CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

DUET
CE-4301
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-II
NOTE NO – 06
SHALLOW FOUNDATION

PREPARED BY:

Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman

Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur.

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

Shallow Foundations

Types of Shallow Foundations

A shallow foundation, according to Terzaghi, is one whose width is greater than
its depth (i.e. Df/B ≤ 1). Shallow foundations are located just below the lowest part of
the wall or a column which they support. Footings are structural members, made of bick
work, masonry or concrete, that are used to transmit the load of the wall or column such
that the load is distributed over a large area. In fact, a footing is an enlargement of the
base of the column or wall it supports. The footings are of the following types:

(i) Strip footing. A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall (Fig.24.1). A
strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their
spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a case, it is more economical
to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip
footing is also known as continuous footing or wall footing.

(ii) Spread or Isolated footing. A spread (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to
support an individual column (Fig.24.2). A spread footing is circular, square or
rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes it is stepped or haunched to spread
the load over a large area.

Fig.1. Strip Footing Fig. 2. Spread Footing.

(iii) Combined footing. A combined footing supports two columns (Fig.24.3). It is

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used when the two columns are so close to each other that their individual footings
would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so
close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when
kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior
column, the load is evenly distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular or
trapezoidal in plan.

(iv) Strap or cantilever footing. A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two
isolated footings connected with a structural strap or a lever, as shown in
Fig.24.4. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit.
The strap simply acts as a connecting beam and does not take any soil reaction. The
strap is designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed that their
combined line of action passes through the resultant of the total load. A strap footing
is more economical than a combined footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively
high and the distance between the columns is large.

Fig.3. Combined Footing. Fig.4. Strap Footing.

(v) Mat or raft foundations. A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a
number of columns and walls under the entire structure or a large part of the structure. A
mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls
are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other (Fig. 5).
Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous
soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

Fig. 24.5. Mat Foundation.

Depth of Footings:
To perform its function properly, a footing must be laid at a suitable depth below the
ground surface. The vertical distance between the ground surface and the base of footing
is known as the depth of footing (Df). The depth of footing controls the ultimate bearing
capacity and the settlement. While fixing the depth of footing, the following points
should also be considered.

(i)Depth of top soil. The footing should be located below the top soil consisting of
organic matters which eventually decompose. The top soil should be removed over an
area slightly larger than the footing.

(ii) Frost depth. The footing should be carried below the depth of frost penetration. If the
footing is located at insufficient depth, it would be subjected to the frost damage due to
formation of ice lenses and consequent frost heave. During summer, thawing occurs from
the top downwards and the melted water is entrapped. As the soil water freezes and melts,
the footing is lifted during cold weather and it settles during warm weather. The shear
strength of the soil is also decreased during warm weather due to an increase in water
content. To prevent frost damage, the footings should be placed below the frost depth,
which may be 1 m or more in cold climates.

(iii) Zone of Soil Volume Change. Some soils, especially clays having high plasticity,
such as black cotton soil, undergo excessive volume changes. Such soils shrink upon
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drying and swell upon wetting. The volume changes are generally greatest near the ground
surface and decrease with increasing depth. Large volume changes beneath a footing may
cause alternate lifting and dropping. The footing should be placed below all strata that are
subjected to large volume changes.

(iv) Adjacent footings and property lines. The footing should be so located that no
damage is done to the existing structures. The adjacent structures may be damaged by
construction of a new footing due o vibrations, undermining or lowering of the water
table. The new footing may also impose additional load on the existing footings which
may cause settlement. In general, the deeper the new footing and the closer to the existing
structure, the greater is the potential damage to the existing structure. This is particularly
more severe if the new footing is lower than the existing footing.
As far as possible, the new footing should be placed at the same depth as the old ones, and
the sides of excavation adjacent to the existing structure should be suitably supported. If
the footings are placed at different levels, the slope of line joining the two footings should
not be steeper than two horizontal to one vertical (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Fig.7.
(v) Sloping Ground. If a footing is located adjacent to a sloping ground, the sloping
ground surface should not encroach upon a frustum of bearing material under the
footing having sides making an angle of 30° with the horizontal. Moreover, the
minimum distance from the lower edge of the footing to the sloping ground surface
should be 0.9 m. (Fig.7)

(vi) Water Table. The footing should be placed above the ground water table as
far as possible. The presence of ground water within the soil immediately around a
footing in undesirable as it reduces the bearing capacity of the soil and there are
difficulties during construction. The water proofing problems also arise due to
dampness.

(vii) Scour Depth. The footings located in streams, on water fronts or other locations
where there is a possibility of scouring, should be placed below the potential scour

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depth.
(viii) Underground Defects. The depth of footing is also affected by the presence of
underground defects, such as faults, caves and mines. If there are man-made
discontinuities, such as sewer lines, water mains, underground cables, these should be
shifted or the footing relocated.

(viv) Root holes. If there are root holes or cavities caused by burrowing animals or
worms, the footing should be placed below such a zone of weakened soil.

(x) Minimum. Depth. All foundations should extend to a depth of at least 50 cm below
the natural ground surface. However, in case of rocks, only the top soil should be removed
and the surface should be cleaned and if necessary, stepped. Sometimes, the minimum
depth of foundation is determined from Rankine‟s formula
2
q  1  sin   
(Df)min =   …………………………….24.1
  1  sin   
Where, q is the intensity of loading, γ = unit weight, φ = effective friction angle of soil.

Foundation Loading:
An accurate estimation of all loads acting on the foundation should be made before it
can be properly designed. A foundation may be subjected to one or more of the
following loads.

(i) Dead Loads. The dead loads include the weight of materials permanently fixed to the
structure, such as beams, floors, walls, columns, and fixed service equipments. The dead
load can be calculated if sizes and types of structural materials are known. However,
there is a problem in estimating the self-weight of the structure. The usual procedure is
to assume the self weight initially and the structure is designed. The weight of the
structure is then found from the designed dimensions and compared with the
assumed weight. If necessary, the design procedure is repeated using the revised weight.

(ii) Live Loads. The live loads are the movable loads that are not permanently attached
to the structure. These loads are applied during a part of its useful life. Loads due to
people, goods, furniture, equipment, machinery, etc are the live loads. It is difficult to
estimate the live loads accurately. These are specified by local building codes as
uniformly distributed equivalent static loads.

(iii) Wind Loads. Wind loads act on all exposed surfaces of structure. These loads depend
upon the velocity of wind and the type of structure. Like live loads, wind loads are also
specified by building codes.

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(iv) Snow loads. Snow loads occur due to accumulation of snow on roofs and exterior flat
surfaces in cold climates. The unit weight of snow is usually taken as 1 kN/m2.

(v) Earth pressure. Earth pressures produce lateral force against the structure below the
ground surface or fill surface. The earth pressure is determined using the Rankine theories.
The earth pressure is normally treated as dead load.

(vi) Water pressure. Like earth pressure, water pressure also produces a lateral force
against the structure below the water level. Water pressure may also cause an upward
force on the bottom of the structure due to uplift pressure. It must be counteracted by the
dead load of the structure.

(vii) Earthquake loads. The force due to an earthquake may act vertically, laterally or
torsionally on a structure in any direction. The worst condition should be anticipated and
the relevant code consulted. The earthquake load is usually assumed as a fraction of the
dead load, depending upon the seismicity of the zone.

Computation of Design loads:

The dead loads and live loads on columns are usually computed by tributary area method,
in which it is assumed that a column carries all the load in the floor area enclosed by lines
equidistant from its adjacent columns.
As live loads are temporary and transients, only a part of it may act for a duration that may
induce the settlement, especially in cohesive soils. Moreover, specified maximum live
loads do not occur simultaneously at all the floors. It is usual practice to reduce the live
loads in such cases
It is the common practice to assume that the wind load and earthquake loads do not occur
simultaneously. Foundations should be proportioned for the following combinations of
loads-
(i) Dead load + live load,
(ii) Dead load + live load + wind load or seismic load.
The dead load includes the weight of column, wall, footings, foundations, the overlying ill
but excludes the weight of the displaced soil. If V is the volume of fooling, there is a net
increase of load on foundation of V(γc – γ) where γc is the unit weight of concrete and γ is
the unit weight of soil. If the weight Vγc of the footing is included in the dead weight, the
dead load needs a reduction equal to Vγ equal to the weight of the soil displaced.
If wind load (or seismic load) is less than 25% of that due to dead and live loads, it may be
neglected and the foundation should be designed for combination (i) given above.
However, if wind load (or seismic load) is more than 25% of that due to dead and live

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loads, the foundation should be designed for combination (ii) given above. The foundation
pressure should not exceed the safe bearing capacity by more than 25% in the second
case.
For foundations resting on coarse-grained soils, the settlements should be computed using
the loads given in combination (ii), as settlements occur in a very short period. However,
for fine-grained soils, the settlements should be computed corresponding to permanent
loads. Generally, one half of the design live load is taken as permanent.

Principles of Design of Footings:

Before actual design, it is essential to estimate the dead load, live load and other loads.
The frequency and duration of various loads should also be available. The bending
moment at the base of column (or wall) should also be ascertained if it is subjected to an
eccentric load or moment.
As the bearing capacity of the soil depends upon the depth of footing and its length and
width, an estimate about these dimensions is required before the actual design. For
members carrying axial load combined with bending moments that do not change
direction, a rectangular footing is more suitable than a square footing.
The footing is designed using the following procedure.
(i) The safe bearing capacity is determined. For small, unimportant structures, these values
can be taken as presumptive values (Table 23.10).
(ii) The footing is proportioned making use of the safe bearing capacity determined in
Step (1).
(iii) The maximum settlement of the footing is determined. An estimate of the differential
settlement between various footings is made.
(iv) Angular distortion is determined between various parts of the structure.
(v) The maximum settlement, the differential settlement and the angular distortion
obtained in the step (iii) and (iv) are compared with the given allowable values
(Table.23.9).

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(vi) If the values are not within the allowable limits, the safe bearing capacity is revised
and the procedure repeated.
(vii) The stability of the footing is checked against sliding and overturning.

The factor of safety against sliding should not be less than 1.5 when dead load, live load
and earth pressure and wind pressure (or seismic forces) are considered. However, if only
dead load, live load and earth pressure are considered, it should not be less than 1.75. The
corresponding factors of safety against overturning are 1.50 and 2.00, respectively.

Propotional Footings for Equal Settlement:

To reduce the differential settlement due to live load variations for footings on fine-
grained soils, it is desirable to proportion all the footings in such a way that they have
equal pressures under the service loads. Thus all the footings would settle by equal
amounts and the differential settlement would be considerably reduced. The following
procedure suggested by Peck et al (1974) is usually adopted.
(i) The dead load from each column, including the weight of the footing, is determined.

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(ii) The maximum live load to which each footing is subjected is determined.
(iii) The ratio of the maximum live load to dead load for each footing is computed.
(iv) The footing that has the largest live load to dead load ratio is taken as the governing
footing. The area (Ag) of the governing footing is determined from the relation.

DeadLoad  LiveLoad
Ag = ………………………………….24.2
AllowableBearingCapacity

(v) The service loads for all the footings are determined.
(vi) The design bearing capacity (qd) of all the footing, except the governing footing, is
determined as under
ServiceLoadForGoverningFooting
qd = …………………………………24.3
Ag
(vii) The area' of other footings is determined as
ServiceLoadForThatFooting
A= …………………………………….24.4
qd

Design of foundation on swelling soil or expansive soil

It is necessary to note that all parts of a building will not equally affected by the swelling
soil. Beneath the centre of building the moisture change is small and soil movement is
least, beneath out side wall, the volume change is greatest. The damage to the building is
therefore greatest on the outside walls due to soil movement.

Generally three types of foundation can be considered in expansive soil.

i. Structures that can be kept isolated from swelling effects of the soil.
ii. Designing of a foundation that will remain undamaged in spite of swelling.
iii. Elimination of swelling.

Elimination of swelling can performed by various way:

i. Replacing the expansive soil under the foundation.

ii. Changing the nature of the expansive soil by such measures as compaction control,
pre-wetting, installation of moisture barriers and chemical stabilization.
iii. Strengthening the structures to withstand heave, constructing structures a that are
flexible enough to withstand the differential soil heave without failure or
constructing isolated deep foundations below the depth of the active zone.

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Swelling soil: Swelling soils are also called as expansive soil such as black cotton soil.
These soils swell during rainy seasons due to intake of water and shrink during summer or
dry seasons. The structure(light) built on such soil get lifted up during rainy season and
settle down during the dry seasons. The water content of this soil vary with depth as
shown in figure,

During dry season, natural water content is practically zero at the surface and reaches
maximum in rainy season. However the water content remain constant beyond a depth, D
is called as unstable zone. The soil with the unstable zone is subjected to drying and
wetting and hence considerable movements in the soil.

The movements are both in vertical and lateral direction, structure built within this
unstable zone are likely to move up and downs according to seasons and hence suffer
damage if the differential settlement is considerable.

Swelling potential: It is the percentage swell of laterally confined samples in an

oedometer test which is soaked under a surcharge load of 1 lb/ft 2 after being compacted to
maximum dry density at OMC ( i.e. optimum moisture content) according to the AASHO
compaction test.

Swelling pressure: It is the pressure required for preventing volume expansion in soil in
contact with water.
Free swell:

Where, = free swell percentage.

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= final volume of poured soil.

= initial volume of poured soil.

Problems of laying foundation on sanitary landfills

i. Construction of foundations over sanitary landfills is generally problematic because

of poisonous gases such as methane, excessive settlement and low inherent bearing
capacity.
ii. Settlement rate is increase with the increase of the height of the fill.
iii. Shallow foundations constructed on sanitary landfills with a compacted soil cover
may fail in two ways punching shear or rotational shear.
iv. Sanitary fills with moisture may erode metal piles and may also damage concrete.
v. Continuous foundations on sanitary fills may subjected by differential settlement.

Question:

What is swelling soil? What are problems and remedies of expansive soil and sanitary
landfills?

Distribution of pressure below Shallow Foundation

Contact pressure:

 The pressure acting between the base of a footing and the soil below is referred to
as the contact pressure.

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 Associated with shear and moment on footing.

 Contact pressure, q =

Where, q = contact pressure, ksf. P = Q = total axial vertical loads, kips.

A = area of footing, ft2.
= total moment parallel to respective X and Y axes, ft-kip.
= moment of inertia about respective X and Y axes, ft4.
- y = distance from centroid to the point at which the contact pressure is
computed along respective X and Y axes, ft.
- Soil can not take tension, then contact pressure
equation is modified.

∑V = 0, ( +ve)

( ) (d) (L) – P – W = 0 ………….(1)

∑Mc = 0, ( +ve)

M + (H) (S) - ( ) (d ) ( L) ( x – d/3) = 0 ………(2)

Only q and d are unknown. From (1) and (2), We easily

get q and d.

Example – 1: A 6ft by 6ft square column footing as shown in figure. The base of the
column is hinged. The load (P) on the footing from the column is 60 kips. The weight of
concrete footing including pedestal and base pad, W1 = 9.30 kips and weight of backfill
soil, W2 = 11.20 kips. The horizontal load acting on the base of column = 4 kips. If the
allowable bearing capacity of the supporting soil = 3.0 ksf.
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Compute (i) Contact pressure and soil pressure diagram. (ii) Shear and moment at section
A-A. (iii) Factor of safety against sliding if the co-efficient of friction between footing
base and soil is 0.40. (iv) Factor of safety against overturning.

Solution:

We know,

q=

Q = P + W1 + W2 = 60 + 9.30 + 11.20 = 80.50 kips.

A= 6 x 6 = 36 ft2, = 4 x 4.5 = 18 ft-kips, = 0.

x= = 3 ft, Iy = = 108 ft4.

q= = 2.24 ± 0.50

qright = 2.24 + 0.50 = 2.74 ksf < 3.0 ksf (ok)

qleft = 2.24 - 0.50 = 1.74 ksf < 3.0 ksf (ok)

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

The pressure diagram is shown in figure,

Shear and moment at section A – A,

ΔFDG and ΔEDH are similar triangles,

...

Or,

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... and rest soil pressure = 2.74 – 0.375 = 2.365 ksf.

Shear at A – A = 2.25 x 2.365 x 6 + ½ x 2.25 x 0.375 x 6

= (31.9 + 2.53) ft-kip

Moment at A –A = 31.9 x 2.25/2 + 2.53 x 2/3 x 2.25 = 39.7 ft- kip

(iii) Factor of safety against sliding,

= = 8.05 (Ans.)

(iv) Factor of safety against overturning =

= = = 13.4 (Ans.)

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Example – 2: A rectangular 5ft by 7.5ft loaded as shown in figure. Compute contact

pressure and draw the soil pressure diagram if W = Self weight & Surcharge = 20 kips.

Solution:

q=

Q = 50 + 20 = 70 kips, A = 5 x 7.5 = 37.5 ft2

My = 4 x 20 + 60 = 140 ft-kips (∑Mc = 0)

x = 7.5/2 = 3.75 ft, Iy = = 176 ft4, MX = 0

q=

= 1.87 ± 2.98
qright = + 4.85 ksf
qleft = - 1.11 ksf, which is impossible because soil can not take tension.
∑V = 0, ( +ve)

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( ) (d) (L) – P – W = 0

Or, ( ) (L) – 50– 20 = 0

Or, ( ) (L) = 70 …………….(i)

∑Mc = 0,
M + (H).(S) – (q/2).(d).(L).(x – d/3) = 0
Or, 60 + 20 x 4 – 70 x (7.5/2 – d/3) = 0
Or, d = 5.25 ft (Ans.)
. . . q/2 x 5.25 x 5 = 70
Or. q = 5.33 ksf (Ans.)
The pressure diagram is shown in figure.

Geotechnical Design of Footings:

Design of Strip Footings
Plain cement concrete strip footings are provided when the loads are light and the soil is
good. If the loads are heavy and the soil conditions are not favourable, plain concrete
footings are not economical. Reinforced cement concrete footings are more suitable in
such cases.
(a) Plain Concrete Footings. The footing is designed so that the contact pressure on the
soil does not exceed the allowable bearing pressure. The width (B) of the footing is
determined from the relation
Q
B= …………………………………………..24.5
q na

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Where Q = load per m run, qna = allowable soil pressure.

If the actual width provided is different from the theoretical width, the actual pressure is
Q
given by qo = ……………………………………24.6
actualwidth
The thickness at the edge of the footing should be at least 15 cm. On cohesive soils,
generally a minimum thickness of 30 cm is specified in order to resist swelling pressure.
The thickness of the footing should be adequate to minimise the development of tension
on the underside of the projection acting as a cantilever.
The thickness of the projection is generally kept twice the length of the projection from
the wall face. A 45° load distribution is also commonly used (Fig. 8), which gives a small
tension on the underside. For wide and thick footings, sloping of the upper surface is done
to effect economy in the quantity of concrete. However, the cost of form work will add to
the total cost.

Fig. 8 Plain Strip Footing. Fig. 9 R.C.C Strip Footing.

(b) Reinforced Concrete Footings. Footings carrying heavy loads on weak soils are
reinforced in the transverse direction. The width of the footing is determined using Eq.
24.5. For computing the bending moment for which the footing is to be designed, the
critical section is taken as follows
(i) At the face of the monolithic wall (Fig. 9).
(ii) Half-way between the centre line and the edge of the wall for footings under masonry
walls.
For monolithic walls, the maximum bending moment is given by
qo ( B  b ) 2
M= …………………………………24.7
8
Where B width of footing, b = width of wall, qo = actual soil pressure.
For checking the diagonal shear, the critical section is taken at a distance equal to the
effective depth (d) of footing from the face of the wall. The diagonal shear is given by
F = qo[(B - b)/2 – d]……………………………….24.8
Design of Spread Footings

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Spread footing are used for distributing concentrated column loads over a large area so
that the bearing pressure is less than or equal to the allowable soil pressure. Fig. 24.10
shows general types of spread lootings.

Fig. 10 Spread footing

The area of the footing is given by
A = Q/qna……………………………………………………………..24.9
Where Q = column load, qna = allowable soil pressure.
If the area actually provided is more, the actual pressure is given by
Q
qo = ……………………………………………………24.10
actualwidth

(a) Plain Concrete Footings. The design is similar to that of a plain concrete strip
footing. The thickness of the footing is fixed from the consideration of preventing tension
on the underside. As in the case of strip footings, the thickness is kept equal to twice the
projection or alternatively, the width of the footing is determined by the normal practice of
45° distribution of loading.
(b) Reinforced Concrete Footings. The area of the footing is obtained using Eq. 24.9.
The shape of the footing may be square, circular or rectangular. If the column load is
centrally placed, the upward pressure is uniform. As the weight of the footing is directly
transferred to the soil below, it does not affect the bending moment and shear force.
The critical section for bending moment is taken as under.
(i) At the face of the column or pedestal monolithic with the footing when no metal plate
is used.
(ii) Half-way between the face of the column or pedestal and the edge of the metal plate
on which the column or pedestal rests.
The maximum B.M. for the case (i) is given by (Fig. 11)
qo ( B  b ) 2
M= …………………………………24.11
8
For checking the diagonal shear F, the critical section is taken at a distance equal to the
effective depth (d) of die footing from the face of the column.
F = qoB[(B - b)/2 – d]……………………………………24.12

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For punching shear, the critical section is taken at a distance of d/2 from the face of the
column. Generally the overall depth (do) of the footing is determined from the punching
shear considerations.
do = qo [ B  (b  d ) ………………………….24.13
2 2

4(b  d ) sp
Where qc = actual pressure, B = width of footing, b = width of square column, sp= safe
punching shear. The depth provided is checked for bending moment, shear and bond.
The maximum force for bond is given by
Fb = q0B(B - b)/2…………………………………………….. (24.14)
In the case of rectangular footings, the length and the width should he so chosen
that the bending moment in each of the adjacent projections is equal to the moment of
resistance of the footing. For uniform contact pressure

Fig.11. R.C.C. Spread Footing.

distribution, the centre of gravity of the footing should coincide with the centre of gravity
of the column. The footing of a circular column can be either square or circular. For the
design of a square footing for a circular column, the circular column is generally
substituted by an equivalent square column of the same area. The design of the footing
is then done using the procedure already described for a square footing. The design of
the circular footing can also be done using the basic principles. Because of the curved

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areas, the expressions are more involved than those for a square footing. The thickness
of the footing at the edge shall be not less than 15 cm for footings on soil, nor less than
30 cm above the top of piles for footings on piles.

Design of Eccentrically Loaded Spread Footings

A column is said to be eccentrically loaded when it is subjected to a load which is not
centric or when it is subjected to a bending moment in addition to the centric load. If
the centre of gravity of the footing is made to coincide with the centre of gravity of
the centrically loaded column, the pressure distribution is trapezoidal, with the
maximum pressure on one side and the minimum pressure. on the other side. However,
if the centre of gravity of the footing is placed eccentric with the centre of gravity of the
column, the pressure distribution becomes uniform (See Fig. 23.20).

The eccentricity (e) of the footing is given by

e = M/Q…………………………………..24.15
When M = bending moment, and Q = axial load.

If the footing is provided with the above eccentricity, the resultant of the bearing pressure
coincides with the resultant of the leads. The area of the footing is given by
Q
A= ………………………………24.16
q na
The longer projection of the footing is designed as a cantilever for the maximum bending
moment at the face of the column. Generally, the same reinforcement is provided in
the smaller projection as well." The thickness provided is checked for the diagonal
shear and the punching shear.
If the bending moment acts temporarily for a short period, a symmetrical fooling can
also be provided, The maximum pressure is determined using the following equations
(see Sect. 23.21-Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by Arrora)
Q  6e 
qmax= 1   ………………………………..24.17
L B  B
where e is the eccentricity.
If e > B/6, the maximum pressure is given by
4Q
qmax = …………………………………..24.18
3L( B  2e)
The dimensions L and B of the footing are chosen such that the maximum pressure
(qmax) does not exceed that allowable bearing pressure (qna). The bending moment, the
diagonal shear and the punching shear are determined considering the trapezoidal
pressure distribution.

Combined Footings

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

A combined footing supports two columns. When a foundation is built close to an

existing building or the property line, there may not be sufficient space for equal
projections on the sides of the exterior column. This results in an eccentric loading on
the footing. It may lead to the tilting of the foundation. To counteract this tilting
tendency, a combined footing is provided which joins the exterior column with an interior
column. A combined footing is also required when the two individual footings overlap.
In the conventional design, the combined footing is assumed to be infinitely rigid and
the soil pressure distribution to be planar. In the elastic line method, the flexibility of the
footing is considered. The elastic line method is more rational but quite involved (see
Sect. 24.17). The following discussion is limited to the conventional design.
The footing is proportioned such that the centre of gravity of the footing lies on the line
of action of the resultant of the column loads. The pressure distribution thus becomes
uniform.
A combined footing is generally rectangular in plan if sufficient space is available beyond
each column. If one of the columns is near the property line, the rectangular footing
can still be provided if the interior column is relatively heavier. However, if the
interior column is lighter, a trapezoidal footing is required to keep the resultant of the
column loads through the centroid of the footing. Thus the resultant of the soil
reaction is made to coincide with the resultant of the column loads.

Rectangular Combined Footings

The design of a Rectangular combined fooling consists of selecting length and width
of the footing such that the centroid of the footing and the resultant of the column
loads coincide. With the dimensions of the footing established, the shear force and
bending moment diagrams are drawn. The thickness of the footing is selected from the
bending moment and shear stress considerations. The footing is designed as a
continuous beam supported by two columns in the longitudinal direction. The
reinforcement is provided as in a continuous beam.
The procedure consists of the following steps.
(i) Determine the total column loads.
Q = Q1 + Q2 …………………………………………………..(24.19)
Where Q1 and Q2 are the exterior and interior columns, respectively.
(ii) Find the base area of the footings.
A = Q/qna …………………………………………………24.20
Where qna is the allowable soil pressure.
(iii) Locate the line of action of the resultant of the column loads measured from one of
the column, say exterior column (Fig. 24.12)
= Q2×x2/Q……………………………………………………..24.21
Where x2 is the distance between columns.
(iv) Determine the total length of the footings.

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

L = 2( + b1/2)…………………………………………...(24.22)
Where b1 = width of the exterior column.

Fig. 24.12. Rectangular Combined Footing.

(v) Find the width of the footing.

B = A/L……………………………………………………………..24.23
(vi) As the actual length and width that are provided may be slightly more due to rounding
off, the actual pressure is given by
qo = Q/Ao …………………………………………..24.24
Where Ao is the actual area.
(vii) Draw the shear force and the bending moment diagrams along the length of the
footing, considering the pressure qo.
For convenience, the column loads are taken as concentric loads acting at the centers.
(viii) Determine the bending moments at the face of the columns and the maximum
bending moment at the point of zero shear.
(ix) Find the thickness of footing for the maximum bending moment.
Check for diagonal shear and punching shear, as in the case of an isolated footing.
Check for bond at the point of contraflexure.
(x) Determine the longitudinal reinforcement for the maximum bending moment.
For transverse reinforcement, assume a width of (b + d) to take all the bending moment in
the short direction, where b is the column side and d is the effective depth.

Trapezoidal Footing
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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

Trapezoidal combined footings are provided to avoid eccentricity of loading with respect
to the base, as already mentioned. Trapezoidal footings are required when the space
outside the exterior column is limited and the exterior column caries the heavier load.
The design procedure consists of the following steps:
(i) Determine the total column loads.
Q = Q1+ Q2…………………………………………………...(24.25)
(ii) Find the base area of the footing.
A= Q/ qna……………………………………………………(24.26)
(iii) Locate the line of action of resultant of the column loads (Fig. 24.13).
= Q2x2/Q…………………………………………..24.27

Fig. 24.13. Trapezoidal Combined Footing.

(iv) Determine the distance x' of the resultant rom the outer face of the exteior column.
x' = + b1/2………………………………..24.28
A trapezoidal footing is required if
L/3 < x < L/2
Where L is the length of the trapezoidal footing, determined from Eq. 24.22.
If x' = L/2, a rectangular footing is provided. However, if x <L/3, a combined footing
cannot be provided. In such a case, a strap footing is suitable.
(v) Determine the widths B1 and B2 from the following relations.
B1  B2
 L  A ………………………………………….24.29
2
L  B  2 B2 
And  1 x ……………………….24.30
3  B1  B2 
Solving equation. 24.29 and 24.30

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

2 A  3 x 
B2 =   1 …………………………………24.31
L  L 
2A
B1 = - B2……………………………….…………..24.32
L
(vi) Once the dimensions B1 and B2 have been found, the rest of the design can be done as
in the case of a rectangular combined footing.

Strap Footings
A strap footing is required in the following two cases:
(1) When x'< L/3, where x' is the distance of the resultant of column loads from the
exterior face of the exterior column, and L is the length of the footing.
(2) When the distance between the two columns is so large that a combined footing
becomes excessively long and narrow.

Fig. 24.14. Strap Footing.

As mentioned before, a strap footing consists of two spread footings joined by a rigid
beam known as a strap. The strap is not subjected to any direct soil pressure from below.
Its main function is to transfer the moment from the exterior footing to the interior
footing.
The following assumptions are generally made.
(a) The soil pressure is uniform beneath each individual footing.
(b) The strap is perfectly rigid.
(c) The strap is weightless.
(d) The interior footing is centrally loaded.

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

The design procedure consists of the following steps.

(i) Assume a reasonable value of the eccentricity (e) between the load Q1 and the reaction
R1 on the exterior column (Fig. 24.14).
(ii) Determine the length of the footing of the exterior column.
L1 = 2(e + 0.5 b1)………………………………...(24.33)
Where b1 = width of the exterior column.
(iii) Compute the reaction R1 by taking moments about the line of action of R2.
R1= Q1×x2/S……………………………………………24.34
Where x2=distance between loads Q1 and Q2 and S=distance between reactions R1 and R2,
(iv) Compute areas A1 and A2.
A1= R1/qna………………………………………………(24.35)
and A2 = R2/qna…………………………………………..(24.36)
The reaction R2 is obviously equal to (Q1+ Q2) - R1
(v) Find the widths of footings.
B1 = A1/L1……………………………………….....(24.37)
And B2 = A …………………………………..(24.38)
(vi) Design the individual footings as in the case of spread footings.
(vii) Determine the depth of the strap for diagonal shear and bending moment.
(Note : It may be mentioned that a number of designs of the strap footing are possible,
depending upon the selected value of e).

Principles of Design of Mat Foundations

A mat (or raft) is a thick reinforced concrete slab which supports all the load-bearing walls
and column loads of a structure or a large portion of structure. A mat is required when the
loads are heavy and the soil is very weak or highly compressible. A mat is more
economical than individual footings when the total base area required for the individual
footings exceeds about one-half of the area covered by the structure.
A mat is preferred to individual footings when the soil mass has very erratic properties
and contains lenses of compressible soils. In such a case, it would be difficult to control
the differential settlements if individual footings are provided. The mat spans over weak
patches of the soil and thus the differential settlements are considerably reduced.
Like all other shallow foundations, a mat must be safe against shear failure and the
settlements should be within the allowable limits. As the width of a raft is very large,
the pressure bulb is quite deep. Thus the loose soil pockets under a aft may be more
evenly distributed. This results in a smaller differential settlement than individual
footings. It is customary to assume that a differential settlement of 19 mm would occur
in a raft when the maximum settlement is twice that in the individual footing. Thus a
maximum settlement of 50 mm can be permitted when the differential settlement
allowed is 19 mm.

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

As rafts are generally at some depth below the ground surface, a large volume of soil is
excavated and, therefore, the net pressure on the soil is considerably reduced. An
advantage of this reduction in the pressure can be taken while designing a raft.

Common Types of Mat Foundations

There are several types of mat foundations:

(i) Flat Plate Type. In this type of mat foundation, a mat of uniform thickness is provided
(Fig. 24.15).This type is most suitable when the column loads are relatively light and the
spacing of columns is relatively small and uniform.
(ii) Flat Plate Thickened Under Columns. When the column loads are heavy, this type is
more suitable than the flat plate type. A portion of slab under the Column is thickened to
provide enough thickness for negative bending moment and diagonal shear (Fig. 24.16).
Sometimes, instead of thickening the slab, a pedestal is provided under each column
above the slab to increase the thickness.

Fig. 24.15. Flat Plate Type Mat Fig. 24.16. Flat Plate -Thicknened Under Columns

(iii) Beam and Slab Construction. In this type of construction, the beams run in two
perpendicular directions and a slab is provided between the beams. The columns are
located at the intersection of beams (Fig. 24.17).This type is suitable when the bending
stresses are high because of large column spacing and unequal column loads.

(iv) Box Structures. In this type of mat foundation, a box structure is provided in which
the basement walls act as stiffeners for the mat. Boxes may be made of cellular

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

construction or rigid frames consisting of slabs and basement walls (Fig. 24.18). This type
of mat foundation can resist very high bending stresses.

(v) Mats placed on Piles. The mat is supported on piles in this type of construction (Fig.
24.19). This type of mat is used where the soil is highly compressible and the water table
is high. This method of construction reduces the settlement and also controls buoyancy.

Fig. 24.17. Beam and Slab Construction. Fig. 24.18. Box Structue

Fig. 24.19. Mat on Piles.

Bearing Capacity Analysis of Mat Foundation

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

Compensated Mat Foundations

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

Fig. 5.4 as next Page

Distribution of pressure below Mat Foundation

The pressure on the soil (q) below the mat at points A,B,C,D,…….
By using the equation

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

q= and q ≤ qall(net)
Where, A = BL, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +………….
Ix = = moment of Inertia about the X axis.

Iy = = moment of Inertia about the Y axis.

Mx = Moment of the column Loads about the X axis = Q*ey
My = Moment of the column Loads about the Y axis = Q*ex
ex and ey are the load eccentricities in the direction of X and Y,
They can be determined by using X′, Y′ co-ordinates as,

X′ = and ex = X′ - B/2
Similarly,

Y′ = and ey = Y′ - L/2.

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

Figure shows Mat Foundation

Example – 6: Check and comment the contact bearing pressure at point „A‟ under the
mat foundation for RCC factory shed if qallow = 80 kN/m2 and column size = 0.6 m × 0.6
m. Column loads are shown in figure.

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

Solution: ∑Q = Q = 500 + 600 + 900 + 1000 = 3000 KN

X′ = ( Q1X′1 + Q2X′2 + Q3X′3 + Q4X′4)

= [ 0.3 (500 + 900) + 7.7 (600 + 1000)]

= 4.25 m

ex = X′ - = 4.25 – 8/2 = 0.25 m

My = Q×ex = 3000 × 0.25 = 750 kN-m

Y′ = ( Q1Y′1 + Q2Y′2 + Q3Y′3 + Q4Y′4)

= [ 0.3 (900 + 1000) + 6.7 (500 + 600)]

= 2.65 m

ey = Y′ - = 2.65 – 7/2 = - 0.85 m

Mx = Q.ey = 3000 x (- 0.85) = -2550 kN – m

Ix = = 228.67 m4 , Ix = = 298.67 m4 , A = 7 x 8 = 56 m2

At point A, y = - 3.5 m, x = - 4 m

qA = =

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

= 82.56 kN/m2 > 80 kN/m2 ( Not OK)

Comment: So the mat foundation are not safe against bearing capacity.
Example – 7:
The plan of a mat foundation with column loads is shown in figure. The size of the mat is
16.5 m × 21.5 m and all columns are 0.5 m × 0.5 m in section. Calculate the soil pressure
at points A, B, C, D, E and F if the net allowable soil bearing capacity is 60 kN/m2.

Figure shows Mat Foundation with load

Solution:
We know, q =

A = area of mat = 16.5 x 21.5 = 354.75 m2

= = x 16.5 x 21.53 = 13665m4

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

= = x 21.5 x 16.53 = 8050m4

Q = sum of the column loads = 350 + 2 x 400 + 450 + 2 x 500 + 2 x 1200 + 4 x 1500
= 11,000 KN.
= Q.ex

X′ = = [ 8.25 (500 + 1500 + 500) + 16.25 (350 + 1200 + 1200

+ 450) + 0.25(400 + 1500 +1500 + 400)]
= 7.814m
ex = X′ – B/2 = 7.814 – 16.5/2 = - 0.436 ≈ - 0.44m
hence, the resultant line of action is located to the center of the mat.
So, = 11000 x 0.44 = 4840 kN – m

Similarly,
Mx = Q.ey

Y′ = = [ 0.25( 400 + 500 + 350 ) + 7.25( 1500 +1500 +1200 )

+ 14.25( 1500 +1500 +1200 ) + 21.25( 400 +500 +450 )]
= 10.85m
ey = Y′ - L/2 = 10.85 – 21.5/2 = 0.1m
The location of the line of action of resultant column loads is shown in figure.
Mx = 11000 x 0.1 = 1100 KN.

So, q = =

Calculation of soil pressure:

At A; q = 31.0 + 0.6 x 8.25 + 0.086 x 10.75 = 36.81 KN/m2 < 60 KN/m2 (Ok)
At B; q = 31.0 + 0.6 x 0 + 0.086 x 10.75 = 31.86 KN/m2 < 60 KN/m2 (Ok)
At C; q = 31.0 - 0.6 x 8.25 + 0.086 x 10.75 = 26.91 KN/m2 < 60 KN/m2 (Ok)
At D; q = 31.0 - 0.6 x 8.25 - 0.086 x 10.75 = 25.19 KN/m2 < 60 KN/m2 (Ok)
Professor Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman, CE, DUET. 42
 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

At E; q = 31.0 - 0.6 x 0 - 0.086 x 10.75 = 30.14 KN/m2 < 60 KN/m2 (Ok)

At F; q = 31.0 + 0.6 x 8.25 - 0.086 x 10.75 = 35.09 KN/m2 < 60 KN/m2 (Ok) (Ans.)

Question on Shallow Foundation

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

1. Define shallow foundation. Draw the plan and section of common types of shallow
foundations. Explain the advantages and dis advantages of their field uses.
2. When and why strip footings are used? Draw the plan and section of the types and explain.
3. When and why combined footings and strap footings are used? Draw the plan and section of
these common types and explain.
4. When and why rectangular combined footings and trapzoidal combined footings are used?
Draw the plan and section of these common types and explain.
5. When and why mat foundations / raft foundations are used? Draw the plan and section of
common types of mat foundations. (DUET-2012 & 2013)
6. What are the factors affect depth of footings? Explain.
7. Discuss the loads acting on the foundation. How will you compute the loads on the
foundation?
8. What are the principles of design for footings? Explain in brief.
9. How will you propotionate footings for equal settlement? Explain in brief.
10. Discuss the behavior of swelling soil? What are problems and remedies of expansive soil and
sanitary landfills?
11. What is the contact pressure? How is it determined? “Soil can not take tension”, then what
are the modification in contact pressure calculation? Explain with sketches.
12 Discuss the geotechnical design procedures of various footings.
13. How is the bearing capacity calculated of soil for mat foundations / raft foundations? How
will uou compensate the depth of Raft / Mat Foundations?
14. Consider a mat foundation 80 ft×120 ft in plan as shown in Fig. 3(c). The total dead and live
load on the mat is 35000 kip. The mat is placed over a saturated clay having a saturated clay
having a unit weight of 120 lb/ft 3 and c u = 3200 lb/ft 2 . Given that D f = 8 ft, determine the factor
of safety against bearing capacity failure. (DUET-2013)

Q = 25000 kip

γ = 120 lb/ft3
8 ft

80 ft × 120 ft

Fig. 3(c)

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

15. Consider a mat foundation 60ft × 100 ft in plan. The total dead and live load on the
mat is 25000 kip. The mat is placed over a saturated clay having a unit weight of 120 lb/ft 3
and cu = 2800 lb/ft2. Given that Df = 5 ft, determine the factor of safety against bearing
capacity failure. (DUET-2012)
16.Compute and draw the soil pressure diagrams for the footing shown in figure for the
loading P = 70 kips and H = 20 kips. Consider: Concrete Wt. = 150 pcf, Soil wt. = 110
pcf.

Figure

17. A footing is shown in figure, vertical load including column load, surcharge weight
and weight of footing is 120 kips. Horizontal load is 10 kips and a moment of 70 k-ft(
anticlockwise) is also imposed on the foundation.
a. Compute the soil contact pressure and draw.
b. Compute the shear on section a – a.
c. Compute moment on section a – a.
d. Compute the factor of safety against overturning.
e. Compute the factor of safety against sliding if co-efficient of friction between the
soil and the base of the footing is 0.60.

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

Figure
18. For the mat, given: Q1, Q3 = 40 ton, Q4, Q5, Q6 = 60 ton, Q2, Q9 = 45 ton, Q7, Q8 =
50 tons. All columns are 20 in. × 20 in. in cross section. Determine the pressure on the
soil at A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H.

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 CE – 4301 Geotechnical Engineering – II

Figure

Professor Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman, CE, DUET. 47