INTRODUCTION TO

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

ADONIS P. DAVID, PhD

Philippine Normal University
Overview

 Qualitative Research Designs

 Qualitative Data Collection
 Qualitative Data Analysis &
Representation
 Content and Thematic Analysis

2
Basic Qualitative Dictum
 Every human experience is
a TEXT to be READ
 Characteristics of QR

 Natural setting: Qualitative researchers

tend to collect data in the field at the site
where participants experience the issue or
problem under study. Information are
gathered by actually talking directly to
people and seeing them behave and act
within their context. The researchers have
face-to-face interaction, often over time.
 Characteristics of QR

 Researcher as key instrument: Qualitative

researchers collect data themselves
through examining documents, observing
behavior, or interviewing participants. They
may use a protocol—an instrument for
collecting data—but the researchers are the
ones who actually gather the information.
They do not tend to use or rely on
questionnaires or instruments developed by
other researchers.
 Characteristics of QR

 Multiple sources of data: Qualitative

researchers typically gather multiple forms
of data, such as interviews, observations,
documents, and audiovisual information
rather than rely on a single data source.
Then the researchers review all of the data,
make sense of it, and organize it into
categories or themes that cut across all of
the data sources.
 Characteristics of QR

 Inductive data analysis: Qualitative

researchers build their patterns, categories,
and themes from the bottom up by
organizing the data into increasingly more
abstract units of information. This inductive
process illustrates working back and forth
between the themes and the database until
the researchers have established a
comprehensive set of themes.
 Characteristics of QR

 Deductive data analysis: the researchers

look back at their data from the themes to
determine if more evidence can support
each theme or whether they need to gather
additional information. Thus, while the
process begins inductively, deductive
thinking also plays an important role as the
analysis moves forward.
 Characteristics of QR

 Participants’ meanings: In the entire

qualitative research process, the researcher
keeps a focus on learning the meaning that
the participants hold about the problem or
issue, not the meaning that the researchers
bring to the research or that writers
express in the literature.
 Characteristics of QR
 Emergent design: The research process for
qualitative researchers is emergent. This
means that the initial plan for research
cannot be tightly prescribed, and some or
all phases of the process may change or
shift after the researcher enters the field
and begins to collect data. For example, the
questions may change, the forms of data
collection may shift, and the individuals
studied and the sites visited may be
modified.
 Characteristics of QR

 Reflexivity: In qualitative research, the

inquirer reflects about how their role in the
study and their personal background,
culture, and experiences hold potential for
shaping their interpretations, such as the
themes they advance and the meaning they
ascribe to the data.
 Characteristics of QR
 Holistic account: Qualitative researchers try
to develop a complex picture of the
problem or issue under study. This involves
reporting multiple perspectives, identifying
the many factors involved in a situation,
and generally sketching the larger picture
that emerges. A visual model of many
facets of a process or a central
phenomenon aids in establishing this
holistic picture.
Contrasting Characteristics of Four
Qualitative Approaches
Characteristics Narrative Phenomenology Grounded Case Study
Research Theory
Focus Exploring Understandi Developin Developing
the life of ng the g a theory an in-depth
an essence of grounded description
individual the in data and
experience from the analysis of
field a case or
multiple
cases
Type of Needing to Needing to Grounding Providing
Problem tell stories describe the the theory an in-depth
Best Suited of essence of a in the understandi
for Design individual lived views of ng of a
experiences phenomenon participant case or
s cases
Characterist Narrative Phenomenolo Grounded Case Study
ics Research gy Theory

Discipline Drawing Drawing from Drawing Drawing

Background from the sociology from from
humanities anthropolog psychology,
including y and law, political
anthropolog sociology science and
y, literature, medicine
history,
psychology
and
sociology

Unit of Studying Studying Studying a Studying an

Analysis one or more several process, an event, a
individuals individuals action, or program, an
who have an activity, or
shared the interaction more than
experience involving one
many individual
individuals
Characte Narrative Phenomenology Grounded Case Study
ristics Research Theory
Data Using Using primarily Using Using
Collection primarily interviews with primarily multiple
Forms interviews individuals, interviews sources,
and although with 20-60 such as
documents documents, individuals interviews,
observations, and observations
art may also be , documents
considered and artifacts

Data Analyzing Analyzing the data Analyzing Analyzing

Analysis the data for for significant the data the data
Strategie stories, statements, through through
s “restorying” meaning units, open description
stories, and textual and coding, of the case
developing structural axial and themes
themes, description and coding and of the case
often using description of the selective as well as
a chronology “essence” coding cross-case
themes
Characteri Narrative Phenomenol Grounded Case Study
stics Research ogy Theory

Written Developing a Describing Generating Developing

Report narrative the a theory a detailed
about the “essence” of illustrated analysis of
stories of an the in a figure one or more
individual’s life experience cases

Basic • Narrative • Phenomen • Grounded • Case

Concepts study ology theory study
Used • Stories • Describe • Generate • Bounded
• Epiphanies • Experienc • Develop • Single or
• Lived es • Propositio collective
experiences • Meaning ns case
• Chronology • essence • Process • Event,
• Substanti process,
ve theory program,
individual
 The Central Question
 The purpose of this ___________________
(narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory,
ethnographic, case) study is/will be? to
_________________________ (understand?
describe? develop? discover?) the
__________________ (central phenomenon of the
study) for _______________ (the participants) at
___________________ (the site). At this stage in the
research, the ________________ (central
phenomenon) will be generally defined as
_________________ (a general definition of the
central concept).
Qualitative Research Methods
 Although the processes are similar, qualitative
methods rely on text and image data, have
unique steps in data analysis, and draw on
diverse designs.
Table 7.1 Data Collection Activities by
Four Approaches
Data Narrative Phenomenol Grounded Case Study
Collection ogy Theory
Activity

What is Single Multiple Multiple A bounded

traditionally individual, individuals individuals system, such
studied? accessible who have who have as a process,
(sites or and experienced responded to an activity,
individuals) distinctive the an action or an event, a
phenomenon participated program, or
in a process multiple
about a individuals
central
phenomenon
What are Gaining Finding Locating a Gaining
typical permission people who homogeneou access
 Data Narrative Phenomenol Grounded Case Study
Collection ogy Theory
Activity
How does one Several Finding Finding a Finding a
select a site or strategies, individuals homogeneous “case” or
individuals to depending on who have sample, a “cases,” an
study? the person experienced “theory – atypical” case,
(purposeful (e.g., the based” or a “
sampling convenient, phenomenon, sample, a maximum
strategies) politically a “criterion” “theoretical” variation” or
important, sample sample “extreme”
typical, a case
critical case)
What type of Documents Interviews Primarily Extensive
information and archival with 5 to 25 interviews forms,
typically is materials, people with 20 to 30 Such as
collected? open- ended ( people to documents
(forms of interviews, Polkinghorne, achieve detail and records,
data) subject 1989) in the theory interviews,
journaling, observation,
Participant and physical
observation,
artifacts for 1
casual chatting
to 4 cases
 Data Narrative Phenomenol Grounded Case Study
Collection ogy Theory
Activity

How is Notes, Interviews, Interview Field notes,

information interview often multiple protocol , interview and
recorded? protocol interviews memoing observational
(recording with the same protocols
information) individuals
What are Access to Bracketing Interviewing Interviewing
common data materials, one’s issues (e.g., and observing
collection authenticity of experiences, reflexivity, issues
issues? (field account and logistics of reactivity,
issues) materials interviewing reciprocality,
“going native,”
divulging
private
information,
deception)
How is File folders, Transcriptions, Transcriptions, Field notes,
information computer files computer files computer files transcriptions,
typically computer files
stored?
Qualitative research
instruments
• designed to facilitate the examination of
the participant’s world from their point of
view
• provide participants the opportunity to
answer a question or discuss a theme in
depth, and for the interviewer to ask follow-
up questions
Data Collection Strategies
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 Observations
-Gather field notes by conducting an observation as a
participant.

- Gather field notes by conducting an observation as an

observer.

-Gather field notes by spending more time as a participant

than as an observer.

-Gather field notes by spending more time as an observer than

as a participant.

- Gather field notes first by observing as a “participant-

outsider” and then moving into the setting and observing as a
“participant-insider.”
 Interviews
--Conduct an unstructured, open-ended interview and take
interview notes.

-Conduct an unstructured, open-ended interview; audiotape

the interview; and transcribe it.

-Conduct a semistructured interview, audiotape the interview,

and transcribe the interview.

-Conduct a focus group interview, audiotape the interview, and

transcribe it.

-Conduct different types of interviews: e-mail or Internet, face-

to-face, focus group, online focus group, and telephone
interviews.
 Documents
--Keep a journal during the research study.

-Have a participant keep a journal or diary during the research

study.

-Collect personal letters from participants.

-Analyze public documents (e.g., official memos, minutes,

records, archival material).

- Examine autobiographies and biographies.

 Audiovisual Materials
-
-Examine photographs or videotapes.

-Have participants take photographs or videotapes (i.e., photo

elicitation), and then interview them about the materials.

-Videotape or film a social situation or an individual or group.

- Examine website main pages.

-Collect e-mail messages, discussion board messages (e.g.,

Facebook), or other forms of social media messages.

- Collect cell phone text messages

Interviewing as the Strategy

Step 1. Identify interviewees

Step 2. Determine what type of interview is practical

and most useful.

Step 3. Design and use an interview protocol.

Step 4. Refine the questions and procedures

through pilot testing

Step 5. Determine the setting

Interviewing as the Strategy

Step 6. Obtain consent from the interviewee

Step 7. During the interview, stay to the questions,

complete the interview within the time specified, be
respectful and courteous, and offer few questions
and advice.
Guidelines in Designing
Interview Protocols

-The interview questions are a narrowing of the central

question and sub-questions

- Around five open-ended questions

- Ample space between the questions to write responses

to the interviewee’s comments
Guidelines in Designing
Interview Protocols

too structured
does not allow interviewees to put forward their own
point of view and experiences

too unstructured
may result in too many data that are irrelevant to the
study
Interview Checklist
1. Have you decided what questions you will ask?

2. How will you order the questions (will you leave contextual
questions until the end of the interview)?

3. Will the interview follow a rigid structure or will you allow some
deviation from your notes?

4. What devices will you use to record the interview (will you take
notes or will you tape-record the session)?

5. Have you piloted your interview and incorporated any useful

comments or suggestions that were made?
Interview Checklist

6. Are there any complicated or ambiguous questions (have you

practised how you will explain these, or will you provide examples)?

7. Have you identified your interview group? Is it representative?

8. Have you arranged to meet at a suitable place (are you confident

that you won’t be interrupted)?

9. Have you communicated the timing of the interview to the

relevant people(obviously this includes the interviewee but may also
include their work colleagues)
Interview Checklist
10. How will you position yourself in the interview (face-to-face or
side-by-side)

11. Have you prepared a briefing for the interview (will you read this
or present it to the interviewee to read)?

12. Can you assure anonymity to the interviewee?

13. Have you explained how the data will be used?

14. How will you thank the interviewee (will you offer to send
feedback on the research)?
Interviewing

Introduction
• time
• thanks
• refreshments
• purpose
• confidentiality
• anonymity
• agreement for tape recording /
purpose of note-taker
 Recording responses from
interviews

• The interviewer
takes notes of responses and writes them
up more fully after the session
• A note-taker attends the interview

• The interview is tape

recorded
Researchers’ fieldnotes

Useful additional data source

Can include:

comments on own feelings during

interviews / focus groups

potentially useful observations about, for

example, the settings in which data
collection took place.
Data Analysis and Representation
Data Narrative Phenomenol Ground Case Study
Analysis and ogy Theory
Representat Study
ion

Data • Create and • Create and • Create and • Create and

Organization organize organize organize organize
files for files for files for files for
data data data data

Reading, • Read • Read • Read • Read

memoing through through through through
text, make text, make text, make text, make
margin margin margin margin
notes, form notes, form notes, form notes, form
initial initial initial initial
codes codes codes codes
Data Analysis and Representation
Data Analysis Narrative Phenomenolo Ground Case Study
and gy Theory Study
Representatio
n
Describing the • Describe the • Describe • Describe open • Describe the
data into codes story or personal coding case and its
and themes objective set experiences categories context
of experiences through
and place it epoche
chronologically • Describe the
essence of the
phenomenon
Classifying the • Identify stories • Develop • Select one open • Use categorical
data into codes • Locate significant category for aggregation to
and themes epiphanies statements central establish
• Identify • Group phenomenon in themes or
contextual statements process patterns
• Engage in axial
materials into meaning
coding-casual
units
condition,
context,
interventing
conditions,
strategies,
consequences
Data Analysis and Representation
Data Analysis Narrative Phenomenolo Ground Case Study
and gy Theory Study
Representatio
n
Interpreting the • Interpret the • Develop a • Engage in • Use direct
data . larger meaning textual selective interpretation
of the story description, coding and • Develop
“what interrelate the naturalistic
happened” categories to generalizations
• Develop a develop a of what was
structural “story” or “learned”
description propositions
“how” the
phenomenon
was
experienced
• Develop the
“essence”
Representing, • Present • Present • Present a visual • Present in-
visualizing the narration narration of the model or theory depth picture of
data focusing on “essence” of the • Present the case (or
processes, experience; in propositions cases) using
theories, and tables, figures narrative,
unique and or discussion tables, and
general features figures
of the life
Qualitative Data Analysis

 1. Raw data management- ‘data cleaning’

 2. Data reduction, I, II – ‘chunking’, ‘coding’
 3. Data interpretation – ‘coding’, ‘clustering’
 4. Data representation – ‘telling the story’,
‘making sense of the data for others’
Qualitative Data Analysis
CONTENT ANALYSIS
 1. Read the transcript and make brief note of
interesting or relevant information
 2. Make a list of the different type of
information from the notes
 3. Categorization of the listed items
 4. Identify the categories that are some how
linked to each other (major categories)
 5. Compare and contrast various categories
CONTENT ANALYSIS
 6. Repeat the process from stage 1-5 on next
transcripts
- Identify new categories of information
- Accommodate data in the existing
categories
- Color code different categories and review
 7. Collect together all the extracts from the
transcribed interviews that you have put into
one category
CONTENT ANALYSIS
 8. Review different categories and move items
if required from one category to another
 9. Review and check if two or more categories
can fit together
 10. Check the initial notes, consider if any
previously excluded data is relevant and
should be included in results
CODING AND TYPES OF CODES
 A Priori
 Codes derived from literature, theoretical
frames

 In Vivo (inductive or grounded)

 Codes derived from the data by using code
names drawn from participant quotes or
interpretation of the data
GUIDELINES IN CODING
 Careful transcription (read the text at least 3
times)
 Be careful in using too much ‘anecdotal’
approach
 Consistent checking of codes
 Codes must be coherent, consistent, and
distinctive
 Codes are just descriptions, they are not
analysis
GUIDELINES IN CODING
 Look for…
• pre-established criteria (e.g. specific word/s or
group of words)
– You look for answers through words/group of
words that seems relevant in answering your
research objective
• recurring words or group of words vs. the
magnitude/intensity of the word
– The number of occurrence matters
• patterned meanings/meaningful
statements/related statements
THEMATIC ANALYSIS
 Thematic analysis is a method for
identifying, analysing, and reporting
patterns (themes) within data.
 A theme captures something important
about the data in relation to the research
question, and represents some level of
patterned response or meaning within
the data set
THEMATIC ANALYSIS
 It seeks to unearth the themes salient in a text at
different levels.

– Basic Theme (Initial codes)

– Organizing Theme (Middle-order code)

– Global Theme (Super-ordinate Code

THEMATIC ANALYSIS

 Data driven or Theory-driven?

 Semantic vs Latent?
THEMATIC ANALYSIS

1. Familiarising yourself with your data

2. Generating initial codes
3. Searching for themes
4. Reviewing themes
5. Defining and naming themes
TIPS IN THEMATIC ANALYSIS

 Careful transcription
 Be careful in using too much ‘anecdotal’ approach
 Consistent review of themes
 Themes must have “illustrative power”
 Themes must result from analysis and not from mere
descriptions
 Congruence and balance between extracts (explicit)
and analytic claims
Content and Thematic Analysis