foundations are arranged with
disturbance of building codes. Typical examples are piling with a deviation from
the design position (see figure 2.5), poor compression of bedding course in
foundation footing, concrete freezing of the foundation construction, laying of
the concrete of the monolithic grillage on contaminated pile heads. The builders
often consider that it is unnecessary to protect interior and exterior basement
walls from the effects of groundwater by waterproofing or screens. Problems in
the construction and maintenance of buildings can occur if you did not perform
works on preconstruction compression of weak of water-saturated ground
footings (Konovalov 2000).

Figure 2.5 Pile horizontal deviation from the design position. [7]

14
Typical causes of technology construction disturbance of the foundation could
be: long downtime of open pits, mistakes in foundation installation and
discrepancy of the foundations to the project sizes, using of reduced concrete
grade, unjustified exchange of structures and materials, poor performance of
joints and interfaces.

Mistakes which are made during the maintenance of buildings and structures
also cause the development of non-uniform deformations. Most often, the
deformations of the structures in this case are the result of soaking the soil with
water, human waste water and process solutions, which are coming from the
faulty engineering services. Most affected by aggressive actions are
foundations of industrial buildings of chemical, aluminum and petrochemical
industries.

The disturbance of the building normal use occurs when bearing structures are
overload by the installation of new additional equipment. Abnormality of
equipment action often leads to the redistribution of loads on the foundations
and, as a consequence, their destruction.

Problems in building use arise under the disturbance of temperature and

humidity indoor condition, under the wrong device of openings in concrete walls
and in other cases.

2.5 Violation of building and structure stability on the slopes

During operation of the buildings and structures, which were built on the slopes
or near them, there is the risk of loss the stability and strength of the structures
due to potential landslides of the ground. This deformation may occur both on
the structure because of the effect of the unstable soil masses pressure and on
the foundation footing because of loosening of the foundation soil under the
building as a result of the landslide mass displacement down on the slope. Such
ground motion on an inclined surface can begin for a variety of reasons: the
shear forces are bigger than holding ones; the logging of the slope and as a
result - reducing the strength characteristics of the soil on its slope; abrasion of

15
the slope bottom by the sea or river water and as a result - the imbalance of the
ground mass; wind erosion of the surface layers; seismic influence, and so on.

Practically, the danger to the buildings and structures is the result of a ground
masses influence on it in case of occurrence of the landslide movements on the
slopes. When the structure stands in the upper part of the slope, the “creeping
out” of the ground from under the building and loosening of the base is
happened (Figure 2.2.a). As a result, under foundation footing, the foundation
soil becomes heterogeneous and in the building the vertical cracks start to
appear as a result of uneven settlement. When the building stands directly on
the slope, after the activation of the landslide, there is a displacement of the soil
beneath the building - in part together with the construction, in part, by flowing
around its basement (Figure 2.2.b). In this case, illegal building deformations
can be caused by soil pressure on it, or by the uneven movement of the
individual parts of the building. In case, when the building is located at the
bottom of the slope, it usually gets the pressure of the ground shifting masses
(Figure 2.2.c) (Polishuk 2000).

Figure 2.6 Violation types of the building stability on the slope: a – foundation
soil loosening under the foundation structures; b - displacement of the soil
beneath the building; c – pressure on the construction of the sliding down
ground; 1 - the existing building; 2 - slope surface; 3 - sliding surface of the
landslide. [31]

16
3. SYSTEMATIZATION OF THE DEFORMATION CAUSES

There were 130 buildings inspected. They are located throughout the country.
These works were carried out between 1980 and 1998. The task was to identify
the causes of the building deformations (sometimes accidental), to evaluate
their serviceability and the foundation strengthening, to elaborate the decisions
on reconstruction, heightening and others (Polishuk 2000).

The buildings were built at different times, from 1900 to 1995. Classifications of
the inspected buildings by the type of foundation, structural scheme type and
the presence of basements are presented in the following tables:

Table 3.1 The distribution of the inspected buildings by the foundation type.
Distribution of the surveyed buildings
classification of The proportion of
by the foundation type, %
the surveyed the surveyed
Shallow
buildings buildings, % Pile foundations
foundations
Industrial buildings 62 52 10
Civil buildings 38 28 10
total 100 80 20

Table 3.2 The distribution of the inspected buildings by the design scheme type.
The Distribution of the surveyed buildings by
classification of
proportion of the design scheme type, %
the surveyed
the surveyed Load-bearing Not full
buildings Full frame
buildings, % walls frame
Industrial
62 33 17 12
buildings
Civil buildings 38 35 2 1
total 100 68 19 13

Table 3.3 The distribution of the inspected buildings by the presence of the
basement.

17
 Distribution of the surveyed buildings
classification of The proportion of
by the presence of the basement, %
the surveyed the surveyed
Without
buildings buildings, % With basement
basement
Industrial buildings 62 10 52
Civil buildings 38 22 16
total 100 32 68

Thus, the most part of the surveyed buildings is classified as industrial (62%)
with load-bearing walls, without the basement and with shallow foundations.

The portion of civil buildings from the total number is 38%. Most of them are
erected with the load-bearing longitudinal walls with the basement and on the
shallow foundations.

From the all inspected buildings (structures) those, which have had the
deformations or the destruction of the individual sections and elements, were
identified. The portion of such buildings was 63%. The other buildings have had
no deformation (destruction) of walls, foundations, and other structures, and the
inspection was related to the heightening, redevelopment, replacement of
technological equipment, etc. The results of this inspection were analyzed.
According to these finding, the most common reasons of the building
deformation (destruction) were determinated (see table 3.4) (Polishuk 2000).

There were four main groups of reasons. The first group includes deformations
(destructions) of the buildings which were occurred as a result of mistakes in
building design stage (including stage of the construction engineering
investigation).

The second group is the group of deformations (destructions) of the buildings

which were occurred as a result of mistakes in process of erection
(maintenance, reconstruction) of the building.

18
The third group includes the deformations (destructions) caused by the
mistakes, which were made during the operation of the buildings.

The fourth group includes deformation (destruction) of the buildings that were
occurred as a result of physical depreciation, fire, impoundment of the sites and
others. These deformations of the buildings integrated into the group "other
reasons".

On the basis of the approach, which was adopted (see table 3.4), It was found
that the biggest number of the building deformations (42%) occured at the stage
of building upkeep because there was not proper supervision of the state of
building structures and elements (soaking the soil, foundations and other
above-ground structures, the heat and humidity changes in the premises,
unreasonable overloads of the building individual sections, the effects of the
negative temperature on poorly protected elements, etc.) (Polishuk 2000).

Table 3.4 The main causes of the building deformation or destruction.

Distribution of the
The proportion
Reasons of the building reasons for the inspected
of the
№ deformations and buildings, %
determinated
destructions Industrial Civil
reasons, %
buildings buildings
Mistakes in building
designing (including
1 11 8 3
construction engineering
investigation)
Mistakes in erection
(maintenance,
2 32 20 12
reconstruction) of the
building
Mistakes in upkeep of the
3 42 21 21
building
4 Another reasons (physical 15 8 7

19
 depreciation, fire,
impoundment of the sites)
total 100 57 43

In analyzing the results of the survey, the reasons of the building deformation,
which have occurred only because of the loss of operational qualities of the
fundamental part were revealed. These data show that the portion of deformed
buildings in which structural deformation occurred due to loss of performance of
the foundation is 63-65%. From this fraction 66% are the industrial buildings
and 34% - civil buildings.

Thus, analysis shows that the main part of deformation and destruction of the
buildings are the result of errors, which were made during the construction
stage and operation period of the buildings. Their combined share of the total
number is 74%. The remaining causes of deformations of the buildings (26%)
are associated with errors that have been committed at the stage of design,
construction and engineering research, as well as the physical depreciation of
the buildings, natural disasters and others. All this indicates that the questions
of the design, construction, reconstruction and operation of the foundation of the
industrial and civil buildings are in need of more attention (Polishuk 2000).

4. METHODS OF THE RECONSTRUCTION

The deformations of constructions are happened during the long period of

buildings and structures exploitation. The main cause of the foundation
destruction is irregular settlement which causes the disturbance of walls,
columns and slabs during the buildings implementation on the soft soil.

Selection of technologies for foundation reconstruction depends on the category

of the building conditions, as well as the estimated risk category of the
reconstruction works. The main factors in technologies choosing are those
factors which are associated with the design features of the building, the

20
condition of the soil under the foundation and the equipping of organizations
which are engaged into the work.

Modern calculation methods make it possible to simulate the competitive

variants of ground base and foundation strengthening technologies on the basis
of geotechnical information. For difficult cases of the reconstruction, it is
common to use complex of technological methods. In all cases, the proposed
technology should provide a reliable long-term exploitation of the building. The
economic, environmental and safety factors should be taken into account.

4.1. Foundation widening

There are the traditional methods of foundation strengthening. They are

associated with the increasing of the foundation footing sizes.

Figure 4.1 Traditional technologies of pinning: а – new bonded masonry; б, г –

through concrete foundation fork; в – through reinforced concrete foundation
fork; 1 - wall; 2 – new bonded to old masonry; 3 – old masonry; 4 – metal hitch
pin; 5 – concrete foundation cage; б – reinforced concrete foundation cage; - 7 -
macadam; 8 - concrete cage; 9 – working beam; 10 – distribution beam; 11 –
concrete calking. [38]

Foundations can be strengthened by the bilateral or unilateral concrete (see

figure 4.1 a, b, d) or reinforced (see figure 4.1 c) concrete foundation cage. The
widening through the concrete foundation cage is 20-30 cm on each side,
through the reinforced concrete foundation cage is not less than 15 cm. The
cages are anchored by the metal rods every 1-1.5 m in order to connection with
the foundation (Shvec 1985).

21
Figure 4.2 Method of the unilateral widening before concrete casting. [2]

Figure 4.3 The widening of the strip foundation. [9]

Widening of the foundation footing without pre-pressing of the ground is

ineffective. The foundation starts to work only after the additional loading and
then additional settlement. This settlement can take a long period of time and
over this period the designed widening works only as a dead weight. This is
clearly seen on Figure 4.4. Unfortunately, the additional settlement may be

22
limiting for the old building, which is in need of strengthening. So that, pre-
pressing of the ground with sand or gravel is the best way (Shvec 1985).

Figure 4.4 Scheme of the foundation footing widening (pressure diagram in the
plane of the footing): 1 - the existing foundation; 2 - design widening; 3 -
reinforcement; 4 - diagram of pressure before widening; 5 - diagram of pressure
after widening and additional loading of the foundation. [38]

Basic technique of the foundation widening is as follows. Reinforced foundation

is divided into separate divisions (areas) 1.5-2.0 m long. In these areas the
ditches are dug up by hands. The width is 1.2-2.0 m to the level of the foot.
After that the metal pins are hammered (either immersed into a pre-punched
holes with 50 cm staggered step) into the foundation. Then the formwork is
installed and the widening is concreted.

One variant of such strengthening is through drilling of the foundation body and
arrangement of the binding bolts for assurance the existing foundation and
strengthening constructions collaboration. In another variant, monolithic
concrete constructions are installed under the footing of the existing foundations
too and formed a "tooth".

One of the main tasks at the concrete cage installation is to provide durable
bonding of the new concrete to old. This is achieved by selecting the most
effective method of cleaning the surface of the foundation under pinning when

23
not only dirt, soot, oil and other chemicals (especially in the reconstruction of
the chemical industry) are removed, but also damaged and poor quality
concrete or mortar masonry (see figure 4.5). There may be applied: washing
with high pressure water or with a mixture of water and compressed air;
chemical flushing (hydrochloric acid); dry or wet sandblasting; surface
machining for providing roughness. The roughness of the foundation surface is
created by punches or by coal hammers with special nozzles (Tishkov 2014).

Figure 4.5 Cleaning process of the concrete surface. [46]

All these processing methods are complex and expensive, and, most
importantly, performed mostly by hand. Moreover, in areas where there is high
enough groundwater horizon, the value of work increases significantly due to
the need of pumping the water from the ditches. Pumping should be done in
such a way as to avoid the disturbance of the natural addition of the soil under
foundation of the reconstructed building and around it. Otherwise, works of
strengthening will only aggravate the condition of the building in whole.

The advantage of the method is increasing the bearing capacity of the

foundations at the expense of the foundation widening and the protection of the
foundation material from further destruction.

24
4.2 Injections

In world practice there is a large arsenal of various chemical reagents, which

are capable to secure foundation soil for a sufficiently long period. The
advantages of chemical methods are: a high degree of mechanization of all
operations; the possibility of hardening the soil in its natural occurrence to set
the parameters of the project; relatively low labor-output ratio; the sharp decline
of unskilled manual labor by digging up the ditches; the relatively low cost of
raw materials (Dalmatov 2006).

Chemical grouting allows to solve many problems in the reconstruction of fairly

complex engineering and geological conditions successfully.

The choice of the chemical agents must be very rigorous because of the high
attention to environmental protection. So, for example, the widely recommended
acids and alkalis high concentration influence on the surrounding loose soil and
underground water harmfully.

It seems reasonable the refusal of many specialists from the use of most of the
chemicals, with the exception of silicates, which are traditionally used (one- and
two-stage silicatization). silicatization is based on the use of silicate solutions
and their derivatives, which are in combination with a coagulant can form a gel
of silicic acid which cements soil particles (Dalmatov 2006).

The idea of one-stage silicatization is that the ground is pumped with

preliminary prepared by the composition of the gel-forming base (liquid glass)
and hardener. At a low viscosity of the mixture it can be injected even in the
lowfiltrate sandy soils (see figure 4.6).

25
Figure 4.6 The process of silicatization. [11]

A well-known example of this method are stabilization works of the

deformations of Odessa Theater of opera and ballet building, which was built in
1887.

Due to the foundation soil soaking, undamped settlement of the building began
to appear. Over time, they became accident. Then the solution of sodium
silicate began to inject in foundation soil under pressure through injectors.

The project provided silicatization of the entire thickness of the subsiding soil to
the top of the firm unsubsiding red-brown clay under all load-bearing wall
foundations of the theater. The ground was mounted through the clogged
vertical injectors. The result of the work is that under each wall there were two
strip-walls of the stabilized soil under each wall. (Figure 4.8)

26
Installation drawing of the injectors upon the silicatization is shown in figure 4.7
and figure 4.8.

Figure 4.7 Arrangement of the injectors upon the foundation soil silicatization of
the Odessa Opera and Ballet Theater. (On the picture every point is place of
injection). [43]

Figure 4.8 Sectional drawings of the footing under theater foundation: 1-wall; 2-
injector; 3-loess under silicatization; 4-filled soil; 5-loess; 6-red-brown clay. [19]

27
In total, there were 2300 injection points. Running measure of all strip-walls is
about 22 000m. The amount of injected sodium silicate solution was 5400 m3.

Method of the two-stage silicatization was used in the strengthening of the sand
foundation soil under the walls of the Bolshoi Theatre building in Moscow.

This method was also successfully used in the reconstruction of the chemical
factory, where there was a leak of phosphoric acid solutions into the ground for
a long time. As a result, material of the foundations under the bearing columns
of the building was damaged badly and foundation soils began to swell. The
project envisaged the arrangement of the walls, which were fixed by
silicatization along the perimeter of each foundation. The sodium silicate
solution was pumped into the ground in volume of 300-400 liters per 1 m3. The
project allowed to neutralize the effects of aggressive phosphoric acid solution
on the foundation material, to consolidate soils and prevent further swelling.

The consolidation of the soil using Portland cement is safe in terms of impact on
the environment. The hardened Portland cement consists mainly of the calcium
silicate, which is practically insoluble in water. Because of it, injection and
drilling-mixing ways are promising. These technologies are based on a mixing
of the soft soil with water-cement slurry (Dalmatov 2006).

The injections of the cement slurry are useful for soil strengthening when the
soil consists of the medium or large size grains or gravelly sands, as well as
gravel and pebble soil. The soil after cementation is fossilized. In the coarse
soils grouting is often used to create a waterproof screens than to increase the
carrying capacity of the ground.

The main disadvantages are high cost of the work, difficulties in checking the
uniformity of the injected material distribution in depth, and in the plan
(Dalmatov 2006).

It is possible to strengthen the body of the foundation by Injecting the cement

mortar or synthetic resins, etc into the body of foundation if the material is in

28
poor condition (mechanical damages, presence of the sedimentary cracks,
exfoliation and cracking of the foundation body as a result of freezing, etc). For
the cementation in the foundation body holes for the injectors are drilled. The
diameter of the holes should be larger than the diameter of the injector on 2-3
mm. The distance between them along the strip foundation corresponds to 50 -
100 cm. When the foundation is single, not less than two openings on each side
are punched. The depth of immersion of the injector into the foundation is 0.4-
0.6 m. The injector is introduced into the hole, and through it the liquid cement
mortar is injected under pressure. It fills the space from 0.6 to 1.2 m in diameter,
located around the injector (see figure 4.10). Usually the number of injection
sites depends on the degree of destruction of the foundation masonry
(Dalmatov 2006).

Figure 4.9 Chapel-monument "For grenadiers, who fell a victim under the
Plevena". a-outward appearance; b-foundation plan; 1-central column; 2-side
columns; 3, 4-brick arches; 5-brick vaults. [6]

29
Figure 4.10 Strengthening the old foundation by cementation. [44]

Figure 4.11 Installed in the structure body the tubes-injectors (left); the process
of the injection into the structure body (right). [9]

In 1997 in Eliinski square (Moscow) there were the reconstruction work in the
chapel-monument (it was created in 1887) "For grenadiers, who fell a victim
under the Plevena" (see figure 4.9). Memorial Chapel is about 14 m height, the
basement depth is about 7 m, and the mass of the monument is 130 tons. The
foundation soil is small grain sand. Inspection of the chapel-monument
foundations showed that it is able to perceive the existing load but require a
major overhaul due to the deterioration of his body.

The survey showed the urgent need of strengthening the masonry of the
supporting pillars and foundation arches by cementation of its body. All these

30
works were carried out in time and qualitatively. Chapel-monument continues to
operate normally.

Sometimes contractors, and sometimes customers, include in cementation work

of the foundation body also cementation of the contact zone "foundation-
ground”. If the foundation soil is composed of sand, gravel and pebble soil, the
injection of the cement mortar into the soil, which is possibly weakened by
piping of the sand fractions, can improve the contact between the foundation
footing and the soil. But if the ground is composed of natural structure of the
clay soil, the contact of soil and foundation is sufficiently thick and there are not
any gaps or voids. In this case, the pumped under pressure cement mortar
penetrates into the sewers, other underground utilities and other available in the
soil cavities. Thus, the valuable building material is wasted (Dalmatov 2006).

4.4 Foundation slab

During the building erection or reconstruction, the additional loads could appear
and then the uneven settlement. They occur most often because of the soft soil
under foundations, a significant difference in the loads on them, local soaking or
freezing. For solving this problem, cast-in-situ foundation slab can be used (see
figure 12). Erection the foundation slab under the building reduces the pressure
on the ground, so that, it is one of the most effective ways to increase the area
of foundations. The erection of the foundation slab is particularly advantageous
if there is filled soil under the foundation or if the settlement of the overloaded
foundations during the construction or operation grows intensively and tends to
increase the maximum allowable (see figure 4.13). The best place for erection
of the slab is at a height of 75 ... 80 cm from the base of the existing foundation
(Dalmatov 2006).

31
Figure 4.12 Implementation of the cast-in-place foundation slab. [27]

Before the erection of the foundation slab, crushed stone bed total thickness of
15 ... 20 cm with careful layer-by-layer compactor is carried out.

Fig. 4.13 Increasing of the bearing surface by the cast-in-situ reinforced

concrete slab with pressuring the soil: 1-the existing foundation; 2-reinforced
concrete slab; 3-a pipe for the injection of the expanding cement; 4–cement
mortar between the slab and the ground. [6]

Installation of the slab foundation during the requires careful and rigorous
implementation of all phases of envisaged by the project work. Otherwise, the
main objective - transfer of high load from the structures to the foundation soil -
will not be achieved.

32
Example of this is fail of the foundation slab installation in clubhouse on
Pokrovka street, 13 in Moscow, during its reconstruction. The old brick building
was built in XIX century. Several thick exterior brick walls in some areas of the
building were embedded into the weak saturated clay soil and worked as
foundations additionally. Under their footings wooden logs were stacked. The
foundations under interior columns were wooden piles. The level of
groundwater in the area of building located above the base of the foundation.
However, in 30s of this century due to construction of the subway tunnels and
underground utilities near the building, underground water level dropped rapidly,
wooden logs and piles were bared and began to rot. It was the reason of big
uneven settlement and appearing of the big cracks into the body of the existing
foundation. By the time, the deformations became critical. The project of
reconstruction included the process of installation of the reinforced concrete
foundation slab above the existing concrete floor. Before erection of the new
slab, project envisaged cleaning of the existing floor and punching holes in it to
install pipes through which would be cement mortar injected. However, this
important step in the further work was not carried out completely and
accurately, sot that, the new foundation slab in almost its purpose has not
worked. Deformation of the building continued to grow, and only thanks to
massive external and internal walls, it has not lost its serviceability.

Subsequently, the building was reconstructed a second time with a replacing of

the walls and interior columns on grout-injected piles and now the deformations
are completely stopped.

4.5 Pressed piles

If the bearing capacity of such slabs is not sufficient, it is possible to leave the
holes in them and arrange pressed multisectional piles (see figure 4.14). It is
arranged due to the close conditions of the building process. Pressed piles are
also used for exclude dangerous dynamic influence on the old buildings and
soft soil.

33
Figure 4.14 Increasing of the bearing surface by the cast-in-situ reinforced
concrete slab with with use of multisectional pressed piles: 1-the existing
foundation; 2-reinforced concrete slab; 5-rotted wood piles; 7-support rocker; 8-
pressed pile. [6]

In Finland, Sweden and Hungary in 60s the piles by pressing were popular.
They have been widely used to strengthening of the grounds and foundations in
Helsinki, Stockholm and Budapest. In some cases, the pile is supplied directly
by the foundation. These piles can be round and square section, the mass of
the element is up to 100 kg.

These piles provide not only unload of the weak soil layers located in the upper
area of the base, but also the transfer of loads from the building to more strong
deep soils (length of pile is up to 25-30 m). Such piles are made of precast
concrete elements 80-100 cm in length. The sequence of arrangement such pile
is as follows (see figure 4.16). Bottom first element with point (in soft ground
without it) is plunged by jack. The reinforced concrete distributive beam works
as a support. The advance of the prefabricated elements is produced until the
bottom one reaches the hard soil that will provide the necessary load-bearing
capacity of the whole system. The head element is set at last, the cross
sectional area of which is much greater than the cross sectional area of the pile.
After plunging to the design level of the pile under load, it is blocked by special
strut. Struts are positioned between the distributive beam and the pile head and
the resulting hole is filled with concrete (Kuzevanov & Shulyat’ev 1994).

34
Figure 4.15 The deepening process of the sections of multi-section pressed
piles. [9]

Figure 4.16 Strengthening the foundations using piles: a-piles plunge under the
wall or under the foundation footing; b–multisectional pressed piles with double-
side support beam. [20]

The main advantages of technology are follows:

• The possibility of determining the bearing capacity of pile and prediction

of the foundation deformation;
• Compaction of the soil during the plunge of piles;
• The absence of dynamic effects on the ground.

35
There is no doubt that the jacking guarantees the high precision of plunging. It
allows significantly reduce energy costs and prevent the dynamic effects,
dangerous vibration, noise and air pollution, which are foregone with using of
the diesel-compressor.

However, this technology has very serious imperfections. The main is very low
productivity.

Other disadvantages of this method are: the high cost of the work; limitations of
work in certain categories of soil; uncertainty about the value of force, which will
be transmitted to the pile. Furthermore, during subsequent operation, the
additional piles settlement due to plastic working of the soil may be occurred.
This can lead to the formation of gaps between the piles and the foundation,
which means no load transfer from the foundation to the piles.

4.6 In-situ piles

The high deformability of the foundation soil and availability of the groundwater
make the process of widening the existing foundation or its additional
deepening more difficult. In this case, the loads from the building are
transmitted on more solid layers of the soil by transferring the existing
foundation on piles.

First variant is using the casting pipe and rebar cage. The casting pipe is
immersed into the foundation soil, then the ground is removed from the inner
cavity of it and then it is filled by concrete. Then, the concrete reinforcing bars
are introduced. The piles used in this way are called bored cast-in-place pile. By
way of concrete consolidation piles are:

• concreted with compaction (Straus piles) (for cases of foundation

soils without groundwater only);
• combi piles with the concrete consolidation by the compressed air;
These piles are used in every hydrogeological conditions.

36
For Straus piles the height of each loaded into the pipe portion of the concrete
should be at least 0.8-1 m for possibility of the special concrete consolidation
without the formation of a concrete plug. In the process of concrete
consolidation the casing pipe rises slowly up and then completely removed from
the soil. The lateral surface of the pile becomes corrugated, and it increases the
adhesion between the pile and the ground. The trunk of the pile is reinforced
only at the top. The length of Straus piles in process of the foundation
strengthening is 6-12 m. The bearing capacity of the friction pile is 200-400 kN,
of the column pile - 800-1000 kN and more (Konovalov 2000).

For arrangement of the combi piles the airlock device is installed to the upper
part of the casing pipe. This device is connected to the air line network. Then
the underground water is extracted from the bore under the pressure about 0.4
MPa, generated by the device, and the concrete is compacted.

For strengthening of the strip foundations the bored cast-in-place piles are
arranged in parallel rows on both sides of the foundation that makes them
outriggers. The distance between piles in a transverse direction is determined
by the width of the foundation, as well as the ease of the drilling equipment
arrangement (see figure 4.17). Single foundation can be strengthened by two
and, if necessary, by four symmetrically arranged piles (Konovalov 2000).

37
Figure 4.17 Strengthening of the strip and single band foundations by bored
cast-in-place pile: 1-existing foundation; 2-edge beam (reinforced concrete or
metal); 3-pile grillage; 4-bored cast-in-place pile. [19]

The works on transferring the foundation on the piles in going according to the
following algorithm:

The concrete or steel edge beams are placed on the both sides of the
foundation footing in specially punched longitudinal groove and then are
carefully concreted; then the bores are drilled and the casting pipes are installed
in them; then the pile crowns are reinforced and each row is jointed in one-piece
grillage or the metal wall beam are installed. These beams are needed for
jacking the piles into the ground and to add them into work.

The foundation strengthening of the hotel "Metropol" in Moscow was performed

on the bored cast-in-place piles. The building was erected in the first half of the
XIX century. It had three floors and wooden pile foundations. After 60 years of
operation it was reconstructed, and two floors were added. At the same time the
foundation was changed from the wooden piles to the shallow foundation on
natural ground with a depth of 5 m lying and wooden piles were, respectively,
cut on the same depth. But because of not very good calculations, uneven
settlement of the building as well as big number of cracks were appeared. The
situation became worse due to the building of the metro tunnels near the hotel,
that leaded to removal of fine particles of soil from the foundation ground. So,
the decision of the transplant the walls of the building on the bored cast-in-place

38
piles with the grillage from the steel beams was accepted. There were made
1700 piles 11-14 m long. The result was the stabilization of the sediment.

Figure 4.18 Implementation of the cantilever beams on the bored cast-in-place

piles. [3]

An another example of the industrial enterprise reconstruction with bored cast-

in-place piles could be the foundations of the paper machine on factory, owned
by company Enso Gutzeit in Imatra (Finland), which were recovered by
"Pohyavahvistus" company. At the base of the machine, about 200 meters long,
difficult bedding soil with a layer of strongly compressible silty clay was
appeared. The surface of the rock lay at a depth of about 50 m. Foundations
were made from driven piles. After beginning of using this machine, the
undamped deformations of the footing were marked. A few years later, the
difference in settlement in longitudinal direction was 150 mm, and a cross-up to
70 mm. Subsequent researches showed that in places of the biggest settlement
the ends of the piles stood in the layer of soft strongly compressible soil and
sank gradually into it under loads.

39
Figure 4.19 Transferring the bed of a paper machine for bored cast-in-place
piles. [4]

The project of reconstruction included, without stopping operation of the paper

machine, to transfer the machine bed on the reinforced concrete beams with
consoles, which were supported by the bored cast-in-place piles 25 m
maximum length and after that to produce its alignment (see figure 4.19). Piles
near the bed are working on the indentation, and the second, more distant - for
pulling out, so that, it is tied by steel anchors in rock. After transferring, the
alignment in cross direction was made with help of the jacks. Longitudinal
alignment did not carry out because it does not disturb to the operation of the
machine. Totally, 120 bored cast-in-place piles were arranged. The works took
2 years and cost for the Enso Gutzeit company about 20 million Finn marks.

The second variant of the existing foundation transferring on piles is method of

high-pressure injection of the hardening solution in the ground. This method is
known as "jet technology" or “jet grouting”.

The jet technology allows to implement very effective variant of foundations

strengthening: to increase the width of the footing and, at the same time, to
increase the foundation depth. This is achieved through the arrangement of the
cement-ground material array under the foundation. From all currently available

40
injection technologies, only the jet technology allows to create a relatively
homogeneous array of stabilized soil nowadays (Bogov 2007).

It is possible to improve the conditions of load transferring on the foundation soil

through the creation of the rows of continuous, inclined to each other, walls of
the stabilized soil under foundation footings. Such constructive scheme allows
to limit the deformations of the soil arrays, which are located between the
created inclined walls. Every wall consists of individual cement-ground piers,
which is performed according the "X" shape (see figure 4.20 a) and, during the
performance of work, are almost unified with the footing of strengthened
foundation. The strengthening is realized so, that the arranged cement-ground
elements are remained in the load-bearing layer of sandy soil and do not cut it.
Thus, they improve conditions for the load transfer from the basement to the
upper dense layers of the soil.

An example of this method is reconstruction of the building, located in St.

Petersburg, Karpovka embankment. Reconstruction of the building is related to
the changing in its functionality, the increasing of the number of stories and
increasing of the live load. The building was erected in 1905 with longitudinal
load-bearing walls. The strip foundation depth is 2.1 m, and the width is 1.5 m.
The geotechnical conditions are typical for the central part of St. Petersburg.
Foundation soils contain concertal saturated sands. Sands bed thickness below
the foundations footing was 2-3 m. Sub- and late-glacial deposit of sandy clays,
which are lying under them, had low deformation characteristics and could
contribute to the development of significant additional settlement upon the load
increases without special activities of strengthening.

41
Figure 4.20 Strip foundation strengthening by jet technology: a-schematic
diagram of the strengthening; b-the fragment of the foundation strengthening; c-
section 1-1 under the footing of the strip foundation; 1-the foundation; 2–the
elements of the "foundation – cement-ground construction” strengthening
system. [43]

In the context of building reconstruction, the heightening with a significant

increasing of the loads (in some places twice the current) was planned. The
complicated factor for the reconstruction was the availability of areas with
expanded sands in foundation soil. It was suggested to perform the
strengthening of the foundation soil by the jet technology. The project of
strengthening consisted of two main stages. The first stage contained the
cementation of the existing rubble masonry foundations and ground from the
contact zone "foundation – foundation soil" by plasticized cement mortar. The

42
second stage – arrangement of the cement-ground inclined piers with 0.6 m in
diameter in staggered order. These piers were produced in a layer of sandy soil.
The location of the piers was appointed so as to avoid technological settlement
and caving. The angle of the pier slope and their step were appointed in such
way as to create a solid array of the cement-ground material under the existing
foundation footings (see figure 4.20 c) and to improve the conditions for the
transfer of loads to the foundation soil. Totally, more than 500 piers were
erected to implement the project.

Figure 4.21 General view of the pile wall made by jet grouting technology. [14]

The performance of all project requirements and functional control of work

quality allowed to obtain the ground stabilization with specified dimensions and
necessary characteristics. After works, the settlement did not exceed 3 mm
(Ulickiy & Shashkin 2010).

43
Figure 4.22 Scheme of implementation the wall of the piles using jet technology
(jet grouting): 1-borehole cavity to the depth of dense soils; 2-injector; 3-formed
pile; 4-the compressor; 5-pump for water supply; 6-Container of cement and
sand; 7–mortar pump. [43]

Technological sequence of works by this method is as follows (see figure 4.22):

borehole cavity is drilled (1); an injector dipped into the borehole cavity with
special orifice – nozzle (2); the injected mortar is conveyed under high pressure
(100 MPa); the injector is withdrawn with rotation; the pier with the desired
diameter or wall of the piers is formed (Ulickiy & Shashkin 2010).

An important factor in strengthening the foundation or the array of ground by the

jet technology is possibility of maintaining of the high pressures (80-100 MPa).
This imposes certain requirements on the used equipment, a supply line and so
on (Ulickiy & Shashkin 2010).

44
Figure 4.23 Erection of the piles by jet grouting technology. [13]

Figure 4.24 Strengthening the foundations of buildings and structures with the
use of jet technology: a-retaining wall of the abutments of the bridge across the
Danube; b-a monument of military architecture in Vienna (Rossauer barracks);
1-boring machine SC-7 (Keller); 2-the existing foundation; 3-wooden piles; 4-
strengthened soil mass; 5-staircase; 6-retaining wall of the abutments. [43]

The main advantages of jet technology:

• The ability to carry out the works in any adverse grounds and cramped
conditions;
45
 • Ecological purity of all technological operations.

However, jet technology has a number of drawbacks, the main ones are:

• The risk of local deformations in the process of soil array temporary

erosion under the foundation before the full hardening of the mortar;
• The high cost and material consumption due to the large volumes of the
soil consolidation;
• Increased danger upon the work with high pressure.

4.7 Grout-injected piles

In the last 20 years in the practice of strengthening, the grout-injected piles are
increasingly used, both vertical and inclined. With the help of the grout-injected
piles the strengthening of the foundations can be carried out without developing
the ditches and without disturbing the natural structure of the foundation soil.
This is possible because the device, which is used for the pile arrangement,
does not create dynamic effects. Strengthening this way is most appropriate to
carry out if the foundation soil of the reconstructed buildings has low bearing
capacity. In this case, some or all of the load is transmitted from the foundation
to a more deep-seated layers of the ground by the strong piles (Ulitskiy &
Shashkin 2010).

The main advantages of the grout-injected piles:

1. They completely eliminate the manual earthworks. Wells drilling is

conducted directly through the foundation, without impact on the
communications passing around buildings and in basement.
2. Using small-sized equipment. The work can be carried out from the
basement height of 2.0-2.5 m. If necessary, work can be carried out from
the first floor of the building.
3. It does not change the appearance of the structure. That is important
upon the working on the monuments of architecture.

46
 4. Works can be carried out on the existing facilities without stopping the
production process.
5. The cost of the manual labor at all technological operations is minimum;
method is economical, with low material consumption.
6. There is ecological advantage compare with chemical injections. It is very
important in view of hard ecological control.

Figure 4.25 Erection of the grout-injected pile. [13]

The main weaknesses of this method:

1. Insufficient knowledge about work of these piles in soft ground.

2. Low bearing capacity due to the small diameter that means the minor
lateral and tip surface area.
3. It is complicated to secure qualitatively the head of the pile in case of old
foundation, which subsequently works as a grillage. The lack of the
appropriate calculation.
4. It is impossible to implement the pile from heavy concrete (small
diameter wells can be filled only by the cement mortar).

The arrangement of the piles begins from drilling the well diameter of 80-250
mm. Vertical or inclined holes are made by the vertical boring machine.
Removal of cutting is going through the holes with help of pressed air or the well
is washed with fresh drilled solution for 3-5 minutes (Ulitskiy & Shashkin 2010).

47
After completing the drilling to the essential depth, the boring machine is taken
out. Then, in well with clay mortar the reinforcing cage is lowered section by
section (see figure 4.26). The length of the reinforcing cage is limited by the
height of the room in which the work is going on, and usually does not exceed 3
m. The sections are connected with each other by welding. The column piles
are reinforced on the entire length. The friction pile can be without
reinforcement at the bottom (Ulitskiy & Shashkin 2010).

After setting the reinforcing cage or parallel with it the injection tube is lowered
into the well. This injection tube is 25-50 mm in diameter and consists of the
units 1000-2500 mm length. Through this tube, the well is filled with cement-
sand mortar, which is pumped (Ulitskiy & Shashkin 2010).

Figure 4.26 Technological scheme of the grout-injected piles production with

washing the wells by bentonite solution: I-cutter drilling of the wells; II-
reinforcing cage installation; III–the injection tube installation and filling the well
with a solution: IV-bridge installation and pressing the well; V–pressing the well
starting from the wellhead: 1-boring bar; 2-reinforcing cage; 3-injection tube; 4–
the strengthened foundation; 5-wellhead tray; 6–bridge with gland; 7-finished
pile. [24]

48
Figure 4.27 The body of grout-injected pile in the ground. [5]

Pressing is an important step in the formation of the grout-injected pile body,

which is arranged in the soft ground under the protection of the mud solution.
From the value of pressure and pressing time the subsequent crimping frictional
resistance on the side surface of the pile is depended on. So that, it influences
on the value of pile load-bearing capacity. The partial cementation of the soil on
the pile-ground contact is happened. In soft ground at the pressure of 0.2-0.4
MPa the soil around the pile takes place, the pile cross-section increases and
the available spaces are filled with a solution.

The example is strengthening works on the ancient building in Arkhangelsk. The

ground was peaty soil and the grout-injected piles were discovered in the
foundation. Their actual diameter was 290 - 300 mm diameter, but the initial
drilling diameter was 151 mm. Thus, the bearing capacity of piles in weak peaty
soils can be formed using the mode of pressing and the sand-cement or just
cement mortar mix design.

Sometimes, some technological methods are used to improve collaboration of

the system "foundation - pile - soil foundation". For example, the strengthening
of the column footing of the Roman Catholic Church of St. Catherine in St.

49
Petersburg (Nevsky prospect, 32). After the injection of foundation masonry, the
injection of the contact layer between foundation and foundation soil was
repeated. That contributed to more efficient operation of short inclined piles of
the strengthening (see figure 4.28). In the sixties of the XX century, the
underground passage under Nevsky prospect was built. It led to the
underground water horizon lowering. So that, wooden ground beams of the
church began to rot. The process of rotting caused the uneven settlement of the
building. Maximum absolute settlement of the central dome during 4 years of
observations reached 8.2 cm.

Figure 4.28 Strengthening the foundation soils and the foundations of the
Roman Catholic Church of St. Catherine in St. Petersburg (Nevsky prospect,
32-34): 1-rubble foundations; 2–grout-injected (tapered) piles; 3-wooden
foundation beams; 4-concrete layer on the contact “foundation – soil”. [43]

The variant of the grout-injected short piles set in the form of a fan was chosen
(see figure 4.28). Because of the “reinforcing” of the relatively strong layer of

50
sandy soils by the concrete reinforcing rods (thin grout-injected piles), the
conditions of the load transfer were improved and sand layer has reduced down
the pressure on the weak underlying layers of sandy loam to the safe values.

The grout-injected piles have been successfully used for reconstruction of

Moscow Art Theater and the State Tretyakov Gallery, in the stabilization of
emergency deformations of an apartment house in Pskov, for the Riga Electrical
Engineering factory, for the club on the Pokrovka street in Moscow, etc.

In Rome, Cathedral of St. Andrey was strengthened, in Venice - leaning tower

of the St. Martino Church on the island with the same name. Companies
«Fondedile», «Bauer», «Keller», «Miver», «Fundex» and others, successfully
use this method.

However, sometimes, the using of the grout-injected piles can lead to a crash.
In St. Petersburg, in the building of beer production of the Stepan Razin factory
the foundations were under reconstruction. Footing size is 4.5 x 4.5 m. Building
stands on the powerful layer of the weak saturated soil. The project provided
the strengthening of each foundation by three grout-injected piles with a
diameter of 150 mm and a length of 13.2 m. But after strengthening, the
settlement started to grow faster. In all likelihood, the additional weight of these
three piles promoted to the growing, and piles did not work because of the weak
soil.

Generally, when there is large thickness of the weak soil (for example, in St.
Petersburg its capacity reaches 25-30 m) the effectiveness and efficiency of thin
long grout-injected piles may be debatable.

A lot of numerical studies and experience of foundation reconstruction showed

that using of the grout-injected piles should consider the following
circumstances:

1. The angle of the piles inclination has little effect on the value of the
settlement of the reinforced structure, but the increasing the piles

51
 inclination increases greatly the internal forces in the piles. So that, there
is no need to increase it. This fact simplifies maintenance work on piles
arrangement.
2. Piles must be secured in the foundation footing carefully. So that, the old
foundation, which consists of individual fence stone with the old solution,
should be strengthened by injections of cement mortar. The foundation
actually turns into a grillage and its strength must correspond to this
purpose. If the strength of foundation is insufficient or the pile
incorporation into the body of the foundation is realized less than on the
deep of 5 its diameter, it is necessary to create an additional structure on
"foundation-soil" contact, so-called "contact layer".
3. Upon the using of the reinforcement cage, the equal strength joints
should be designed and implemented. Actually, durable pipes, metal
profiles and special glass could be in role of the reinforcing agent. In any
case, in conditions of the weak soils, the reinforcement should be made
depending on the actual bending moments in different sections.
4. Technology of the grout-injected piles arrangement, which provides the
required design strength parameters in the soft soils, is difficult and
requires the use of special equipment complex. In order to develop such
complex, it is necessary to analyze the main advantages and
disadvantages of the grout-injected pile technology (Ulitskiy & Shashkin
2010).

4.8 Complex cases

In each case, there are multidisciplinary geotechnical tasks which require

exhaustive information about soils and parts of structure, changes in their
properties during its continuous utilization in the process of new foundations or
underground structures implementation next to these soils. Questions about
foundation soil and foundation strengthening must be solved comprehensively,
perhaps, using several ways to strengthen at once. Examples of complex
methods of the foundation reconstruction and foundation soil strengthening are
the following objects.

52
4.8.1 Shopping center in Ufa

Strengthening of the foundations, which was carried out for the shopping centre
under construction. This is multi-storey multi-span building with two
underground floors (parking). Overall dimensions of the building are 69,15 ×
239,48 m (see figure 4.29).

Figure 4.29 General view of the building. [16]

Foundations are made with piles and cast-in-place grillage under the columns
and with piles and strip cast-in-place grillage under the walls.

Piles are driven with square section. According to the geological survey, piles
go through the layers of filled soil, soft and hard-plastic loams and are sunken
from 1 to 3 m in solid and semi-solid clay. Due to the heterogeneity of the
footing both in plan and depth, the length of the piles varies from 4 to 17 m
(Gotman & Devletyarov 2014).

Work on the construction site of the shopping complex was started in 2007. In
2008, the erection of the building was stopped.

53
In 2012, a new architectural concept was made and the decision to continue the
construction was approved. At this point, all the foundations and 3 floors of the
building were made.

Due to the new architectural concept and the new space-planning decisions the
new working documentation was developed. This documentation provided the
strengthening of the foundations under columns because of the load increasing
compared to the original project in 1.2-2 times (Gotman & Devletyarov 2014).

Strengthening the foundations was performed in 3 ways, which were

determined by the difference between the design load on the foundation, in
accordance with the new space-planning decisions:

• Raising of the new design load up to 300 kN- the strengthening of the
foundation soil under the grillages by the pressure cementation through
underivable injectors;
• Raising of the new design load from 300 to 500 kN – the grillage
widening and the strengthening of the foundation soil under the grillages
by the pressure cementation through underivable injectors;
• Raising of the new design load up above 500 kN – arrangement of the
additional grout-injected piles and loads transferring on them through the
new grillage, which is concreted directly under the existing one.

Grout-injected piles diameter is 425 mm, and its length is 13 or 12 m. The

feature of this solution is that the additional foundation on grout-injected piles
starts to work only after bearing capacity exceeding of the existing foundation
and its piles (see figure 4.30). In this case, the work scheme of the implemented
foundation is not changed, so the reinforced concrete existing grillages do not
require amplification (Gotman & Devletyarov 2014).

54
Figure 4.30 Strengthening of pile foundation by grout-injected piles: reinforcing
of the new foundation on the grout-injected piles under the existing grillage
(left); reinforced foundation (right). [16]

4.8.2 Business center in Moscow

Unfinished construction of the business center was located at the address:

Moscow, Ryazan prospect-20. Overall building dimensions are 128×96 m.

The main load-bearing structures of the building are made from cast-in-place
reinforced concrete. The columns arrangement is made according to the mesh
8,0 × 8,0 m. The foundation is made from reinforced concrete foundation slab
thickness from 500 to 1000 mm. In April 2014 the underground floor of the
building and part of the ground floor were erected (Makovetskii & Zuev 2014).

The geological structure of the site: filled soil with power 2.8-3.5 m; sands of
small and medium size grains, its opening capacity is 15,2-18,3 m.
Groundwater level is in a layer of sand on 7.7-7.8 m under the surface.

Due to the change of the building purpose building and its heightening, the
complex of the loads on the foundation was increased. The existing foundation
slabs did not provide the design character of the stresses distribution on the
foundation soil and normative value of the difference between the settlements. It
was decided to strengthen the existing foundation by piles, which are performed
by the jet grouting technology. The total number of piles - 1070 pcs. The load on
one pile is from 200 to 220 tons. Design pile length - 10 m, the calculated
diameter of the pile - 600 mm (Makovetskii & Zuev 2014).

55
Figure 4.31 The typical cross section of the foundation slab with the pile by jet-
grouting technology. [23]

In order to absorb the axial pressed load, the piles were reinforced by the
central core – it was a tube with 159 mm in diameter. The bottom section of the
tube was plugged. After immersion of the core, it was filled by cement-sand
mortar. The space between the core and the foundation slab was minted by the
fine aggregate concrete (Makovetskii & Zuev 2014).

After curing, the pile head was pressurized by the cement - sand mortar for
collaborative work of the pile and the existing foundation (see figure 4.31).

The piles were arranged through the technological holes diameter of 240 mm in
the existing foundation slab. Drilling was carried out by the diamond boring bits.
The total volume of drilling - 898 m piles length (see figure 4.32).

56
Figure 4.32 Pressing of the pile head. [23]

4.8.3 The building of the Admiralty in St. Petersburg

The project of the additional foundation floor arrangement in the basement of

the Admiralty building and the strengthening of its foundations. Design work
was carried out in 2014.

Figure 4.33 Initial stage. [33]

57
At first, injection strengthening of the foundations, foundation soil and contact
layer "soil-foundation" was carried out.

Figure 4.34 Stage №1. [33]

Then the ground up to the design level was diged up. The new interior floor
level became deeper on 2.8 m and the exterior on 2 m. The groundwater level
was located at the depth of 1.5 m below the old level of the first floor. For its
containment the enclosing sheeting was installed.

Figure 4.35 Stage №2. [33]

The pressing of the gravel layer (100mm) was implemented and the layer of the
lean concrete (50mm) was underpoured. After that, the capillarity protection
58
waterproofing in the footings of the walls was performed as well as felling of the
foundation masonry part and cutting of the grooves.

Figure 4.36 Stage №3. [33]

Then the installation of reinforced concrete foundation slab 200 mm thickness

was performed. This slab was arranged on 150 mm deep into the body of the
existing foundation. The reinforced concrete cast-in-place foundation cages
(pressure-exerting prisms) to strengthen the existing foundations were
arranged. The preparation of the external surfaces of the foundation was also
implemented.

Figure 4.37 Stage №4. [33]

59
Then, the surface waterproofing and protective layer on the surface of the
rubble foundations and performed reinforced concrete structures was
performed, and the blind area as well as the yard coverage was restored.

Figure 4.38 Stage №5. [33]

Finally, the cast-in-place reinforced concrete slabs of the first floor 200 mm
thickness and its finish layer were implemented.

Figure 4.39 Final stage [33]

60
5. COMPARISON OF RUSSIAN AND EUROPEAN METHODS OF
FOUNDATION RECONSTRUCTION

The idea of comparing the methods of foundation reconstruction in Russia and

in Europe may seem a little strange. The deal is, that the reconstruction method
itself is chosen, based on the following key features and options:

• Cost of work
• State of the around territory (presence of other buildings next to the
reconstructed, their condition and status)
• The speed of work
• Possible limitations on the architectural and visual aspects (for example, the
need for renovation without affecting the appearance of the building)
• Geotechnical conditions

That is, for the different methods and technologies differences in these
characteristics are required. However, the first 4 conditions may be different or
absolutely identical in all parts of the world, and soil conditions in Europe and in
Russia are so vast and varied because of the magnitude of the regions that the
latter option of comparison is also not indicative. In other words, we can say,
that because of the size and diversity of these regions, there are no significant
differences or peculiarities in the conditions for reconstruction between them. By
this, it was decided to compare the smaller regions that are more interesting in
this study, Finland and St. Petersburg.

First of all it must be mentioned, that the difference is manifested not only in
technology renovation, but in terms of initial construction. We are talking about
ground conditions, the density of the surrounding development, the necessary
characteristics of the foundation, which depend on the size, number of floors of
the building and its materials. All these factors affect on the type of foundation
on stage of building erection.

61
In Finland, the high-rise buildings are not too popular. Most tall buildings do not
exceed 90 m, and the foundation reconstruction conserns most often the old
low-rise buildings or cottage-type buildings. In St. Petersburg the situation is a
little different: the construction of high-rise is developed stronger. Tallest
buildings reach a height of 120-140 meters, and the average height is about 70-
80 m. In the central part of the city, where are situated most of the houses in
need of renovation, the building has 6-7 floors in height. It means, that for
buildings in St. Petersburg, the foundations have to be a bit more massive and
have to take heavier loads.

In addition to this we must not forget about the ground conditions. Perhaps, it is
the most serious factor of all. Moreover, the difference in this option between
Finland and St. Petersburg is the most significant. 54% of bedrock in Finland -
is a different rocks of granite. It is located not too deep, allowing to implement
the quite strong foundations on a natural basis. As a strengthening, the
methods of metal screw piles or micro piles, where they may be used (in the
rock they can not be used), are very popular as well as the creation of
reinforced concrete cages for cottage-type buildings (chapter 4.1).

Examples of micropiles technologies.

MESI system micropiles (see figure 5.1) are made of steel pipes, which have
special injection nozzles in points of load transmission. This method makes it
possible to obtain an element of pile foundation with high-strength materials and
high load-bearing capacity of the ground, which is the result of several injections
into the base of a pile. Because the injection is performed multiple times, the
ground around the injection tube is subjected to a further compaction, which
improves the working conditions of the micro piles.

62
Figure 5.1 MESI system micropile: 1-injection nozzles; 2-lost tip; 3-injection
tube; 4-connector. [18]

Drilling micro piles (see figure 5.2) consists of a central disposed element in the
form of pipe with an external thread, and the injection mace of the cement
mixture. Pressures on the compression and tension transmitted through the
mace from the load-bearing element (steel pipe) to the ground footing. Drilling
micro piles are performed by small plants, require small diameter of boreholes
and do not give large amounts of debris. Oscillations and vibrations are also
small in size. A steel pipe in this manner is the drill pipe, the injection pipe and
reinforcement bar simultaneously.

63
Figure 5.2 Drilling micro pile: 1-system nuts; 2, the base plate; 3 petrification; 4
injection mace (cement stone); 5-injection anchor; 6-wash channel; 7-
connector; 8-lock nut; 9 drill bit; 10-hole washing. [18]

Drill pipes are produced with a diameter from 30 to 150 mm. This makes it
possible to generate the optimum length and diameter of the micro piles.

64
Examples of metal screw piles technologies.

Screw-type foundation «BAU» (1) is forged conical body (2) to which a steel
helix (3) in special configuration is welded (see figure 5.3). The design of the
screw foundation requires different variants of building materials connection (4).
According to the technology, the screw piles are screwed like screws into the
ground by hand or by means of small-scale mechanization.

Figure 5.3 Screw pile type BAU: 1-the body of the pile; 2- conical body; 3-steel
helix; 4-variants of connection. [36]

65
According to another technology (see figure 5.4), to facilitate the screwing the
pile, the portion of the blade, in a range of 2/3 - 3/4 turns, should be placed on
the tip. This design feature of the screw pile is significant because it allows you
to refuse heavy axial additional loads. For piles of this design only minimum
additional load for installation is required (in almost all cases, the load of pile
and screwing mechanism is enough).

Figure 5.4 The design of screw piles with flat blades: 1-pile body; 2-hub; 3-
screw blades; 4-strength pads. [29]

In St. Petersburg the situation is reversed. Weak unstable ground does not
allow to build in St. Petersburg residential high-rise buildings on the shallow
foundations. Most often it is friction piles, because a good rock ground is
situated on a 80 meters deep. The implementation of the piles of such length is

66
very time-consuming and expensive. Nowadays such piles are erected only for
one structure, for the skyscraper under construction Lahta-center (see figure 5.5
and 5.6). On the other hand, the buildings, which are in need of foundation
renovation, are building in the downtown, the historical building, and, most of all,
the foundations are shallow foundations, standing on the wooden logs. So,
basically, the reconstructed foundations are similar to each other, but the used
methods of reconstruction are different. The most popular ways in St-
Petersburg are grout-injected piles or injections into the soil the cement-sand
mortar or silicates. And multistage piles under pressure are also widely used.
The detailed description of these technologies are described in chapters 4.7;
4.2 and 4.5 correspondingly.

Figure 5.5 The project of Lahta-center. [21]

67
Figure 5.6. The situation on the site on the 5-th of October 2015. [22]

There is another big difference, which proves the using of these methods in
Finland and Saint-Petersburg. We are talking about surrounding area. The
challenge of foundation reconstruction in the heart of St. Petersburg in addition
to the floating soils is that fact, that the buildings are situated close to each
other. The density of building development is very high. It turns out that
strengthening works should provide as small impact of the surrounding
buildings as possible. Because of it, the technologies of piles under pressure or
injections into the ground look so effective. It does not influence any dynamic
effects on the surrounding foundations. The additional advantage of the such
technologies is that the works are carried out directly at the territory of the
reconstructed building without using the surrounding area.

68
At the same time, in Finland this situation can be found only in the central areas
of the largest cities like Helsinki and Turku. For the rest, creating a metal screw
or micro piles with shallow undercutting with console support the building on a
foundation is very suitable for Finland.

6. SELECTION OF METHODS OF FOUNDATION

RECONSTRUCTION

The selection of the methods of foundation strengthening depends on the

following main groups of factors:

• geotechnical and hydrogeological conditions;

• the condition of the existing foundation and its design;
• characteristics of the strengthening process;
• capabilities and requirements of the building;

Geotechnical and hydrogeological conditions include soil characteristics, which

occur under foundation footing, and the groundwater level as well as its
aggressivity.

To assess the condition of the existing foundation, it is necessary to work in

accordance with the following factors:

• Works should begin with a thorough analysis of the geotechnical

materials, observations of foundation deformations, establishing of the
reasons of the deformations with comparing the calculated and actual
values of the settlements and heels.
• On the basis of the existing design and survey materials analysis the
project of the additional geotechnical and hydrogeological surveys of the
building and foundation conditions at the time of reconstruction should be
drawn up. Their goal - to determine how the already made structures
correspond to the project, to assess the condition of structures,

69
 foundations and foundation soil, to determine their strength properties,
bearing capacity and the possibility of increasing the load, to predict the
additional settlements, which are associated with an increasing of the
loads.
• In the course of the survey it is necessary to determine the compatibility
of the actual operating conditions with the project ones. This compatibility
includes the comparison of design and technological values of loads,
water balance, project and actual chemical analysis of process water, its
leakage and so on. This information is necessary for determination the
degree of the technology impact on the environment, including, the
impact on the foundation soil, underground building structure and
foundations (Recommendations for strengthening…1992).

In assessing of the need of the foundation strengthening, it is necessary to carry

out the calculation of the existing foundation on the expected loads after
reconstruction with the actual values of strength and deformation characteristics
of foundation materials and foundation soils.

The characteristics of the foundation strengthening methods are follows:

• The possibility of carrying out the process under load;

• The possibility of carrying out the process without changing the
dimensions of the foundation;
• The possibility of making the construction parts of the strengthening on
the factory);
• The simplicity of the implementation;
• The rapidity of the implementation;
• The ability of the quick transfer of the live load after strengthening;
• The ability to work in cramped conditions;
• The level of the mechanization;
• The presence or absence of any changes in appearance of the structure
after reconstruction;
• The ability of utilization of the building in the process of reconstruction.

70
The possibilities and requirements of the existing buildings are follows:

• The possibility of removing the live load from the foundation before its
reconstruction;
• The ability to reduce the size of the room due to the strengthening of the
foundations;
• The restrictions, which are imposed by the location of the underground
structures and communications;
• The possibility of stopping the process of building utilization during the
period of the works.

Table in appendix №1 can help with the choice of the method of the foundation
reconstruction. It takes into account the most common characteristics of the
utilization methods.

If there are several acceptable methods of strengthening in given conditions, for

the final selection of the optimal variant the value engineering should be
conducted.

7. DYNAMIC INFLUENCE

7.1 Features of the dynamic effects on structures and foundation soil

Dynamic effects on the structures and foundation soils can be caused by

various reasons: the technology of construction work (soil compaction by
ramming, vibrators, sinking of the pile and rabbet, and so on); technological or
operational conditions (unbalanced mass movement of the fixed equipment and
machinery; movement of the ground and underground transport, and so on);
local natural or geotechnical processes, including the impacts of human
activities (wind, wave impacts, karst holes, collapses; pumping of the large
amounts of water or injection of the masses of water in deep wells under high
pressure, the creation of the large reservoirs in mining and seismic regions,

71
powerful explosions and so on); modern tectonic movements, which are
occurred in the upper part of the earth's crust and appeared on its surface
(earthquakes).

These effects become apparent in the form of dynamic loads, fast time-varying
in magnitude, direction, and sometimes on the location. The consequences of
the dynamic loads are the wave oscillations, which are appeared in the
construction and foundation soil. With all this going on, the structure may be the
source of vibrations (e.g. machinery foundations with dynamic loads) or may
take the vibrations transmitted from other sources. The overall picture of wave
propagation can be extremely difficult (see figure 7.1) (Uhov & Semenov 1994).

Figure 7.1 Dynamic effects of the vibration sources on the construction: 1-

transport tunnel; 2-ground transportation; 3-sinking of pile; 4-building; 5-plant
with dynamic load; 6-bedding soil. [42]

There are vibration loads, under which the forces, causing them, vary according
to the harmonic law (for example, the rotation of machine parts with unbalanced
masses); shock (pulse) load, which are characterized by single and multiple
short pulses (explosions, forging hammers, pile-driving, etc.); seismic loads
caused by earthquakes. In operation of some machines there is a combination
of vibration and shock loads.

72
Impact of the dynamic influences on the soil properties change depends on the
intensity of the loads frequency and their duration, the type of soil, its state
density and moisture content.

In construction practice there are cases where continuous machinery or

equipment operation with dynamic loads caused significant settlements which
are situated at some distance of the structures and leaded to their destruction
and even accidents. There are also cases of the additional settlement
appearance of the old buildings on soft ground, because of the dynamic impact
of the urban transport with the growing intensity of its movements. These
processes are related to the additional compaction by vibration of loose non-
cohesive soils.

Long-term vibration and shock can lead to a shear strength decrease of the
sandy and clay soils, especially in water-saturated condition. This causes a
reduction of the loadbearing capacity of the foundation soil under dynamic
loading in comparison with its value under a static load (Uhov & Semenov
1994).

7.2 Features of the survey of foundations and foundation soils under

dynamic loads

Inspection of the machinery foundations under dynamic loads and their

foundation soils is implemented according to a special program in case of
reconstruction or strengthening of the foundations. In some cases,
strengthening of the machinery foundations is realized to reduce the overall
level of vibrations to ensure the normal technological process and the
requirements of sanitary code. The auscultation of the machinery foundations
under dynamic loads includes not only standard whole list of the envisagation
activities for the foundation of the bearing structures but also the additional
research. This research usually include: measuring of the vibration amplitude of
the foundation and its individual parts, as well as the identification of the
fundamental frequencies of the natural vibrations and forms of the forced
oscillations of the foundation; the study of the oscillation propagation from the

73
foundation of the structure, as well as the actual state of the foundation, terms
of placement of the machine on the foundation and its attachment to it; the
definition of the actual elastic and damping characteristics of the soil;
identification of the additional dynamic settlement appearance possibility.

In strengthening and reconstruction of the machinery foundations the dynamic

forces, which are transmitted to the foundation, are taken, according to the
technical data of the machines. In case of absence of such data, the dynamic
loads are determined by calculation, according to the SP 26.13330.2012 and
the type of machine. However, the calculation of the reconstructed or
strengthened machinery basement should be based on the actual dynamic
loads, which are perceived by the foundation. Its determination is usually made,
as a rule, by special measurements with special organizations.

Experimental determination of the foundation soil dynamic characteristics of the

reconstructed or strengthened machinery foundations is produced in according
with the results of tests of these foundations on the free (for machines with
pulse-load) or constrained (for machines with periodic loads) fluctuations.

During the changing of production technology, in the workshop the new

machines with new dynamic load or new foundations for these machines could
be installed. In this case, the dynamic properties of the foundation soil should
be determined directly at the level of foundation footing by use of special
experimental foundation (punches) of various designs.

Inadmissible foundation settlement under the influence of the machines

dynamic loading is observed rarely. However, the identification of the
appearance possibility of such settlements of the reconstructed or strengthened
machinery foundations in some cases is necessary. Sometimes dynamic
settlements may cause inadmissible deformations, and even the destruction of
the loadbearing and envelope constructions of the workshops, in which there
are the foundations of the machines, as well as lead to a deterioration of the
technological equipment, because these settlements are characterized by
unevenness.

74
7.3 The increase in mass and stiffness of foundations in their
strengthening

The main reason for the machinery foundation with dynamic loads
reconstruction is their increased vibration. Methods of reconstruction are mainly
structural, and include: an increase in the mass of the foundation or its
individual parts; an increase of the rigidity of the foundation, its individual
elements, and foundation soil; an increase in the overall stiffness of the system
“machine – foundation” due to a more reliable fastening of the machine to the
foundation.

It should be noted that the increase in weight of the foundation affects the
decrease in the amplitude of its oscillations significantly only when the
additional weight is 50-80% of the principal. Particularly ineffective increase in
only the mass of the foundation (without increasing in the area of the its footing)
for the low-frequency machines, because the increase in the weight of the
foundation lead only to the decrease in its own frequency oscillation and
approaching the frequency of forced oscillations, that can cause a risk of the
resonance. More effective for low-frequency machinery foundations is to
increase the stiffness of the foundation footing by increasing the foundation
footing area with a simultaneous increase in its mass. In this case, the natural
frequency of the basement rises and moves away from the operating frequency
of the oscillations of the machine. For the high-frequency machinery
foundations, increasing the weight of the foundation without changing the area
of its footing may be appropriate to reduce the level of the foundation vibration
and to terminate the deformation caused by excessive vibrations (Shvec 1985).

The most effective way to restore the integrity of the destroyed machinery
foundations, as well as to increase the rigidity of the foundation base by
increasing the foundation footing area with a simultaneous increase in its mass
is installation of the rigid cages, which will cover the whole foundation, or
several parts of it. This provides not only an increase in cross-section of the
foundation and load transfer to the new part of it, but the connection between
deformed foundation parts together.

75
Sometimes the integrity of the foundation can be recovered by the reliable filling
of cracks by injecting of the mortar or artificial resin (see figure 7.2). This action
can be performed alone or in combination with the concrete cages installation.

Figure 7.2 The cement injections into the cracks in foundation body. [17]

In strengthening and reconstruction of the foundations for machines with

dynamic loads another effective way to reduce vibrations and to terminate the
deformation caused by excessive vibrations of such foundations is to increase
the stiffness of the foundation soil by reclamation (drainage) or solidification of
the soil. It is especially advantageous for the low-frequency machines, when the
natural frequency of the foundation on the hardened ground is higher than the
operating frequency of the machine (piston compressor, log frame, smoke
exhaust and so on). In this case, the strengthening of the foundation soil leads
to increasing in the natural frequency of the foundation and to reducing the
amplitude of the oscillations (Shvec 1985).

The positions of the fixed soil zones under the foundation and their sizes
depend on the rate and mode shapes of the foundation. When there are vertical
vibrations, the strengthening of the foundation soil is recommended to perform

76
under the entire foundation footing, in all directions and exceeding the limits of
its plan for 0.5-1 m. When there are rotational oscillations, it is enough to
strengthening the foundation soil along the perimeter of the foundation footing
by strips with a minimum width of 2 m. In both cases, the grouting must be
carried out to a depth of 1.5-2 m from the footing of the foundation.

An effective way to increase the rigidity of the machinery foundation footing is

the transplantation of the foundation on the driven or bored cast-in-place piles.
This method helps to reduce both vertical and horizontal rotational vibrations of
the “machine – foundation” system. Furthermore, for foundations, which take
the dynamic loads, except prismatic or standard piles it is possible to use the
conventional driving piles with one or more enlarged pile bases (see figures 7.3,
7.4). For foundations, which are under the influence of the horizontal dynamic
loads, it is recommended to use piles with the broadening of the pile at the top
of the body; for bases loaded by the vertical dynamic load - the pile with the
broadening of the tip (Alekseev & Shvec 2001).

Figure 7.3 Bored cast-in-place piles with widening in the bottom part. 1-casing
pipe; 2-mechanism of widening; 3-concrete; 4-concreting pipe; 5-soft soil; 6-
hard soil. [47]

77
Figure 7.4 Bored cast-in-place piles with widening in the top part. 1-pile
widening; 2-foundation panel; 3-plinth panel; 4-grillage; 5-foundation beams; 6-
panels; 7-embedded element. [15]

When there are horizontal dynamic effects and the standard vertical piles are
not enough for getting the allowable vibration amplitude of the reconstructed
foundations, the inclined piles could be as an additional measure to reduce
vibrations of the foundation. These piles are located on the perimeter of the pile
foundation in the direction of the horizontal dynamic force action.

An example of this is the case of strengthening the massive monolithic

foundation of the ball grinder on one of the dressing works in the Urals.
According to the project, the foundation soil was the sandy clay with solid
consistence. However, during the process of works, under several parts of the
foundation, the considerable excess of the ground was allowed (at the level of
1.5-2 m below the footing of the foundation). This production work defect was
eliminated by the layer of fine sand with multilayer consolidation.

A few years after the start of the grinder operation, the large fluctuations in its
basement were appeared. The amplitudes of these fluctuations exceeded the
permissible values significantly. These oscillations prevented the normal
operation of the grinder, caused the unacceptable vibration in the bearing and
envelope structures of the factory building and improved the overall vibration
environment of the industrial area, and it started to influence on the staff badly.

78
A survey of the grinder foundation showed that under one of its ends the
settlement had occurred. At the same time it was found that there had been a
rise of the groundwater level, which at the time of the survey was at the level of
the foundation footing. This fact and the vibration in the foundation were the
reasons of the fine sand compression and, accordingly, the reasons of the
settlement.

Strengthening the foundation was carried out by the arrangement of the

concrete cage according to the perimeter, which rested on bored cast-in-place
piles with a diameter of 500 mm and a length of 3 meters. The piles transmitted
the load from the foundation to the undisturbed ground. The oscillation
amplitudes of the strengthened foundation and vibrations of the building
structures reduced to allowable limits of normative documents.

In case of the significant deformations of the foundations with large and

complex configuration, such as the foundations of crushing equipment or
basement type foundation under the powerful machines with rotating parts, it is
not enough to use for restore the integrity only the concrete cage. It is required
to carry out packaged approach.

For example there is the case of strengthening the reinforced concrete

basement-type foundation for the centrifuge. Basically, in the technology
workshop of the factory in the Urals there were three centrifuges. All these three
foundation took the significant vibrations during the work of the centrifuges. The
amplitudes of the horizontal oscillations at the top edge of each foundation
exceeded the limit on 0.4 mm. The work of one of the centrifuges had even
stopped due to the destruction of concrete support under the base bearing. In
the foundation under another centrifuge there were cracks at the junction of the
column with the top plate.

79
Figure 7.5 Schematic of the strengthening the foundation under the centrifuge:
1, 3-foundation structure before the strengthening; 2, 4–foundation structure
after amplification. [1]

Dynamic calculation of the foundation under the centrifuge showed that the
dynamic load, which is transferred from the machine to the foundation, was
determined incorrectly during the process of projecting. So that, the foundation
mass is not sufficient to extinguish the vibrations, which appear during operation
of the centrifuge and cause the deformations of the foundation. To prevent the
further development of the deformations, strengthening the foundations
according to the diagram on Figure 6.5 was performed. Along the perimeter of
the bottom plate the reinforced concrete cage was arranged. It allowed to
increase a little the stiffness of the foundation base as a result of widening its
footing. The increasing in mass of the foundation and restore the integrity of the
destroyed items were carried out by the concrete casting of the vertical
structures of the foundation (walls and columns), as well as the arrangement of
the concrete cage around the perimeter of the reinforced concrete supports on
its full height underneath the base bearing. The maximum amplitude of the top
edge strengthened foundation was 0.114 mm (the allowable amplitude is 0.15
mm); the foundation deformations during the observation period was not found.

Sometimes it is necessary to strengthen the foundations of machines with

nominally balanced rotating parts. The increased vibration and destruction of
these foundations are usually caused by either a lack of rigidity in fastening of
the machine to the foundation or by the low rigidity of certain structural elements
of the foundation.
80
In the operation of centrifugal smoke exhausts in gas recirculation to a turbine
unit with capacity of 800.000 KW the increased vibrations in the bearing of the
smoke exhaust and bearing of their engines appeared. As a result, there was a
breakdown of bearings. In addition, in the body of smoke exhausts foundations
vertical cracks appeared. The cracks had a width of 0.3-2 mm opening and they
extended from the top edge of the foundation to the surface and were located at
zone of fixing machines to the foundation (see Figure 7.6 a). The reinforced
concrete massive foundations of smoke exhausts are designed as a single
monolithic unit with the necessary ledges and hollows.

Figure 7.6 Scheme of strengthen the foundation of the smoke exhaust: a-the
location of the cracks in the structure of the upper basement; b-the oscillation
form of the top edge of the foundation (amplitude, mcm); c-scheme of the
foundation, which was strengthened by the reinforced belt-cage; I-the anchor
bolts; 2-cracks; 3-circuit of the foundation (dotted line) before strengthening; 4-
cage (the shaded portion); 5-reinforcing cage of the strengthening; 6-
reinforcement of the foundation; 7-reinforcing trussing. [1]

The measurement results and the resulting waveform (see figure 7.6 b) of the
surveyed foundations for the smoke exhausts showed that the upper part of the
foundation is not a single array, and is divided into individual conglomerates
through cracks. The amplitudes of the horizontal oscillations of the top edge of
the foundation reached 0.07 mm and the frame and bearing smoke exhausts -
0.25 mm, that indicates the absence of a rigid connection between the machine
and the foundation. The reasons for this is to reduce the stiffness of the anchor
bolt in the body of the foundation due to the presence of the cracks and the
integrity of its top structure and loosening anchor bolts due to the accumulation
of the plastic deformations in the bolts under the combined action of dynamic
loads and high temperatures that occur due to insufficient insulation machines.

81
The latter also contributed to the emergence of additional thermal strains at the
top of the foundation.

The status of foundations required immediate strengthening, which was carried

out as follows. Topside, which was weakened by notches and cracks, was
strengthened on the entire height by concrete belt-cage thickness of 0.5 m (see
figure 7.6 c). That provided the necessary rigidity of the foundation according to
the calculation, as well as the reliable connection between the machine and the
foundation due to increased stiffness of the top of the basement in zones of
anchor bolts fixing. The existing cracks were cemented by the solution of the
expanding cement, and in the place of the rock bolt installation were filled by the
epoxy resin. At the same time, it was recommended to enhance thermal
insulation.

7.4 Regulation of oscillation parameters in the reconstruction of

machinery foundations

In some cases, it is expedient to carry out the reconstruction of the foundation

with special measures for the vibration reducing of the machinery foundations or
for reducing the vibrations of the constructions. These measures are aimed to
changing the parameters of its oscillations. In addition with the need to reduce
the amplitude of the oscillations, the need to make the bigger difference
between the natural frequency of the foundation and the operating frequency of
the machine oscillations or the vibration frequency of the constructions is
appeared also very often.

The most popular method for this purpose is joining to the foundation the
concrete or reinforced concrete slab, which is located on the top layer of the
soil. This attached plate can be very tough, and its connection with the
foundation could be rigid, fixed by a hinge, movable by a hinge and resilient.

Accomplished studies have shown that the attachment of the slabs with weight
of 5-10% by weight of the foundation can reduce its vibrations significantly. This
method is greatly more useful for reducing the horizontal and rotational

82
vibrations, then the vertical ones. If you want to suppress the vertical
oscillations of the foundation, it is more expedient to place the slabs on both
sides of the foundation. In this case, the influence of these slabs is more
intensive than in the one-sided arrangement, but the area is the same
(Alekseev & Shvec 2001).

During the projecting of the foundation strengthen it is necessary to take into

account that the harder foundation soil underneath the foundation and the slab,
more stiffness of the connection between them than the greater effect of the
slab connection to the foundation. Despite the high efficiency of the rigid joint,
the practical implementation of it is very difficult. In addition, a rigid connection
could be used only in hard soils, where the difference between the settlement of
the foundation and slab is not sufficient. Therefore, the recommended variant is
swing joint. The resilient connections should be used only in cases when using
the swing joint is not possible (Shvec 1985).

Figure 7.7 Structural schemes of nodes junction between slabs and

foundations: 1-foundation; 2-slab; 3-connection bars; 4-captive assembly; 5-bar;
6-embedded parts; 7-intermediate; 8-concrete filling. [36]
The structural schemes of nodes junction between slabs and foundations are
shown in Figure 7.7. Rigid connection (see figure 7.7 a) may be performed by
welding the connection bars of the plate and the foundation with followed

83
captive assembly. For better adhesion the inner surface of the concrete slabs
should be produced rough. Swivel (see figure 7.7 b) and movable by hinge (see
figure 7.7 c) connections are made by embedded parts. The metal sheets
interconnected by a rod of high strength steel, are welded to these embedded
parts. For protection against corrosion, these compounds should be asphalted.

Let’s look at one of the typical cases of additional plates. In the main building of
the power station in the Urals the cracks in exterior walls and corners of the
building, as well as in the internal partitions were appeared as a result of
excessive vibrations of the building structures. The results of test measures
were: the presence of the vibrating background in whole building, the resonance
condition of the individual building structures or its parts, as well as significant
fluctuations of massive foundations under the hammer mills. The amplitude of
oscillation of the horizontal top edge of foundations hammer mills reached the
value of 0.75 mm (in the perpendicular direction to the rotation of the drum),
exceeding the permitted value in more than 6 times.

Analysis of the fluctuation records showed that vibration of the bearing and
envelope structures of the main building have the same frequency as the
frequency of forced oscillations of the hammer mills foundations (12.5 Hz), the
natural frequency of the foundation is 123 Hz. Thus, foundations of the hammer
mills operated in an area close to the resonance, and for reducing the
fluctuations, they should be changed and came out from this zone.

For the natural frequency of foundation changing, the additional slabs, laying on
the ground surface, were attached to the foundation by the swing joint. Scheme
of this process is shown in Figure 7.8. The area of the slab was 12 m2 and its
thickness is 0.5 m. The slabs were attached to the foundation on the both sides.
They were installed parallel to the axis of the hammer mill. As a result, the
natural frequency of the system increased to 16 Hz and amplitude of the
foundation vibrations has decreased in 10 times. This reduced vibration of the
all structures of the buildings.

84
Figure 7.8 The scheme of reconstruction of the hammer mill foundation: 1-
crusher; 2-foundation; 3-swing joint; 4–slab. [24]

Another effective way to control the low-frequency oscillations of the bases of

machines, which works in below resonance mode, is to combine massive deep
foundations by the elastic foundation slab, which lies on the elastic base. This
method raises the basic hardness on the structure system on 30-40% on
average and because of the increasing the distance between the values of the
resonances, the intensity of the foundation vibrations is reduced significantly.

Combining of the foundation groups by the thin slab not requires the significant
material cost. For the role of this thin slab it is possible to use the concrete floor
of the industrial zone, but only in that case, when there will not stay the
vibration-sensitive equipment or not be the permanent occurrence of the staff.
So that, the only requirement for this method is to ensure proper contact
between the slab and foundations. Of course, this method demands to carry out
such things like reinforcement connections between foundations and slab, using
of the concrete with the expanding portland cement because the resulting
cracks in the joint minimize the expected effect. For the basement-type
foundations it is possible to use as the connection slab the floor slabs, which
rests on the foundation. (Alekseev & Shvec 2001).

An example could be the case of the integration of two massive foundations for
smoke exhausts gas recirculation unit with capacity of 800.000 KWh. The
foundations were integrated by the concrete slab floor, located directly on the
soil surface and having a thickness of 200 mm. The distance between the
foundations was equal to three times width of the foundation.

85
The overall level of vibrations of the combined system decreased about 2 times.
The amplitude of the vibrations of the foundation with broken (backup) machine
decreased by 1.3 times and amounted only 15% of the amplitude of the
foundation oscillation with operating machine, vibration of which after
conversion fell by more than in 4 times. The oscillation frequency of the
machinery foundation during operation, combined with the floor plate, has
increased from 22 to 32 Hz and the resonance oscillation amplitude decreased
from 170 to 88 microns. It should be noted that after the implementation of the
combination between the foundations and the vibration slab, the vibrations of
this slab increased by 5-6 times, but damped quickly. However, it excludes
permanent residence of the staff on it, as well as the accommodation of the
vibration-sensitive equipment next the source of vibrations.

The source of the elevated vibration of buildings on the factories are often
became the elastic waves from the foundations for the machine with shock
loads.

The options of the massive foundation vibrations during operation or replacing

the machine, which is installed on the foundation, can also be adjusted by
changing the height and density of the soil backfill. For these purposes, along
the perimeter of the external surface of the foundation for the whole its height
the envelope structures of any kind are arranged with the gaps. The gaps from
the top are covered by plates. If there is the need to change the oscillation
amplitudes of the foundation, or the ratio of the frequency of its own and forced
oscillations, the gap between the envelope structure and the lateral surface of
the basement is filled with tightly packed soil.

Initially the gap is filled with soil to a height, value of which is equal to 40% of
that size of the foundation footing size, which is parallel to the direction of the
horizontal vibrations. Then, the gap is filled with thick layers of 0.1-0.2 m to
achieve the desired maximum oscillation amplitudes. These parameters are set
according to the fluctuations of the direct measurement of vibration level in the
basement. In general, the height of the side filling in the gap should be equal to
the value of the sunken part of the foundation.

86
For the gap filling it is possible to use and non-cohesive soil and cohesive soil.
In the latter case it is necessary to provide constructive measures for excluding
the soaking of the filling soil to prevent the formation of the cracks between the
foundation and the foundation soil. Using the side soil filling to regulate the
parameters of the massive foundation oscillations under the machines with
dynamic loadings allows to achieve the optimum mode of operation.

CONCLUSION

This thesis work includes many aspects related to the process of foundation
reconstruction and strengthening. Many of them have been investigated, but not
all have been explored in due form, as originally had been planned.

First of all, in this work there are presented a huge variety of reasons of the
foundation reconstruction and strengthening. It is the human factor, firstly. In
another words, his mistakes, carelessness, laziness, negligence, randomness,
or imperfection of the method. Also, it is the human impact on the world through
the construction of such facilities, which affect greatly on the soil conditions.
Sometimes the need of reconstruction arises directly from the nature or, in other
words, because of the natural effects on the structure. On the other hand, this
can be predicted and thus it is also human oversight or inability.

So, it turns out that all the reasons could be solved. It is necessary to train more
competent and responsible professionals who will implement own duty with all
responsibility. It is necessary to control strictly the construction process of the
structure, in order to avoid possible errors or design flaws which can manifest
themselves in the future. We have to implement the facilities with a smaller
impact on the environment by large researches and development of new
technologies. Finally, it is necessary to invent materials, which will be more
resistant to the natural conditions to reduce the rate of destructions and
damages in the structures from natural influences. Surely it would be in general,
more economical than implementing hard and painstaking work on the survey of

87
the building, variant designing ways to strengthen themselves, and then the
construction work.

A further aspect – ingenuously the methods and technologies that are used in
the process of foundation reconstruction. Of course, if we speak about the
methods generally, their number has not changed much over time. This work
presents many different ways to strengthen and almost all are used both in
Russia and in Europe. This is due to the fact that for every method it is easy to
find a suitable building with the right loads and working conditions and suitable
climatic and soil conditions.

Another thing is that the technologies are changing. Some of them are
becoming more popular (as grout-injected piles in St. Petersburg) and displace
older ones, but some still remain largely unknown. There are appeared more
options for combining different methods (for example simultaneous use of grout-
injected piles, cementation of the ground and foundation slab) and sometimes
even impossible to say exactly what technology was used in this case.

Unfortunately, in Russia, there are no systematic databases of the technology

using, and the results to which they led. Of course, such database should be
established by all organizations working in the country. It would be very useful
and would help to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of all the
methods, to sort out the useless methods, to open any innovation and to draw
attention to those areas which cannot be solved yet. It is difficult to assess
across the whole country, but if to say about the North West region of Russia
and St. Petersburg in particular, the most popular methods there are: injections
into the body of the basement and into the ground under the foundation footing,
multistage piles under pressure and, of course, grout-injected piles. This is due
to two factors: 1. An unstable, soft ground and varying of the groundwater level.
2. Compact historical development in the downtown area of the city, which
leads to a lot of restrictions on the dynamic effects, settlements and so on. As a
result, it is necessary to choose those methods that can be used without great
affecting of the surrounding areas. These factors were compared with the terms
of the foundation reconstruction on the territory of Finland. The local situation

88
was analyzed and the most popular methods for the reconstruction on the
territory of this country were identified. The difference of the used methods in
Finland and Saint-Petersburg was installed and explained as well.

Another aspect is the problem of reconstruction method choice, because there

are a lot of ways of strengthen and almost everyone has their advantages and
disadvantages. Brief comparative table was made. It is based mainly on the
characteristics of the strengthening ways. Comparison of prices turned out quite
uninformative, because the methods are very different from each other and
each of them may be performed in different ways. Moreover, in various working
conditions every single method can also vary greatly in price. In general, the
money issue should be solved directly on the basis of the particular
characteristics of an object.

Dynamic effects on the foundations have been studied by me not so deep as

the other sections of the work. Basically, the study took place in Soviet books,
the most recent of which were published in the late 80s. Actually, I think, that
the literature for such a serious and relevant area of construction in Russia is
sorely lacking. This is true for not only dynamic effects, but also for the most
modern methods of strengthening too. But, nevertheless, this issue has been
studied. Many reconstruction methods of simple residential buildings and
structures are used in this matter too, but there are some special details related
to vibration, which are described in the work.

Despite the large number of difficulties in this work, all the sections, which were
planned, are presented in one form or another. Many cases of reconstruction
and strengthening of foundations in various regions of Russia are considered.
The conversation turns on the ordinary civil buildings and, as well, on the
largest factories and complex objects of architectural monuments in a good
hard of floating and weak soils. Many questions in the field of reconstruction of
foundations were raised and the problem areas were found. These problems
should be solved in the future.

89
FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Deformations of maintained buildings in time of the construction of

new buildings near them (a) or contiguity it to new buildings (b), p. 6.
Figure 2.2 the rot process of wooden piles, p. 8.
Figure 2.3 The corrosion of the reinforcement, p.9.
Figure 2.4 The destruction of the building part (1) due to the band of soft soil (2)
availability, p. 12.
Figure 2.5 Pile horizontal deviation from the design position, p. 14.
Figure 2.6 Violation types of the building stability on the slope, p. 16.
Figure 4.1 Traditional technologies of pinning, p. 21.
Figure 4.2 Method of the unilateral widening before concrete casting, p. 22.
Figure 4.3 The widening of the strip foundation, p. 22.
Figure 4.4 Scheme of the foundation footing widening (pressure diagram in the
plane of the footing), p. 23.
Figure 4.5 Cleaning process of the concrete surface, p. 24.
Figure 4.6 The process of silicatization, p. 26.
Figure 4.7 Arrangement of the injectors upon the foundation soil silicatization of
the Odessa Opera and Ballet Theater, p. 27.
Figure 4.8 Sectional drawings of the footing under theater foundation, p. 27.
Figure 4.9 Chapel-monument "For grenadiers, who fell a victim under the
Plevena", p. 29.
Figure 4.10 Strengthening the old foundation by cementation, p. 30.
Figure 4.11 Installed in the structure body the tubes-injectors; the process of the
injection into the structure body, p. 30.
Figure 4.12 Implementation of the cast-in-place foundation slab, p. 32.
Figure 4.13 Increasing of the bearing surface by the cast-in-situ reinforced
concrete slab with pressuring the soil, p. 32.
Figure 4.14 Increasing of the bearing surface by the cast-in-situ reinforced
concrete slab with with use of multisectional pressed piles, p. 34.
Figure 4.15 The deepening process of the sections of multi-section pressed
piles, p. 35.
Figure 4.16 Strengthening the foundations using piles, p. 35.
Figure 4.17 Strengthening of the strip and single band foundations by bored
cast-in-place pile, p. 37.
Figure 4.18 Implementation of the cantilever beams on the bored cast-in-place
piles, p. 39.
Figure 4.19 Transferring the bed of a paper machine for bored cast-in-place
piles, p. 40.
Figure 4.20 Strip foundation strengthening by jet technology, p. 42.
Figure 4.21 General view of the pile wall made by jet grouting technology, p.43.
Figure 4.22 Scheme of implementation the wall of the piles using jet technology
(jet grouting), p. 44.
Figure 4.23 Erection of the piles by jet grouting technology, p. 45.
Figure 4.24 Strengthening the foundations of buildings and structures with the
use of jet technology, p. 45.
Figure 4.25 Erection of the grout-injected pile, p. 47.
Figure 4.26 Technological scheme of the grout-injected piles production with
washing the wells by bentonite solution, p. 48.
Figure 4.27 The body of grout-injected pile in the ground, p. 49.
90
Figure 4.28 Strengthening the foundation soils and the foundations of the
Roman Catholic Church of St. Catherine in St. Petersburg (Nevsky prospect,
32-34), p. 50.
Figure 4.29 General view of the building, p. 53.
Figure 4.30 Strengthening of pile foundation by grout-injected piles, p. 55.
Figure 4.31 The typical cross section of the foundation slab with the pile by jet-
grouting technology, p. 56.
Figure 4.32 Pressing of the pile head, p. 57.
Figure 4.33 Initial stage, p. 57.
Figure 4.34 Stage №1, p. 58.
Figure 4.35 Stage №2, p. 58.
Figure 4.36 Stage №3, p. 59.
Figure 4.37 Stage №4, p. 60.
Figure 4.38 Stage №5, p. 60.
Figure 4.39 Final stage, p. 61.
Figure 5.1 MESI system micropile, p.63.
Figure 5.2 Drilling micro pile, p.64.
Figure 5.3 Screw pile type BAU, p. 65.
Figure 5.4 The design of screw piles with flat blades, p. 66.
Figure 5.5 The project of Lahta-center, p. 67.
Figure 5.6. The situation on the site on the 5th of October 2015, p.68.
Figure 7.1 Dynamic effects of the vibration sources on the construction, p. 65
Figure 7.2 The cement injections into the cracks in foundation body, p. 69.
Figure 7.3 Bored cast-in-place piles with widening in the bottom part, p. 70.
Figure 7.4 Bored cast-in-place piles with widening in the top part, p. 71.
Figure 7.5 Schematic of the strengthening the foundation under the centrifuge,
p. 73.
Figure 7.6 Scheme of strengthen the foundation of the smoke exhaust, p.74.
Figure 7.7 Structural schemes of nodes junction between slabs and
foundations, p. 77.
Figure 7.8 The scheme of reconstruction of the hammer mill foundation, p. 78.

TABLES

Table 3.1 The distribution of the inspected buildings by the foundation type, p.
17.
Table 3.2 The distribution of the inspected buildings by the design scheme type,
p. 17.
Table 3.3 The distribution of the inspected buildings by the presence of the
basement, p. 18.
Table 3.4 The main causes of the building deformation or destruction, p. 19.
Table 5.1 Comparison of methods of strengthening, p. 70.

91
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 APPENDIX №1

the possibility to use the method with unsatisfactory

The possibility to use method in follow
The characteristics of the strengthening methods
geotechnical and hydrogeological conditions
groundwater level and its
foundation soils size changes activities of manufacturability

condition of the existing foundation

aggressivity

the possibility of making the construction

the ability of the quick transfer of the live

the ability to work in cramped conditions

parts of the strengthening on the factory

the high level of the mechanization

the simplicity of the implementation

the rapidity of the implementation

below the foundation footing

above the foundation footing

groundwater aggressivity

load after strengthening

in horizontal section

in vertical section
methods of foundation strengthening

weak soil

by cages - hard soil

+ + - - - + + + - -
by deepening - + + - - - + + - -
increasing of the
by frames + + + - + + - - - - +
foundation sizes
by consoles - + + - - + + - - - -
foundation slab + + + - + - - + + -
into foundation
+ + + + - - - + + +
soil
injections
into foundation
+ + + + - - + + + +
body
prefabricated pressed piles + - + + + + + + - + +
Straus piles + - + - - + - - -
piles cobi piles + - + + - + - - -
cast-in-place
grout-injected
+ + + + - + + - - - + + +
piles
jet grouting technology + + + + + - + + - - - - + +

96