BCS-092

Introduction to
Indira Gandhi Databases
National Open University
School of Computer and
Information Sciences

Block

3
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE AND
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 11
Introduction to SQL 7
UNIT 12
SQL - Data Manipulation Language 28
UNIT 13
SQL - Join Statements 49
UNIT 14
Database Development Process 57
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment

Course Coordinator (for the year 2021)

Mr. Akshay Kumar, Associate Professor
SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi-110068

In all the Units of this Block, Check Your Progress and Answers to
Check Your Progress Questions are written and added in 2021 BY
Mr. Akshay Kumar, Associate Professor
SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi-110068

PRODUCTION
Mr. Tilak Raj Mr. Yashpal
Asst. Registrar (Pub.) Section Officer (Pub.)
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi

January, 2021
Laser Typesetting : Akashdeep Printers, 20-Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002

2
IGNOU is one of the participants for the development of courses of this
Programme
Copyright
This course has been developed as part of the collaborative advanced ICT course
development project of the Commonwealth of Learning (COL). COL is an
intergovernmental organization created by Commonwealth Heads of Government
to promote the development and sharing of open learning and distance education
knowledge, resources and technologies.
The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) is a fully fledged, autonomous and
accredited public University. It offers its certificate, diploma, degree and
postgraduate courses through the open and distance learning system which
includes various means of communication such as face-to-face, broadcasting,
telecasting, correspondence, seminars, e-learning as well as a blended mode. The
OUT’s academic programmes are quality-assured and as centrally regulated by
the Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU).

© 2016 by the Commonwealth of Learning and The Open University of Tanzania.

Except where otherwise noted, Introduction to Databases is made available under
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode.
For the avoidance of doubt, by applying this licence the Commonwealth of
Learning does not waive any privileges or immunities from claims that it may be
entitled to assert, nor does the Commonwealth of Learning submit itself to the
jurisdiction, courts, legal processes or laws of any jurisdiction. The ideas and
opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author/s; they are not
necessarily those of Commonwealth of Learning and do not commit the
organisation.

The Open University of Tanzania Commonwealth of Learning

P. O. Box 23409, 4710 Kingsway, Suite 2500,
Kinondoni, Burnaby V5H 4M2,
Dar Es Salaam, British Columbia,
Tanzania Canada
Phone: +255 22 2668992 Phone: +1 604 775 8200
Fax: +255 22 2668756 Fax: +1 604 775 8210
Email: hod.ict@out.ac.tz Email: info@col.org
Website: www.out.ac.tz Website: www.col.org
 Introduction to SQL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS By AUTHORS
The Open University of Tanzania (OUT), Faculty of Science, Technology and
Environmental Studies, (FSTES) and the ICT Department wish to thank those
below for their contribution to the production of this course material and video
lectures:
Authors:
Ms. Grace W. Mbwete (Assistant Lecturer, ICT Department, OUT)
Mr. Elia A. Lukwaro (Tutorial Assistant, ICT Department, OUT)
Copy Editor:
Mr. Justin Kimaro (Principal Editor, IEMT, OUT)
Reviewers:
Ms. Lilian C. Mutalemwa (Assistant Lecturer, ICT Department, OUT)
Ms. Regina Monyemangene (Instructional Designer, IEMT, OUT)
Video Production:
Mr. Othman Mwinchoum (Multimedia studio, IEMT, OUT)
Ms. Grace W. Mbwete (Assistant Lecturer, ICT Department, OUT)
Ms. Lilian C. Mutalemwa (Assistant Lecturer, ICT Department, OUT)
This course has been developed with the support of the Commonwealth of
Learning, Canada.

3
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
You have already learnt about the basic concepts of database system in Block 1,
including the database model. Block2 focused on database design and concepts like
Entity-relationship model, and normalization. This block addresses one important
concept of creating the database using SQL and inserting and manipulating data in the
database system. Structured Query Language (SQL) is one of the standard languages
across DBMSs for creating database, manipulating data in a database and retrieval if
data from the database systems. This Block also discusses the data development
process.
Unit 11 introduces the data definition language of SQL. It also explains the SQL
commands for creating database constraints.
Unit 12 explains the commands for data manipulation and data retrieval.
Unit 13 discusses the join operation on two tables. Join is an important operation for
a normalized database.
Unit14 introduces the overall process of database development.
You must perform all the activities listed in this Block to appreciate the process of
database creation, manipulation and information retrieval.
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment

6
 Introduction to SQL
UNIT 11 INTRODUCTION TO SQL
Structure

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Terminologies
11.4 Introduction to SQL
11.5 Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands
11.5.1 Create Database Command
11. 5.2 Create Table Command
11.5.3 Drop Table
11.6 Table Constraints
11.6.1 IDENTITY constraint
11.6.2 UNIQUE constraint
11.6.3 FOREIGN KEY Constraint
11.6.4 CHECK constraint
11.6.5 DEFAULT constraint
11.7 User Defined Types
11.8 Video Lecture
11.9 Activity
11.10 Summary
11.11 Answers
11.12 Review Questions FromAuthors
11.13 References and Further Reading
11.14 Attribution

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Structured Query Language (SQL) is the main data definition language used for the
creation and maintenance of databases. In this unit, we will learn the basic SQL syntax,
including some data definition commands, how to define different types of constraints
and different user defined data types in the application environment of databases.

11.2 OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 Describe different SQL - DDL commands.
 Identify where and when to use the appropriate SQL DDL commands.
 Create database by using SQL DDL commands.
 Create set of database tables using DDL commands.
 Describe the various types of integrity constraints and how theyare used. 7
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment 11.3 TERMINOLOGIES
SQL : Database language designed for managing data held in a relational
database management system.
DDL : Data Definition Language; standard for commands that define the
different structures in a database
DML : Set of syntax elements used for selecting, inserting, deleting and
updating data in a database.
Constraints : Rules enforced on data columns on table

11.4 INTRODUCTION TO SQL

Structured Query Language (SQL) is a database language designed for managing
data held in a relational database management system. SQL was initially developed by
IBM in the early 1970s . The initial version, called SEQUEL (Structured English Query
Language), wasdesigned to manipulate and retrieve data stored in IBM's quasi-relational
database management system, System R. Then in the late 1970s, Relational Software
Inc., which is now Oracle Corporation, introduced the first commercially available
implementation of SQL, Oracle V2 for VAX computers.
Many ofthe currently available relationalDBMSs, such as Oracle Database, Microsoft
SQLServer (shown in Figure 11.1), MySQL, IBM DB2, IBM Informix and Microsoft
Access, use SQL.

8 Figure 11.1: Example of Microsoft SQL Server, by A. Watt.

 Introduction to SQL
11.5 DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL)
COMMANDS
In a DBMS, the SQL database language is used to:
 Create the database and table structures
 Perform basic data management chores (add, delete and modify)
 Perform complex queries to transform raw data into useful information
In this unit, we will focus on using SQL to create the database and table structures,
mainly using SQL as a data definition language (DDL). In the following unit; unit 12 we
will use SQL as a data manipulation language (DML) to insert, delete, select and
update data within the database tables.

11.5.1 Create Database Command

The major SQL DDL statements are CREATE DATABASE and CREATE/DROP/
ALTER TABLE. The SQL statement CREATE is used to create the database and
table structures. The SQL syntax for creating a database is as follows:-

CREATE DATABASE dbname;

Example: CREATE DATABASE university
A new database named 'university' is created bythe SQL statement;

CREATE DATABASE university;

In order for your database to be created within a RDBMS; you must adhere to the
following conditions, which are:
 Making sure you have admin privilege before creating any database.
 The SQL command (CREATE DATABASE) is in capital letters and the
command ends with a semicolon sign (;).

 Ensuring that the database name should be unique within the RDBMS.
After creating the database 'university'; you can now check your created database in
the list of databases by typing the following SQL statement;

SHOW DATABASES;
The result of this SQL statement should list down the databases that have been created
with 'university' database which has just been crated; as follows:-

Database

Shop

Customer

university

3 rows in set (0.00 sec) 9

Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment
11. 5.2 Create Table Command
A new database named 'university' is created by the SQL statement CREATE
DATABASE university. Once the database is created, the next step is to create the
database tables. The general format for the CREATE TABLE command is:

CREATE TABLE <tablename>

(
ColumnName, Datatype, Optional Column Constraint,
ColumnName, Datatype, Optional Column Constraint,
Optional table Constraints
);
Tablename is the name of the database table such as Employee. Each field in the
CREATE TABLE has three parts (see above):
 ColumnName
 Data type
 Optional Column Constraint
i) ColumnName
The ColumnName must be unique within the table. Some examples of ColumnNames
are FirstName and LastName.
ii) Data Type
The data type, as described below, must be a system data type or a user-defined data
type. Many of the data types have a size such as CHAR(35) or Numeric(8,2).
1. Bit - Integer data with either a 1 or 0 value
2. Int - Integer (whole number) data from -231 (-2,147,483,648) through 231 -
1 (2,147,483,647)
3. Smallint - Integer data from 215 (-32,768) through 215 - 1 (32,767)
4. Tinyint - Integer data from 0 through 255
5. Decimal - Fixed precision and scale numeric data from -1038 -1 through 1038
6. Numeric - Asynonym for decimal
7. Timestamp - Adatabase-wide unique number
8. Uniqueidentifier - Aglobally unique identifier (GUID)
9. Money - Monetary data values from -263 (-922,337,203,685,477.5808)
through 263 - 1 (+922,337,203,685,477.5807), with accuracy to one-ten-
thousandth of a monetary unit
10. Smallmoney - Monetary data values from -214,748.3648 through
+214,748.3647, with accuracy to one-ten-thousandth of a monetary unit

10 11. Float - Floatingprecision number data from-1.79E + 308 through 1.79E + 308
 12. Real - Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 through 3.40E + 38 Introduction to SQL

13. Datetime - Date and time data from January 1, 1753, to December 31,
9999, with an accuracy of one-three-hundredths of a second, or 3.33
milliseconds
14. Smalldatetime - Date and time data from January 1, 1900, through June 6,
2079, with an accuracy of one minute

15. Char - Fixed-length non-Unicode character data with a maximum length of

8,000 characters

16. Varchar - Variable-length non-Unicode data with a maximum of 8,000

characters

17. Text - Variable-length non-Unicode data with a maximum length of 231 - 1

(2,147,483,647) characters
18. Binary - Fixed-length binary data with a maximum length of 8,000 bytes
19. Varbinary - Variable-length binarydata with a maximum lengthof 8,000 bytes

20. Image - Variable-length binary data with a maximum length of 231 - 1

(2,147,483,647) bytes
iii) Optional Column Constraints
The Optional Column Constraints are NULL, NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY
KEYand DEFAULT, used to initialize a value for a new record. The column constraint
NULL indicates that null values are allowed, which means that a row can be created
without a value for this column. The column constraint NOT NULL indicates that a
value must be supplied when a new row is created.
To illustrate, we will use the SQLstatement CREATE TABLE Students to create the
students table with 6 attributes or fields.
USE university
CREATE TABLE Students
(
StudentRegNo CHAR(10) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
StudentFName CHAR(30)NOT NULL,
StudentMName CHAR(25)NOT NULL,
StudentLName CHAR(25)NOT NULL,
YearEnrolledDATE NOT NULL,
BirthDate DATE NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT students_PK PRIMARY KEY(StudentRegNo)
);
The first field is 'Student Reg No' with a field type of CHAR. For this field, the field
length is 10 characters, and the user cannot leave this field empty (NOT NULL). 11
Structured Query Language Similarly, the second field is StudentFName with a field type CHAR of length 30. After
and Database Develoment
all the table columns are defined, a table constraint, identified by the word
CONSTRAINT, is used to create the primary key:
CONSTRAINT StudentsPK PRIMARY KEY(StudentRegNo)
We will discuss the constraint property further later in this unit. Likewise, we can
create two more tables a 'course' table and an 'AcademicProgram' table using the
CREATE TABLE DDL command of SQLas shown in the below example.
USE university
CREATE TABLE COURSE
(
CourseTitle Char(35) NOT NULL,
CourseCode Char(30) NOT NULL,
CourseUnitsInt NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT COURSE_PK PRIMARY KEY(CourseCode)
);
In this example, an 'AcademicProgram' table is created with three fields: ProgramID,
ProgramName and CreditPoints.
USE university
CREATE TABLE AcademicPrograms
(
ProgramID Int NOT NULL IDENTITY,
ProgramName Char(50) NOT NULL,
CreditPoints Int NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT AcademicPrograms_PK PRIMARY KEY(ProgramID)
);
You canuse ALTER TABLE statements to add and drop constraints. ALTER TABLE
allows columns to be removed.
When a constraint is added, all existing data are verified for violations.
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype
In the example below, we will use the ALTER TABLE statement to the alter table
AcademicProgram by adding another column/field called 'YearCommenced".
USE university
GO
ALTER TABLE AcademicProgram
12 ADD YearCommencedDateTime NOT NULL,
The above SQLALTER TABLE example will add a column called YearCommenced Introduction to SQL

to the AcademicProgram table.

We can also use alter table use the ALTER TABLE statement to modify a column in a
table by using the following SQL statement;

ALTER TABLE table_name

MODIFY column_namecolumn_type

Look at the following example below where we will modifythe column ProgramName
by changing its data type.

ALTER TABLE AcademicProgram

MODIFY ProgramName VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL;

You can confirm these changes by using SQLstatement DESC table_name to verify
the data structure changes.

DESC AcademicProgram;

11.5.3 DROP TABLE

The DROP TABLE will remove a table from the database. Make sure you have the
correct database selected.
DROP TABLE table_name
For example; if we want to drop/delete table AcademicProgram, we write the SQL
statement as follows;

DROP TABLE AcademicProgram

Executing the above SQL DROP TABLE statement will remove the table
AcademicProgram fromthe database university.
Check Your Progress 1
Q1: Why is learning SQL important for DBMS?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
Q2: Define the following relation using SQL in a Database named Bank.
Account Holder (Customer id, Account no, date of account opening, balance)
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................... 13
Structured Query Language Q3: What are the commands for the following?
and Database Develoment
(a) Dropping a table
(b) Displaying table structure
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

11.6 TABLE CONSTRAINTS

Table constraints are identified by the CONSTRAINT keyword and can be used to
implement various constraints described below.

11.6.1 IDENTITY constraint

We can use the optionalcolumn constraint IDENTITYto provide a unique, incremental
value for that column. Identity columns are often used with the PRIMARY KEY
constraints to serve as the unique row identifier for the table. The IDENTITY property
can be assigned to a column with a tinyint, smallint, int, decimal or numeric data type.
This constraint:
 Generates sequential numbers
 Does not enforce entity integrity
 Only one column can have the IDENTITY property
 Must be defined as an integer, numeric or decimal data type
 Cannot update a column with the IDENTITY property
 Cannot contain NULL values
 Cannot bind defaults and default constraints to the column
For IDENTITY [(seed, increment)]
 Seed - the initial value of the identity column
 Increment - the value to add to the last increment column
We will use another database example to further illustrate the SQLDDLstatements by
creating the table tblHotel in this HOTEL database.
CREATE TABLE tblHotel
(
HotelNo Int IDENTITY (1,1),
Name Char(50) NOT NULL,
Address Char(50) NULL,
City Char(25) NULL,

14 );
11.6.2 UNIQUE constraint Introduction to SQL

The UNIQUE constraint prevents duplicate values from being entered into a column.
 Both PK and UNIQUE constraints are used to enforce entity integrity.
 Multiple UNIQUE constraints can be defined for a table.
 When a UNIQUE constraint is added to an existing table, the existing data is
always validated.
 A UNIQUE constraint can be placed on columns that accept nulls. Only one
row can be NULL.
 A UNIQUE constraint automatically creates a unique index on the selected
column.
This is the general syntax for the UNIQUE constraint:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name]
UNIQUE [CLUSTERED | NONCLUSTERED]
(col_name [, col_name2 […, col_name16]])
[ON segment_name]
This is an examle using the UNIQUE constraint.
CREATE TABLE Students
(
StudentRegNo CHAR(10) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
)

11.6.3 FOREIGN KEY Constraint

The FOREIGN KEY (FK) constraint defines a column, or combination of columns,
whose values match the PRIMARY KEY (PK) of another table.
 Values in an FK are automaticallyupdatedwhenthe PK values in the associated
table are updated/changed.
 FK constraints must reference PK or the UNIQUE constraint of another
table.
 The number of columns for FK must be same as PK or UNIQUE constraint.
 If the WITH NOCHECK option is used, the FK constraint will not validate
existing data in a table.
 No index is created on the columns that participate in an FK constraint.
This is the general syntax for the FOREIGN KEY constraint:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name]
[FOREIGN KEY (col_name [, col_name2 […, col_name16]])]
REFERENCES [owner.]ref_table [(ref_col [, ref_col2
[…, ref_col16]])] 15
Structured Query Language In this example, the field HotelNo in the tblRoom table is a FK to the field HotelNo in
and Database Develoment
the tblHotel table shown previously.
USE HOTEL
GO
CREATE TABLE tblRoom
(

HotelNo Int NOT NULL ,

RoomNo Int NOT NULL,
Type Char(50)NULL,
Price Money NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (HotelNo, RoomNo),
FOREIGN KEY (HotelNo) REFERENCES tblHotel
)

11.6.4 CHECK constraint

The CHECK constraint restricts values that can be entered into a table.
 It can contain search conditions similar to a WHERE clause.
 It can reference columns in the same table.
 The data validation rule for a CHECK constraint must evaluate to a Boolean
expression.
 It can be defined for a column that has a rule bound to it.
This is the general syntax for the CHECK constraint:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name]
CHECK [NOT FOR REPLICATION] (expression)
In this example, the Type field is restricted to have only the types 'Single', 'Double',
'Suite' or 'Executive'.

USE HOTEL
GO
CREATE TABLE tblRoom
(
HotelNo Int NOT NULL,
RoomNo Int NOT NULL,
Type Char(50) NULL,
Price Money NULL,
16 PRIMARY KEY (HotelNo, RoomNo),
 FOREIGN KEY (HotelNo) REFERENCES tblHotel Introduction to SQL

CONSTRAINT Valid_Type
CHECK (Type IN ('Single', 'Double', 'Suite', 'Executive'))
)
In this second example, the employee hire date should be before January 1, 2004, or
have a salary limit of $300,000.
GO
CREATE TABLE SALESREPS
(
Empl_num Int Not Null
CHECK (Empl_num BETWEEN 101 and 199),
Name Char (15),
Age Int CHECK (Age >= 21),
Quota Money CHECK (Quota >= 0.0),
HireDate DateTime,
CONSTRAINT QuotaCap CHECK ((HireDate< "01-01-2004")
OR (Quota <=300000))
);

11.6.5 DEFAULT constraint

The DEFAULT constraint is used to supply a value that is automatically added for a
column if the user does not supply one.
 Acolumn can have only one DEFAULT.
 The DEFAULT constraint cannot be used on columns with a timestamp data
type or identity property.
 DEFAULT constraints are automatically bound to a column when they are
created.
The general syntax for the DEFAULT constraint is:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name]
DEFAULT {constant_expression | niladic-function | NULL}
[FOR col_name]
This example sets the default for the city field
to 'Vancouver'.
USE HOTEL
ALTER TABLE tblHotel

Add CONSTRAINT df_city DEFAULT 'Vancouver' FOR City 17

Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment 11.7 USER DEFINED TYPES
User defined types are always based on system-supplied data type. They can enforce
data integrity and they allow nulls.

To create a user-defined data type in SQL Server, choose types under

"Programmability" in your database. Next, right click and choose 'New' ->'User-defined
data type' or execute the sp_addtype system stored procedure. After this, type:

sp_add type ssn, 'varchar(11)', 'NOT NULL'

This will add a new user-defined data type called SIN with nine characters. In this
example, the field EmployeeSIN uses the user-defined data type SIN.

CREATE TABLE SINTable

(
EmployeeID INT Primary Key,

EmployeeSIN SIN,

CONSTRAINT CheckSIN

CHECK (EmployeeSIN LIKE

'[0-9][0-9][0-9] - [0-9][0-9] [0-9] - [0-9][0-9][0-9]')

);
Check Your Progress 2
Q1: You want to assign successive odd numbers to a field named security no
(starting form 1).

Write SQL Command to do so.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................

Q2: Create the following table with UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY and FOREIGN KEY
constraints:

STUDENT (Student id, Name, aadhar number, Programme code)

Where Student id is Primary key

Aadhar number is an alternate key, and

Programme code is a foreign key to a table named PROGRAMME.

...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................
18
Q3: How will you check that Marital Status field is contains the value 'SINGLE' or Introduction to SQL

'MARRIED' and salary is between 15,000 and 2,00,000.

...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................

11.8 VIDEO LECTURE

Introduction to SQL - https://tinyurl.com/zlh99lo

DDL Commands - https://tinyurl.com/j992obd

CREATE TABLE Command and Table Constraints: https://tinyurl.com/jegmsh3

INSERT COMMAND: https://tinyurl.com/zn4ko8m

19
Structured Query Language ll. ACTIVITY
and Database Develoment 9

Activity 11.1

Introduction to SQL Exercises

Aim: To become conversant with basic SQL operations.

Resources: Unit 11 Learning materials and MySQLDBMS or its

equivalent.

What to do:

Create a database called 'Emporium' with the attached structure below in

a ERD and populate it with tanning-related data. UNIQUE constraints
were used to guarantee unique values for the identifiers from the entity-
relationship model. The BED table used an additional UNIQUE constraint
on the drummer id column to make sure that more than one bed can't be
named for the same drummer. All currency columns used the FLOAT
datatype.
PLA N MEMBEIRSHIP DRUMMER
pla.n id (PK) plan Ld (PK . FK_l) do.Jrnmer id (f Kl
plcm_m1me ( UK l) 1+ ----<->·1l .d!l.!1Y:!.m!! !1[m[l.8§:rL
:i.,. ,.fF!K;2 ) ...+---i-tdrumme r_nilm (IJ K 1)
dU(P!K .1i 1

rate membership _date band

, .-----------'t
V ISIT
b1 ed id (PK) MODEL ------------------------------ i
vis it id (PK) 1----
plan_id (FKl ) drummer_ id:NUli ( UK l, fK l) model id (Pt.'.)
drummer_id (FK2) -1 >o<:i--+-1mode l_id (1FK2 ) l>i!_::i--;..imode Lname (UKl)
bed_id (FK3) lette r_coide (UK2) manufacturer
¥isit_date surcharge cost_per_use

Duration: Expect to spend about 2 hours on this activity.

Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for

an assessment and feedback.

Activity 11.2

Introduction to SQL Exercises

Aim: To become conversant with basic SQLDDL operations.

Resources: Unit 11 Learning materials and MySQL DBMS or its

equivalent.

What to do:

Populate the table (MODEL) with data as detailed below. Please pay
attention to the order in which your tables are populated: primary key
columns must be populated before dependent foreign key columns.
20
 Introduction to SQL
MODEL table
model_id model_name manufacturer cost_per_use
1 Super Crisp CrispTanCorp 10
2 Super Crisp CrispTanCorp 12
Deluxe
3 Roentgen CrispTanCorp 14.5
Radiator
Duration: Expect to spend about 1 hour on this activity
Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for
assessment and feedback.

Activity 11.3
Introduction to SQL Exercises
Aim: To become conversant with basic SQLoperations.
Resources: Unit 11 Learning materials and MySQL DBMS or its
equivalent.
What to do:
Populate the table (DRUMMER) with data as detailed below. Please pay
attention to the order in which your tables are populated: primary key
columns must be populated before dependent foreign keycolumns.
DRUMMER table
drummer_id drummer_name band
1 Keith Moon Who, The
2 John Bonham Led Zepplin
3 Charlie Watts Rolling Stones, The
Duration: Expect to spend about 2 hours on this activity.
Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for
assessment and feedback.

21
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment What to do:
Populate the table (PLAN) with data as detailed below. Please payattention
to the order in which your tables are populated: primarykey columns must
be populated before dependent foreign key columns.
PLAN Table
plan_id plan_name rate
1 Walk-In 25
2 Lobster 15
3 Bronze 10
Duration: Expect to spend about 30 minutes on this activity
Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for
assessment and feedback.

22
 Introduction to SQL
Resources: Unit 11 Learning materials and MySQLDBMS or its
equivalent.
What to do:
Populate the table (BED) with data as detailed below. Please pay attention
to the order in which your tables are populated: primarykey columns must
be populated before dependent foreign key columns.
BED table
bed_id drummer_id model_id letter_code surchage
1 NULL 1 A 0
2 3 2 B 1.25
3 NULL 1 C 0
Duration: Expect to spend about 2 hours on this activity.
Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for a
feedback.

23
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment 11.10 SUMMARY
In this unit you learned about SQL which is divided into two main categories; DDL
and DML. These categories show how to create a database and tables in that
particular database. For this unit, the emphasis was on data definition language by
using SQL where we had a chance of creating database and tables; within their
respective data types and required constraints. In summary, this unit has covered
how to define structure of a database and its associated tables and how to manipulate
the data within.

11.11 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1

Ans 1: SQL is a standard language across DBMS, and is used for defining data,
manipulating data and retrieving data as per the need of the user.

Ans 2: CREATE DATABASE Bank;

USE Bank

CREATE TABLE AccountHolder (

Cust_id CHAR (20) NOT NULL UNIQUE,

Account_no CHAR (20) Not NULL,

Dataofaccountopening Date time NOT NULL,

Balance Money NOT NULL,

CONSTRAINT AcHolder_PK PRIMARY KEY (Cust_id, Account_no)

);

Ans 3: (a) DROPTABLE tablename;

(b) DESC table name;

Check Your Progress 2

Ans 1: CREATE TABLE test

Securityno Int IDENTITY (1, 2),

Name CHAR(50)

Ans 2: You may use the following command provided. You have executed SQL
command to use the appropriate databases and created the PROGRAMME
table with a field name Programme-code which has same data type as of
STUDENT table.
24
 CREATE TABLE STUDENT Introduction to SQL

id CHAR(10) PRIMARY KEY,

name CHAR(50) NOT NULL,

Aadharno CHAR(12) UNIQUE,

Programme-code CHAR(10),

FOREIGN KEY(Programme-code) REFERENCES PROGRAMME

Ans 3:

...

maritalstatus CHAR(10),

Salary Int,

CONSTRAINT Valid-maritial-status

CHECK(maritalstatus IN ('SINGLE','MARRIED'))

CONSTRAINT salary-range CHECK ((salary>15,000) AND

(salary<2,00,000))

11.12 REVIEW QUESTIONS FROM AUTHORS

Aim : These questions are aimed at assessing student knowledge on SQL
operation skills

Duration : Expect to spend 2hours for this activity.

Task 1

Create the database named 'Organization' then a table 'Employee' with the following
attributes and its corresponding data declaration:-

ATTRIBUTE (FIELD) NAME DATA DECLARATION

EMP_NUM CHAR(3)

EMP_LNAME VARCHAR(15)

EMP_FNAME VARCHAR(15)

EMP_INITIAL CHAR(1)

EMP_HIREDATE DATE

JOB_CODE CHAR(3)
25
Structured Query Language Task 2
and Database Develoment
Populate the table created in task 1 with the following data.

Task 3
Write the SQL code to change the job code to 501 for the person whose personnel
number is 107. After you have completed the task, examine the results, and then reset
the job code to its original value.
Task 4
Assuming that the data shown in the Employee table have been entered, write the SQL
code that lists all attributes for a job code of 502.
Task 5
Write the SQLcode to delete the row for the person named William Smithfield, who
was hired on June 22, 2004, and whose job code classification is 500. (Hint: Use
logical operators to include all the information given in this problem.)
Task 6
Add the attributes EMP_PCT and PROJ_NUM to the Employee table. The
EMP_PCT is the bonus percentage to be paid to each employee.
Task 7
Using a single command, write the SQL code that will enter the project number
(PROJ_NUM) = 18 for all employees whose job classification (JOB_CODE) is 500.
Task 7
Using a single command, write the SQL code that will enter the project number
(PROJ_NUM) = 25 for all employees whose job classification (JOB_CODE) is 502
or higher.
Task 8
Write the SQLcode that will change the PROJ_NUM to 14 for those employees who
were hired before January 1, 1994, and whose job code is at least 501. (You may
assume that the table will be restored to its original condition preceding this question.)

11.13 FURTHER READING

1. Eng, N., & Watt, A. (2013). Database Design - 2nd Edition. Retrieved May 23,
2016, from BC Open TextBooks, https://opentextbc.ca/dbdesign01/chapter/sql-
26 structured-query-language/
Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca Introduction to SQL

2. Intro to SQL: Querying and managing data. Retrieved September 12, 2016, from
KhanAcademy, https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-
programming/sql?ref=resume_learning#sql-basics
3. Rogers, D. (2002). COMP210: Class notes. Retrieved May 15, 2016, from
Yukon College, http://college.yukondude.com/2006_09_comp210/html/notes.php

11.14 ATTRIBUTION
The content of this unit of the Learning Material - Introduction to Databases (including
its images, unless otherwise noted) is a derivative copy of materials from the book
Database Design by Adrienne Watt and Nelson Eng licensed under Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca

The following material was written by Grace Mbwete:
1. Introduction
2. SQL Examples in creating Databases and column constraints.

3. Unit Summary

27
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment UNIT 12 SQL DATA MANIPULATION
LANGUAGE
Structure

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Terminologies
12.4 Data manipulation Language (DML)
12.5 INSERT Statement
12.6 SELECT Statement
12.7 Where Clause
12.8 Special Operators
12.9 AND /OR Operators
SQLAggregate Functions
Order By Clause
Group By Clause
Video lecture:
Activity
Unit summary
Answers
Review Questions FromAuthors
References and Further Reading
Attribution

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In unit 11, you were introduced to Data Definition Language (DDL) which is a
prerequisite for this unit. In this unit, you have an opportunity to learn about Data
Manipulation Language (DML) whereby you will learn how to manipulate (query) a
database by using different SQL. Please note that this unit is a practical based unit,
where as you go along the content, you need to be hands on with a DBMS of your
choice.

12.2 OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:
 Construct basic queries using Distinct Clause.
 Construct basic queries using Where Clause.
 Construct basic queries using AND/OR operator.
 Construct basic queries using Aggregate Functions.
28
 Construct basic queries using Order By Clause. SQL - Data Manipulation
Language
 Construct basic queries using Special Operator.

12.3 TERMINOLOGIES
Distinct Clause : SQL operator which is used to return only distinct
(different) values.
Where Clause : SQL operator which is used to filter records.
And/Or Operator : SQL operator which is used to filter records on one
or more conditions.
SQLAggregate Function : SQL functions which perform a calculation on a set
of values and return a single, or summary, value.
SQL Special Operator : SQL operators which filter records on special
conditions.

12.4 DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML)

The SQL Data Manipulation Language (DML) is used to query and modify database
data. In this unit, we will describe how to use the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE SQL DMLcommand statements, defined below.
 SELECT - to query data in the database
 INSERT - to insert data into a table
 UPDATE - to update data in a table
 DELETE - to delete data from a table
In the SQL DML statement, please note that:
 Each clause in a statement should begin ona new line.
 The beginning ofeach clause should line up with the beginning of other clauses.
 If a clause has several parts, they should appear on separate lines and be
indented under the start of the clause to show the relationship.
 Upper case letters are used to represent reserved words.
 Lower case letters are used to represent user-defined words.

12.5 INSERT STATEMENT

Before you can manipulate anydata from a database, you need to populate that database
with data. Consider the following example , where you are going to create a table
called 'courses' and then insert data in it.
Note that, before creating the table you need to select particular database where your
table will be created. You are going to use database named 'university' from previous
unit and a table called courses which was created by using the following syntax. The
following are the steps involved; 29
Structured Query Language (i) Creating the table
and Database Develoment
USE university

CREATE TABLE courses

CourseCode VARCHAR(40) PRIMARY KEY,

CourseTitle VARCHAR(255),

CourseUnits INT NOT NULL,

CourseCredits INT NOT NULL

);
(ii) Confirming the structure of the table

In order to confirm the structure of your table, type the statement

DESC courses;

The following should be the output;

+-----------------+--------------+------+----- +--------+------ +
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |

+-----------------+--------------+------+----- +--------+------ +

| CourseCode | varchar(40) | NO | PRI | NULL | |

| CourseTitle | varchar(255) | YES | | NULL | |

| CourseUnits | int(11) | NO | | NULL | |

| CourseCredits | int(11) | NO | | NULL | |

+-----------------+--------------+------+----- +--------+------ +
4 rows in set (0.06 sec)

(iii) Inserting Data into the table 'courses'

INSERT INTO courses VALUES ("OIT214", "OO Programming", 3, 30);

INSERT INTO courses VALUES (OIT215, "Data Communication", 3, 30);

INSERT INTO courses VALUES ("OIT216", "Introductionto E-Business", 2, 10);

INSERT INTO courses VALUES ("OIT217", "Database Design", 2, 10);

INSERT INTO courses VALUES ("OIT218", "Computer Security", 1, 5);

INSERT INTO courses VALUES ("OIT219", "Software Design", 1, 20);

Now, you have learned how to insert/populate data into our tables. Please note, you
have to be careful, with SQL syntax while creating and pulating the database. One,
spelling mistake, then the statement willnot go through.
30
 SQL - Data Manipulation
12.6 SELECT STATEMENT Language

The SELECT statement, or command, allows the user to extract data from tables in a
selected database. Please, note the syntax of the SELECT statement below:
 In a circumstance that you only want to select few selected columns fromthat
particular table, the following syntax applies.
SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name;
 In a circumstance that you only want to select allcolumns from that particular
table, the following syntax applies.

SELECT *
FROM table_name;
Example 1:
Referring to the table 'courses' that you had inserted data into; you are going to have
a look at what data the table holds after inserting the data in the previous section.

SELECT *
FROM courses;
The following should be the output;

CourseCode CourseTitle CourseUnits CourseCredits

OIT219 Software Design 1 20
OIT214 OO Programming 3 30
OIT215 Data 3 30
Communication
OIT216 Introduction to 2 10
E-business
OIT217 Database Design 2 10
OIT218 Computer Security 1 5

Example 2:
If you want to select one or more columnfrom a particular table; the following syntax
holds;

SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name;
Following, out table courses we had populated with data in the previous section;
SELECT CourseTitle

FROM courses;
31
Structured Query Language The following should be the result;
and Database Develoment
+------------------------------+

| CourseTitle |

+------------------------------+

| Software Design |

| OO Programming |

| Data Communication |

| Introduction to E-business |

| Database Design |

| Computer Security |

+------------------------------+

6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

The following sections, you are going to learn more conditions that are used with the
SELECT statement in querying the database.

12.7 WHERE CLAUSE

In this section you are going to learn more on the SELECT statements by filtering the
data in the database. The WHERE clause is mainly used to filter records. Its syntax is
as follows:

SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name

WHERE column_name operator value;

Consider the following example below, where we will be using our university database
and 'courses' tables from previous unit and section;

Example 1

If we want to know Course Title courses which have 2 units, the syntax will be as
follows:

SELECT CourseTitle from courses

WHERE CourseUnits = 2;

The following should be the output;

+-----------------------------+

| coursetitle |

+-----------------------------+
32
| Introduction to E-business | SQL - Data Manipulation
Language
| Database Design |

+-----------------------------+

2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Example 2

If you want know how manycourses have 2 or more units, we would use the following
syntax:-

SELECT CourseTitle from courses

WHERE CourseUnits>= 2;
The following should be the output;

+-----------------------------+

| coursetitle |

+-----------------------------+

| OO Programming |

| Data Communication |

| Introduction to E-business |

| Database Design |

+-----------------------------+

4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Check Your Progress 1

Q1: What is the purpose of SELECT, UPDATE and DELETE commands in SQL?

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

Q2: Consider the courses table in university database (given in section 12.5)

How will you insert a record containing the following data into the courses table?

CourseCode BCS091

CourseTitle DBMS

CourseUnits 3

CourseCredits 30
33
Structured Query Language What will happen if you try to enter CourseCode and CourseTitle only?
and Database Develoment
...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

Q3: Using the same table as above, list those CourseCode and CourseTitle for which
CourseCredits are less than or equal to 20.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

12.8 SPECIAL OPERATORS

The WHERE clause can be used withthe following operators in querying the database
as illustrated in the examples above;
S/N Operator Description
1 BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
2 LIKE Search for a certain pattern
3 IN Specifies multiple possible values for a field
4 <> Not equal.
5 > Greater than
6 < Less than
7 >= Greater than or equal
8 <= Less than or equal

12.9 AND /OR OPERATORS

AND & OR operators are used with the WHERE clause filter records based on more
than one condition. Consider the following example below:
Example 1: AND Operator
We are going to select all courses which have 3 unit and 30 credits from our table
courses from previous section.

SELECT * FROM Courses

WHERE CourseUnits=3

34 AND CourseCredits=30;
The result should be as follows: SQL - Data Manipulation
Language
+----------------+--------------------- +------------------+-------------------+
| CourseCode | CourseTitle | CourseUnits | CourseCredits |
+----------------+--------------------- +------------------+-------------------+
| OIT214 | OO Programming | 3| 30 |
| OIT215 | Data Communication | 3 | 30 |
+----------------+--------------------- +------------------+-------------------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Example 2:OR Operator
We are going to select all courses which have 3 unit and 30 credits from our table
courses from previous section.
SELECT * FROM Courses
WHERE CourseUnits=2
OR CourseCredits=20;
The following should be the results;
+----------------+-------------------------- +---------------- +---------------+
| CourseCode | CourseTitle | CourseUnits | CourseCredits |
+----------------+-------------------------- +---------------- +---------------+
| OIT 219 | Software Design | 1 | 20 |
| OIT216 | Introduction to E-business | 2 | 10 |
| OIT217 | Database Design | 2 | 10 |
+----------------+-------------------------- +---------------- +---------------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)
For more querying of data, AND operator and OR operator can be combined.

12.10 SQLAGGREGATE FUNCTIONS

Aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set of values and return a single, or
summary, value. Table 12.2 lists these functions.
Table 12.2: SQLAggregate Functions
S/N Function Description
1 AVG Returns the average of all the values, or onlythe DISTINCT
values, in the expression.
2 COUNT Returns the number of non-null values in the expression.
When DISTINCT is specified, COUNT finds the number
of unique non-null values. 35
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment 3 COUNT(*) Returns the number of rows. COUNT(*) takes no
parameters and cannot be used with DISTINCT.
4 MAX Returns the maximum value in the expression. MAX can be
used with numeric, character and datetime columns, but not
with bit columns. With character columns, MAX finds the
highest value in the collating sequence. MAX ignores any
null values.
5 MIN Returns the minimum value in the expression. MIN can be
used with numeric, character and datetime columns, but not
with bit columns. With character columns, MIN finds the
value that is lowest in the sort sequence. MIN ignores any
null values.
6 SUM Returns the sum of all the values, or only the DISTINCT
values, in the expression. SUM can be used with numeric
columns only.
Look at the examples below, illustrating the aggregate functions:
Example 1: MIN
MIN aggregate function returns the smallest value of the selected column. For example,
lets us filter records to get the course with the lowest number of credits of all courses
in the course table;

SELECT MIN(CourseCredits) AS 'Minimum Course Credits'

from courses;
The result should be as follows;
+--------------------------- +
| Minimum Course Credits |
+--------------------------- +
| 5 |
+--------------------------- +
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Example 2: MAX
MAX aggregate function returns the largest value of the selected column. For example,
lets us filter records to get the course with the highest number of credits of all courses
in the course table;

SELECT MAX(CourseCredits) AS 'Maximum Course Credits'

from courses;
The result should be as follows;
+--------------------------- +

36 | Maximum Course Credits |

+--------------------------- + SQL - Data Manipulation
Language
| 30 |
+--------------------------- +
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Example 3: COUNT
COUNT function returns the number of rows that matches specified criteria. Let's
look at the example below from courses table where we are querying the total number
of courses.

SELECT COUNT(*) AS 'Number of Courses' from courses;

The result should be as follows;
+-----------------------+
| Number of Courses |
+-----------------------+
| 6 |
+-----------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Example 4: Avg
Avg function returns the average value ofa numeric column. Let's look at the example
below from courses table where we are querying the average of course credits in the
course table.

SELECT Avg(CourseCredits) AS 'Average Course Credits'

from courses;
The above statement should return the following output;
+--------------------------- +
| Average Course Credits |
+--------------------------- +
| 17.5000 |
+--------------------------- +
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Example 5: Sum
SUM function returns the total sum of a numeric column. Let's look at the example
below from courses table where we are calculating the total number of units of course
units in the course table.

SELECT SUM(CourseUnits) AS 'Total Number of Units'

from courses;
37
Structured Query Language The result should be as follows;
and Database Develoment
+--------------------------- +
| Total Number of Units |
+--------------------------- +
| 12 |
+--------------------------- +
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

12.11 ORDER BY CLAUSE

You use the ORDER BY clause to sort the records in the resulting list. Use ASC to
sort the results in ascending order and DESC to sort the results in descending order.
Example 1:ASC:
select * from courses
ORDER BY CourseCode ASC;
The results should be as follows:-
+--------------+---------------------------+--------------+----------------+
| CourseCode | CourseTitle | CourseUnits | CourseCredits |
+--------------+---------------------------+--------------+----------------+
| OIT214 | OO Programming | 3 | 30 |
| OIT215 | Data Communication | 3 | 30 |
| OIT216 | Introduction to E-business | 2 | 10 |
| OIT217 | Database Design | 2 | 10 |
| OIT218 | Computer Security | 1 | 5 |
| OIT219 | Software Design | 1 | 20 |
+--------------+---------------------------+--------------+----------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Example 2: DESC:
select * from courses
ORDER BY CourseCode DESC;
The results should be as follows:
+--------------+---------------------------+--------------+----------------+
| CourseCode | CourseTitle | CourseUnits | CourseCredits |
+--------------+---------------------------+--------------+----------------+

38 | OIT219 | Software Design | 1 | 20 |

| OIT218 | Computer Security | 1 | 5 | SQL - Data Manipulation
Language
| OIT217 | Database Design | 2 | 10 |
| OIT216 | Introduction to E-business | 2 | 10 |
| OIT215 | Data Communication | 3 | 30 |
| OIT214 | OO Programming | 3 | 30 |
+--------------+---------------------------+--------------+----------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

12.12 GROUP BY CLAUSE

The GROUP BY clause is used to create one output row per each group and produces
summary values for the selected columns, as shown below. Run this query using My
SQL and analyse the outcome.
Example:
Using our courses table, let's select courses whereby we will group our courses by
course units.
select coursetitle AS 'Course Title', CourseUnits AS
'Course Units'
from courses GROUP BY courseunits;
+---------------------------+---------------+
| Course Title | Course Units |
+---------------------------+---------------+
| Computer Security | 1 |
| Introduction to E-business | 2 |
| OO Programming | 3 |
+---------------------------+---------------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)
By using activities below, we should be more familiar with these SQLfunctions.
Check Your Progress 2
Using the courses table ofuniversitydatabase, performthe following information retrieval
operations using SQL:
Q1: List all the courses, where CourseUnits are less than 2 but CourseCredits are
more than 10.
................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................... 39
Structured Query Language Q2: Find the total of CourseUnits of those courses whose CourseCredits are more
and Database Develoment
than 10.
................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
Q3: Consider the following database table named student & an instance of database.
Student-ID Student-Name Subject Marks
S01 ABC Database 75
S01 ABC Physics 69
S02 XYZ Database 80
S02 XYZ Physics 90
Find the average marks of each student.
................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................

12.13 VIDEO LECTURE

Special Operators: https://tinyurl.com/zmr4fje

Aggregate functions: https://tinyurl.com/z62dfdk

40
 SQL - Data Manipulation
12.14 ACTIVTIY Language

Activity 12.1
Aim: To acquire practical skills in using basic SQL operations.

Resources: Unit 12learning materials and MySQL DBMS or equivalent

software.

What to do:

Create a database for the fictitious 'Singer Prop Rentals Company', which
rents WWII-vintage fighter aircraft to a select group of singing clients:
singers. The singers rent aircraft and fly between a numbers of European
capital cities and are charged by the company based upon the model of
aircraft and the length of the rental. The name of the database should be
'SingerProp'.

AIRCRAFT SINGER
aircraft id (PK) .s.i.n-g-e-r-(-P-K )-----------!
model (UK l) name (UK l)
seating t.+...o
.... ----L_,1,."31Jirthdate
fixed_charge_ec fa, vourite aircraft id : NULL
daily_rate_ec (FKl) - · -
discount_pct SINGER_RE NTAL
sin!le r (PK FK1l

1. ---c.,R;-EN-T_A_'L------------ renta l id (PK . FK2)1

AIRPORT singer id (PK) '

departure_da te
airport id (PKl H--"<: ><Jar rival elate
city i(UK l) a i rcrart_id i(FIO)
landini;i_fee_ec H---<-::f«ldeparture_airport_idl (FK2)
arrival_airport_id (FK 3)

Duration: Expect to spend about 2 hours on this activity.

Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for

assessment and feedback.

Activity 12.2
Aim: To acquire practical skills in using basic SQL operations.
Resources: Unit 12 leaming materials and MySQL Database Software
or similar DBMS.

What to do:
Populate the following table which was created in a database 'Singer Prop
Rentals Company', in activity 12.1.
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment 2 Corsair 1 275050 48280
3 Hurricane 1 199595 36050
4 Messers 1 120000 37595
chmitt
5 Mustang 1 223700 39425
6 Stuka 2 149595 41000
Duration: Expect to spend about 1hour on this activity.
Feedback: This activityshould be submitted to the course Instructor for
assessment and feedback.

42
 SQL - Data Manipulation
SINGER Table Language

Singer Name BirthDate Favourite_ Discount_pct

_Id Aircraft_Id
1 Justin 1942-04-24 2 15
2 Rohan 1981-12-02 NULL 5
3 Kunal 1946-05-20 6 12
4 Lata 1968-03-30 6 3
5 Kishore 1958-08-16 3 9
6 Rafi 1970-03-27 NULL 0
7 Asha 1918-02-06 NULL 2
Duration: Expect to spend about 1hour on this activity
Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for
assessment and feedback.

43
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment 5 9
6 9
1 10
2 10
3 10
4 10
5 10
6 10
7 10
1 11
2 12
7 12
Duration: Expect to spend about 3 hour on this activity
Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for
assessment and feedback.

44
 SQL - Data Manipulation
8 2006-08-12 2006-08-15 4 1 6 Language

9 2006-08-10 2006-08-11 1 4 6
10 2006-08-17 2006-08-19 1 6 3
11 2006-08-21 2006-08-21 2 3 5
12 2006-08-22 2006-09-02 6 3 2

Duration: Expect to spend about 2 hours on this activity

Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for
assessment and feedback.

12.15 SUMMARY
In this unit you learned about all the basic SQL data manipulationcommands. This was
mainlyhands-on based unit where we have learned how to use different SQL operators
like WHERE clause, Group By, order By, Aggregate functions and special operators.
All these functions are aimed at helping the database end user to filter their data as per
their specific requirements.

12.16 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
Ans 1: SELECT - for retrieving formation from one or more SQL tables.
UPDATE - updating the data values stored in certain field or fields of a table
DELETE - to delete one or several records from a table.
Ans 2: USE university; INSERT INTO courses VALUES ("BCS091","DBMS",3,30);
Try to enter the data, most likelyyou will get an error message. Try to find out why?
Ans 3: SELECT CourseCode, CourseTitle
FROM courses
WHERE CourseCredits <=20;
Check Your Progress 2
Ans 1: SELECT *
FROM courses
WHERE CourseUnits < 2 AND CourseCredits > 10
Ans 2: SELECT sum (CourseUnits)
FROM Courses
WHERE CourseCredits > 10
Ans 3: SELECT Student-ID, AVG (Marks)
FROM Student
GROUP BY Student-ID 45
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment 12.17 REVIEW QUESTIONS FROM AUTHORS
Aim: These questions are aimed at examining learners knowledge's of SQL basic
'select statements. Students have to get the exact answer which will prove that they
have done the activity section correctly.
Duration: Expect to spend 2hours on this activity.
By using 'SingerProp' database in the activity section please answer the following
questions;
1. What is the average aircraft fixed charge for all of the models of aircraft?

Answer: €2,042.40
2. What is the average aircraft fixed charge for all of the rentals?

Answer: €2,053.56
3. What price would each singer pay, including discounts, of a 3 day rental of the
Mustang? Sort the results in descending order by price. (Hint: you'll need to use
both the AIRCRAFT and SINGER table in your query, but you do not INNER
JOIN them together.)
Answer: 7 prices ranging from €3419.75 for Rafi down to €2906.79 for Justin
4. What is the average price a Singer would pay, including discounts, of a 5 day
rental of the Hurricane?
Answer: €3,548.84
5. What is the total landing fee incurred for any rentals of aircraft that have the letter
"c" (uppercase or lowercase) in the model name?
Answer: €15,422.90
6. Excluding Singer discounts, what is the total charge (fixed and daily rate) and
landing fee for each of the rentals? (Hint: calculate the number of days for each
rental by subtracting the departure date from the arrival date and then adding 1.)
Answer: 12 rows, totalcharge ranges from €1,905.95 to €7,578.50 and landing
fee ranges from €960.00 to €4,228.40
7. How many times has each model of aircraft been rented? Sort the results so that
the most-often-rented model appears first.
Answer: 6 rows, the Stuka has been rented 4 times
8. How many times has each airport been visited either as a departure or arrival city?
Sort the results so that the most-often-visited airport appears first. (Hint: use an
OR in the join condition between AIRPORT and RENTAL.)
Answer: 6 cities, Warsaw has been visited 5 times
9. What is the total amount charged per aircraft model (fixed charge and daily rate),
excluding singer discounts, for all of the rentals? Sort the results so that the model
producing the most income appears first. (Hint: starting with your query from
46 exercise #6 makes this a snap.)
 Answer: 6 models, total charge ranges from €16,233.80 to €2,356.45 SQL - Data Manipulation
Language
10. What is the average profit or loss per aircraft model (total charge minus landing
fees), excluding singer discounts, for all of the rentals? Sort the results so that the
least profitable model appears first.
Answer: 6 models, average profit ranges from €-1,597.15 to €2,811.70
11. On what dates have airplanes departed from London?
Hint: (2 dates)
12. Which singers have favorite airplanes? And what is the model name and seating
capacity of those aircraft?
Hint: (4 singers)
13. Which singer have flown to Berlin (arrivals only)? And on which dates did they
arrive?
Hint: (2 singers )
14. Which models of aircraft (together with their seating capacities) have visited Paris
(arrivals or departures)?
Hint: (3 models, but one visited Paris twice)
15. Which singers have flown in an aircraft that is not their favorite model, other than
the Catalina (whether or not they have a favorite)? Display both the singer name
and model in your result set.
16. First try to answer the question without the "favorite model" restriction. That is,
start off by just finding the aircraft models in which each singer has flown.

Hint: (4 different singers in 4 different models, 6 rows in total)

12.18 FURTHER READING

1. Eng, N., & Watt, A. (2013). Database Design - 2nd Edition. Retrieved May 23,
2016, from BC Open TextBooks, https://opentextbc.ca/dbdesign01/chapter/sql-
structured-query-language/
Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca
2. Intro to SQL: Querying and managing data. Retrieved September 12, 2016, from
KhanAcademy, https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-
programming/sql?ref=resume_learning#sql-basics
Rogers, D. (2002). COMP210: Class notes. Retrieved May 15, 2016, from Yukon
College, http://college.yukondude.com/2006_09_comp210/html/notes.php

12.19 ATTRIBUTION
The content of this unit ofthe Learning Material - Introduction to Databases (including
its images, unless otherwise noted) is a derivative copy of materials from the book
Database Design byAdrienne Watt and Nelson Eng licensed under Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License. 47
Structured Query Language Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca
and Database Develoment
The following material was written by Grace Mbwete:
1. Introduction
2. All SQL examples in the unit for manipulating data in the Databases.

3. Unit Summary

48
 SQL - Data Manipulation
UNIT 13 SQL - JOIN STATEMENT Language

Structure

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Terminologies
13.4 SQL Join Statements
13.5 Inner Joins
13.6 Outer Joins
Left Outer Join
Right Outer Joins
13.7 Video lecture
13.8 Activity
13.9 Summary
Answers
Case Study
References and Further Reading
Attribution

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Programmers frequently join data from a number of different tables in order to obtain
more information. In this unit, you will learn about SQL Joins, which allow us to
create complex queries, combine data from different tables, and obtain a new result
set that can provide you with a better understanding of the data and maximize database
flexibility.

13.2 OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:
 Explain the different methods for joining tables.
 Construct advanced queries of two or more tables using join operations.

13.3 TERMINOLOGIES
Inner Join : SQL operator which connects two tables on a column with
the same data type.
Left Outer Join : SQL operator which specifies that all left outer rows be
returned.
Right Outer Join : SQL operator which includes all rows from the right table in
its result set.
49
Structured Query Language Group By : Aggregate functions in the SELECT clause <select> list
and Database Develoment
provide information about each group instead of individual
rows.

13.4 SQLJOIN STATEMENTS

Joining two or more tables is the process of comparing the data in specified columns
and using the comparison results to form a new table from the rows that qualify. Ajoin
statement:
 Specifies a column from each table
 Compares the values in those columns row by row
 Combines rows with qualifying values into a new row
Although the comparison is usually for equality - values that match exactly - other
types of joins can also be specified. All the different joins such as inner, left (outer),
right (outer), and cross join will be described below.

13.5 INNER JOINS

An inner join connects two tables on a column with the same data type. Only the
rows where the column values match are returned; unmatched rows are discarded.
The following is the syntax whichillustrate how inner join operator works:-

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
Check Your Progress 1
Q1: What is the need of Join Operation?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
For Questions 2 & 3.
Consider the following tables
Student Subject
S-id Subject-code Subject-code Title Credits
S001 DBMS DBMS Database Management 3
System
S002 DBMS OS Operating System 3
50
 SQL - Join Statements
S001 OS DS Data Structure 4

S002 OS CO Computer Organisation 4

S003 DS

S003 OS

Q2: What is the necessary condition of joining these two tables?

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

Q3: Write the INNER JOIN command as well as show the result of INNER JOIN.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

13.6 OUTER JOINS

Inner Join combines the two tables, but leaves those records, which does not have a
matching record in the other table. In some cases, you require these records, therefore
outer joins are needed.

13.6.1 Left Outer Join

A left outer join specifies that all left outer rows be returned in additionto rows returned
by INNER JOIN. All rows from the left table that did not meet the condition specified
are included in the results set, and output columns from the other table are set to
NULL.

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table1

LEFT JOIN table2

ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

13.6.2 Right Outer Joins

A right outer join includes, in its result set, allrows from the right table that did not meet
the condition specified in addition to rows retuned by INNER JOIN. Output columns
that correspond to the other table are set to NULL.Below is an example using the new
syntax for a right outer join.
51
Structured Query Language SELECT column_name(s)
and Database Develoment
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
Check Your Progress 2
Consider the tables of Check Your Progress 1 and answers the following questions:
Q1: What would be the command and output of LEFT OUTER JOIN?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
Q2: What would be the command and output of RIGHT OUTER JOIN?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................

13.7 VIDEO LECTURE

https://tinyurl.com/zlpvaom

13.8 ACTIVITY

52
 SQL - Join Statements
1. Show the list of all drummers, and the code of the tanning bed that
has been named for each, or "N/A" if a bed has not been named for
the drummer.

Hint: 7 drummers, 3 have not had beds named after them

2. Show the list of all tanning beds, and the name of the drummer for
which each has been named, or just the letter code again for unnamed
beds.

Hint: 6 beds, two have not been named

3. What has each drummer paid (rate + surcharge) for their visits, broken
down by the bed they used? If a drummer uses a bed named for
himself, he does not pay the surcharge. (Hint: You'll need an extra
copy of BED. Use COALESCE() to "refund" the surcharge. You
may run into trouble using ROUND( ), so skip it.)
Hint: 16 drummer and bed combinations, Charlie pays $67.25 for B,
Keith pays $45.00 for D
How to do it:
Byusing 'Emporium' database created inunit 11; attempt the above referred
tasks.
Duration: Expect to spend about 1 hour on this activity
Feedback: This activity should be submitted to the course Instructor for
assessment and feedback.

13.9 SUMMARY
In this unit you learned about inner and outer joinfunction which connects two tables in
which it allows creation of a new table with comparison of rows that have qualified..

13.10 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
Ans 1: It combines the related rows of two or more tables. This operation is needed
as during normalization process, you decompose tables into several tables;
join recombines those tables to give you combined information. Please note
JOIN does not create a new table unless specifically asked, it is just an
information retrieval query.
Ans 2: At least ONE column/attribute should have the same domain. In the tables
given above Subject-code is the joining attribute.
Ans 3: SELECT S-id, Student.Subject-code, Title, Credits
FROM Student
INNER JOIN Subject 53
Structured Query Language ON Student.Subject-code = Subject.Subject-code
and Database Develoment
* You may notice the redundancyin the output.

Output
S-id Subject-code Title Credits
S001 DBMS Database Management 3
System
S002 DBMS Database Management 3
System
S001 OS Operating System 3
S002 OS Operating System 3
S003 DS Data Structure 4
S003 OS Operating System 3

Check Your Progress 2

Ans 1. SELECT S-id, Student.Subject-code, Title, Credits

FROM Student

LEFT JOIN Subject

ON Student, Subjet-code = Subject.Subject-code.
Result s exactly same as of answer of CYP-1, Q3. as all rows from left are
already in the result.
Ans 2. SELECT S-id, Subject.Subject-code, Title, Credits

FROM Student

RIGHT JOIN Subject

ON Student.Subject-code = Subject.Subject-code

S-id Subject-code Title Credits

- CO Computer Organisation 4
S001 DBMS Database Management 3
System
S002 DBMS Database Management 3
System
S001 OS Operating System 3
S002 OS Operating System 3
S003 DS Data Structure 4

S003 OS Operating System 3

54
 SQL - Join Statements
13.11 CASE STUDY
Aim: This activity is a continuation of unit 11and 12; where you have to be competent
with the basic SQL functions and complement them with OUTER and INNER join
statements.
By using 'SingerProp' database created in unit 12; attempt the following tasks as part
of this unit assessment:-
1. The company institutes a new promotional incentive so that singers that flyon
their favorite aircraft get a bonus 5% discount on each rental that applies even
if the rental is shared (but that's the maximum discount even if more than one
singer fly together in their favorite model). Create a view called
INCENTIVE_DISCOUNT that contains the columns rental_id and
incentive_factor (0.95) for each of the rentals in the RENTAL table. This step
doesn't require an outer join.
i. Hint: rentals 2, 3, 5, 6, 11
2. What is the income, expense, discount factor, incentive factor, and profit/loss
(including discounts and incentives) for each of the rentals? (Hint: Use the
RENTAL_SUMMARY, RENTAL_DISCOUNT (from last week), and
INCENTIVE_DISCOUNT views. Use the COALESCE() function to
calculate an incentive factor of 1.00 when it doesn't apply to a particular
rental.)
i. Hint: 12 rentals, profit ranges from €-1,912.90 €6,466.93
3. What is the total and average profit/loss for all rentals, including diva discounts
and incentives?
i. Hint: total profit of €13,938.10,
ii. average per-rental profit of €1,161.51
4. How many times has each diva flown on a model of aircraft that is not her
favorite?
a. (Hint: first tryto answer the questionwithout the bit about it not being her
favorite aircraft. No outer join is needed, but you will need to use the
COALESCE() function to force the SINGER .favourite_aircraft_id
column to be an impossible value when it is NULL (e.g. 0).)
13 rows;

13.12 FURTHER READING

1. Eng, N., & Watt, A. (2013). Database Design - 2nd Edition. Retrieved May 23,
2016, from BC Open TextBooks, https://opentextbc.ca/dbdesign01/chapter/sql-
structured-query-language/
Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca
2. Intro to SQL: Querying and managing data. Retrieved September 12, 2016, from
KhanAcademy, https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-
programming/sql?ref=resume_learning#sql-basics 55
Structured Query Language Rogers, D. (2002). COMP210: Class notes. Retrieved May 15, 2016, from Yukon
and Database Develoment
College, http://college.yukondude.com/2006_09_comp210/html/notes.php

13.13 ATTRIBUTION
The content of this unit of the Learning Material - Introduction to Databases (including
its images, unless otherwise noted) is a derivative copy of materials from the book
Database Design by Adrienne Watt and Nelson Eng licensed under Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca
The following material was written by Grace Mbwete:
1. Introduction
2. Unit Summary

56
 SQL - Join Statements
UNIT 14 DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
Structure

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Terminologies
14.4 Overview
14.5 Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
14.6 Database Life Cycle
14.7 Video lecture
14.8 Activity
14.9 Summary
Answers
Review Questions byAuthors
References and Further Reading:
Attribution

14.1 INTRODUCTION
After learning all the basic theories and practical techniques of database design in all
previous thirteen units of this course; you will now have the required skills of designing
and implement a database given user requirements. This unit will cover the process of
software development life cycle, database development process which will assist you
in achieving design and implementation of database for a particular case.

14.2 OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 Understand the basic concepts of software development life cycle.
 Analyze user requirements for database design and implementation process.
 Convert user requirements into a logical design.
 Realize the logical design and implement the database.
 Test and maintain the implemented database.

14.3 TERMINOLOGIES
Analysis : Starts by considering the statement of requirements and
finishes by producing a system specification.
Data requirements : Used to confirm the understanding of requirements with
document the user. 57
Structured Query Language Design : Begins with a system specification, produces design
and Database Develoment
documents and provides a detailed description of how a
system should be constructed.
Establishing : Involves consultation with, and agreement among,
requirements stakeholders as to what they want froma system; expressed
as a statement of requirements.
Implementation : The construction ofa computer system according to a given
design document.
Maintenance : Involves dealing with changes in the requirements or the
implementation environment, bug fixing or porting of the
system to new environments.
Requirements : A process during which the database designer interviews
gathering the database user to understand the proposed system and
obtain and document the data and functional requirements.
Software Development : The series of steps involved in the database development
Life Cycle (SDLC) process.

14.4 OVERVIEW
A core aspect of software engineering is the subdivision of the development process
into a series of phases, or steps, eachof which focuses on one aspect of the development.
The collection of these steps is sometimes referred to as the software development life
cycle (SDLC). The software product moves through this life cycle (sometimes repeatedly
as it is refined or redeveloped) until it is finallyretired from use. Ideally, each phase in
the life cycle can be checked for correctness before moving on to the next phase.

14.5 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENTLIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

Let us start with an overview of the
waterfallmodelsuchas you willfind
in most software engineering
textbooks. This waterfall figure,
seen in Figure 14.1, illustrates a
general waterfall model that could
apply to any computer system
development. It shows the process
as a strict sequence of steps where
the output of one step is the input
to the next and all of one step has
to be completed before moving
onto the next.
Waterfall model is used to illustrate
the tasks that are required, together
with the input and output for each
activity. What is important is the
scope of the activities, which can
58 Figure 14.1: Illustration of waterfall model, by G.Mbwete be summarized as follows:
 i. Establishing requirements involves consultation with, and agreement among, Database Development
Process
stakeholders about what they want from a system, expressed as a statement
of requirements.
ii. Analysis starts by considering the statement of requirements and finishes by
producing a system specification. The specification is a formal representation
of what a system should do, expressed in terms that are independent of how
it may be realized.
iii. Design begins with a system specification, produces design documents and
provides a detailed description of how a system should be constructed.
iv. Implementation is the construction of a computer system according to a given
design document and taking into account the environment in whichthe system
will be operating (e.g., specific hardware or software available for the
development). Implementation maybe staged, usually with an initial system
that can be validated and tested before a final system is released for use.
v. Testing compares the implemented system against the design documents and
requirements specification andproduces an acceptance report or, more usually,
a list of errors and bugs that require a review of the analysis, design and
implementation processes to correct (testing is usually the task that leads to
the waterfall model iterating through the life cycle).
vi. Maintenance involves dealing with changes in the requirements or the
implementation environment, bug fixing or porting of the system to new
environments (e.g., migrating a system from a standalone PC to a UNIX
workstation or a networked environment). Since maintenance involves the
analysis of the changes required, design of a solution, implementation and
testing of that solution over the lifetime of a maintained software system, the
waterfall life cycle will be repeatedlyrevisited.
Check Your Progress 1
Q1: What is SDLC?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
Q2: Can design be completed before Analysis phase?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
Q3: What is the difference between SDLC and Database Life Cycle?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................... 59
Structured Query Language
and Database Develoment 14.6 DATABASE LIFE CYCLE
We can use the waterfall cycle as the basis for a model of database development that
incorporates three assumptions:
i. We can separate the development of a database - that is, specification and
creation of a schema to define data in a database - from the user processes
that make use of the database.
ii. We can use the three-schema architecture as a basis for distinguishing the
activities associated with a schema
iii. We can represent the constraints to enforce the semantics of the data once
within a database, rather than within every user process that uses the data.

Figure 14.2: Illustration of waterfall model for databases, by G.Mbwete

Using these assumptions and Figure 14.2, we can see that this diagram represents a
model of the activities and their outputs for database development. It is applicable to
any class of DBMS, not just a relational approach. Database application development
is the process of obtaining real-world requirements, analyzing requirements, designing
the data andfunctions of the system, and then implementing the operations in the system.

14.6.1 Requirements Gathering

The first step is requirements gathering. During this step, the database designers
have to interview the customers (database users) to understand the proposed system
and obtain and document the data and functional requirements. The result of this step
is a document that includes the detailed requirements provided by the users.
Establishing requirements involves consultation with, and agreement among, all the
60 users as to what persistent data they want to store along with an agreement as to the
meaning and interpretation of the data elements. The data administrator plays a key Database Development
Process
role in this process as they overview the business, legal and ethical issues within the
organization that impact on the data requirements.
The data requirements document is used to confirm the understanding ofrequirements
with users. To make sure that it is easily understood, it should not be overly formal or
highlyencoded. The document should give a concise summaryofallusers' requirements
- not just a collection of individuals' requirements - as the intention is to develop a
single shared database.
The requirements should not describe how the data is to be processed, but rather what
the data items are, what attributes theyhave, what constraints applyand the relationships
that hold between the data items.

14.6.2 Analysis
Data analysis begins with the statement of data requirements and then produces a
conceptual data model. The aim of analysis is to obtain a detailed description of the
data that will suit user requirements so that both high and low level properties of data
and their use are dealt with. These include properties such as the possible range of
values that can be permitted for attributes (e.g., in the school database example, the
student course code, course title and credit points).
The conceptual data model provides a shared, formal representation of what is being
communicated between clients and developers during database development - it is
focused on the data in a database, irrespective of the eventual use of that data in user
processes or implementation of the data in specific computer environments. Therefore,
a conceptual data model is concerned with the meaning and structure of data, but not
with the details affecting how they are implemented.
The conceptual data model then is a formal representation of what data a database
should contain and the constraints the data must satisfy. This should be expressed in
terms that are independent of how the model maybe implemented. As a result, analysis
focuses on the questions, "What is required?" not "How is it achieved?"

14.6.3 Logical Design

Database design starts with a conceptual data model and produces a specification of a
logical schema; this will determine the specific type of database system (network,
relational, object-oriented) that is required. The relational representation is still
independent of any specific DBMS; it is another conceptual data model.
We can use a relational representation of the conceptual data model as input to the
logical design process. The output of this stage is a detailed relational specification, the
logical schema, of all the tables and constraints needed to satisfy the description of the
data in the conceptual data model. It is during this design activity that choices are made
as to which tables are most appropriate for representing the data in a database. These
choices must take into account various design criteria including, for example, flexibility
for change, control of duplication and how best to represent the constraints. It is the
tables defined bythe logical schema that determine what data are stored and how they
may be manipulated in the database.
Database designers familiar with relational databases and SQL might be tempted to go
directly to implementation after theyhave produced a conceptual data model. However, 61
Structured Query Language such a direct transformation of the relational representation to SQL tables does not
and Database Develoment
necessarily result in a database that has all the desirable properties: completeness,
integrity, flexibility, efficiency and usability. Agood conceptual data modelis an essential
first step towards a database with these properties, but that does not mean that the
direct transformation to SQL tables automaticallyproduces a good database. This first
step willaccurately represent the tables and constraints needed to satisfy the conceptual
data modeldescription, and so willsatisfy the completeness and integrity requirements,
but it may be inflexible or offer poor usability. The first design is then flexed to improve
the quality of the database design. Flexing is a term that is intended to capture the
simultaneous ideas of bending something for a different purpose and weakening aspects
of it as it is bent.
Figure 14.3 summarizes the iterative (repeated) steps involved in database design,
based on the overview given. Its main purpose is to distinguish the general issue of
what tables should be used from the detailed definition of the constituent parts of each
table - these tables are considered one at a time, although they are not independent of
each other. Each iteration that involves a revision of the tables would lead to a new
design; collectivelythey are usuallyreferred toas second-cut designs, evenifthe process
iterates for more than a single loop.

Figure 14.3: Asummary of the iterative steps involved in database design, by A. Watt.

First, for a given conceptual data model, it is not necessarythat all the user requirements
it represents be satisfied by a single database. There can be various reasons for the
development of more than one database, such as the need for independent operation
in different locations or departmentalcontrolover "their" data. However, if the collection
of databases contains duplicated data and users need to access data in more than one
database, then there are possible reasons that one database can satisfy multiple
requirements, or issues related to data replication and distribution need to be examined.
Second, one of the assumptions about database development is that we can separate
62 the development of a database from the development of user processes that make use
of it. This is based on the expectation that, once a database has been implemented, all Database Development
Process
data required by currently identified user processes have been defined and can be
accessed; but we also require flexibility to allow us to meet future requirements changes.
In developing a database for some applications, it may be possible to predict the
common requests that will be presented to the database and so we can optimize our
design for the most common requests.
Third, at a detailed level, manyaspects of database design and implementation depend
on the particular DBMS being used. If the choice of DBMS is fixed or made prior to
the design task, that choice can be used to determine design criteria rather than waiting
until implementation. That is, it is possible to incorporate design decisions for a specific
DBMS rather than produce a generic design and then tailor it to the DBMS during
implementation.
It is not uncommon to find that a single design cannot simultaneously satisfy all the
properties of a good database. So it is important that the designer has prioritized these
properties (usuallyusing information from the requirements specification); for example,
to decide if integrity is more important than efficiency and whether usability is more
important than flexibility in a given development.
At the end of our design stage, the logical schema will be specified by SQL data
definition language (DDL) statements, which describe the database that needs to be
implemented to meet the user requirements.

14.6.4 Implementation
Implementation involves the construction of a database according to the specification
of a logicalschema. This will include the specification ofan appropriate storage schema,
security enforcement, external schema and so on. Implementation is heavily influenced
by the choice of available DBMSs, database tools and operating environment. There
are additional tasks beyond simply creating a database schema and implementing the
constraints - data must be entered into the tables, issues relating to the users and user
processes need to be addressed, and the management activities associated with wider
aspects of corporate data management need to be supported. In keeping with the
DBMS approach, we want as many of these concerns as possible to be addressed
within the DBMS. We look at some of these concerns briefly now.
In practice, implementation of the logical schema in a given DBMS requires a very
detailed knowledge of the specific features and facilities that the DBMS has to offer. In
an ideal world, and in keeping with good software engineering practice, the first stage
ofimplementationwould involve matching the designrequirements with the best available
implementing tools and then using those tools for the implementation. In database terms,
this might involve choosing vendor products with DBMS and SQLvariants most suited
to the database we need to implement. However, we don't live in an ideal world and
more often than not, hardware choice and decisions regarding the DBMS will have
been made well in advance of consideration of the database design. Consequently,
implementation can involve additional flexing of the design to overcome any software
or hardware limitations. The following are the stages involved in the implementation of
database:

i) Realizing the Design

After the logicaldesign has been created, we need our database to be created according
to the definitions we have produced. For an implementation with a relational DBMS, 63
Structured Query Language this will probably involve the use of SQL to create tables and constraints that satisfy
and Database Develoment
the logical schema description and the choice of appropriate storage schema (if the
DBMS permits that level of control).
One wayto achieve this is to write the appropriate SQL DDL statements into a file that
can be executed by a DBMS so that there is an independent record, a text file, of the
SQLstatements defining the database. Another method is to work interactively using a
database tool like SQL Server Management Studio or Microsoft Access. Whatever
mechanism is used to implement the logical schema, the result is that a database, with
tables and constraints, is defined but will contain no data for the user processes.
ii) Populating the Database
After a database has been created, there are two ways of populating the tables - either
from existing data or through the use of the user applications developed for the database.
For some tables, there may be existing data from another database or data files. For
example, in establishing a database for a hospital, you would expect that there are
already some records of all the staff that have to be included in the database. Data
might also be brought in from an outside agency(address lists are frequently brought in
from external companies) or produced during a large data entrytask (converting hard-
copy manual records into computer files can be done by a data entry agency). In such
situations, the simplest approach to populate the database is to use the import and
export facilities found in the DBMS.
Facilities to import and export data in various standard formats are usually available
(these functions are also known in some systems as loading and unloading data).
Importing enables a file of data to be copied directly into a table. When data are held
in a file format that is not appropriate for using the import function, then it is necessary
to prepare an application program that reads in the old data, transforms them as
necessary and then inserts them into the database using SQL code specificallyproduced
for that purpose. The transfer of large quantities of existing data into a database is
referred to as a bulk load. Bulk loading of data may involve very large quantities of
data being loaded, one table at a time so you mayfind that there are DBMS facilities to
postpone constraint checking until the end of the bulk loading.
iii) Supporting Users and User Processes
Use of a database involves user processes (either application programs or database
tools) which must be developed outside of the database development. In terms of the
three-schema architecture we now need to address the development of the external
schema. This will define the data accessible to each user process or group of user
processes. In reality, most DBMSs, and SQL itself, do not have many facilities to
support the explicit definition of the external schema. However, byusing built-in queries
and procedures, and with appropriate security management, it is possible to ensure
access to data by a user process is limited to a tailored subset of the entire database
content.
In addition to ensuring that appropriate data access for each user process is achieved,
the database developer needs to address other user-related issues. Examples of such
issues include: reporting of error conditions, constraint enforcement, automated
processing using triggers, grouping of activities into transactions, defining database
procedures and functions and data security (in addition to the general database and
64 user process access control).
Check Your Progress 2 Database Development
Process
Q1: What is the need of Logical design in Database?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
Q2: Why is the design iterative?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
Q3: What are the steps of implementation?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................

14.6.5 Testing
The aimof testing is to uncover errors in the design and implementation ofthe database,
its structure, constraints and associated user and management support. Testing is usually
considered to involve two main tasks - validation and verification. Without adequate
testing users willhave little confidence in their data processing.
Validation answers the question: has the right database been developed to meet the
requirements? It attempts to confirm that the right database has been constructed, with
the right characteristics to meet the specified requirements.
Verification answers the question: has the database designbeen implemented correctly?
Verification ensures that the processing steps, constraints and other 'programmed'
components of the database (security, backup, recovery, audit trails, etc.) have been
correctly implemented and contain no errors in program logic or execution sequences.
Of course, testing does not just take place only after all the above development steps
are complete. It is usually applied throughout the stages in the development processes
and includes appropriate reviews to scrutinise the outputs ofthe development activities.
The aim is to identify errors as soon as possible in the development life cycle.

14.6.6 Maintenance
Databases are one of the more enduring software engineering artefacts; it is not
uncommon to find database implementations whose use can be traced back for 15
years or more. Consequently, maintenance of the database is a key issue. Maintenance
can take three main forms: 65
Structured Query Language i) Operational maintenance, where the performance of the database is
and Database Develoment
monitored. If it falls below some acceptable standard, then reorganization of
the database, usually in the form of adjustments to the storage schema, takes
place to ensure that performance is maintained at an acceptable level.
ii) Porting and implementation maintenance, in which the DBMS, the user
processes, the underlying computer system or some other aspect undergoes
changes that require the database implementation to be revised. Of course,
the extreme formof porting occurs when the database is to be entirelyreplaced
- in which case the entire development life cycle is usuallyfollowed using the
existing database and its limitations as the starting point for requirements
analysis. Adjustments to the storage schema are almost inevitable as new
data storage capabilities become available. This caninvolve both restructuring
and reorganization, depending on the scope of the changes taking place.
iii) Requirements change, where the original requirement specification changes,
usually because databases are frequently used for purposes for which they
were not originallydesigned. This involves restructuring and typically involves
a 'mini life cycle' related to the development of changes to meet the new
requirements.
If we follow the three-schema architecture approach we would hope to minimize the
impact of change and build systems which are easily maintained.
Check Your Progress 3
Q1: Whyis testing done?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
Q2: What are different types of maintenance?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................

14.7 VIDEO LECTURE

https://tinyurl.com/juu9f2e

66
 Database Development
14.8 ACTIVITY Process

14.9 SUMMARY
In this unit you learned about Database Development Process. In summary, relational
database systems underpin the majority of the managed data storage in computer
systems. In this unit we have considered database development as an instance of
the waterfall model of the software development life cycle. We have seen that the
same activities are required to develop and maintain databases that meet user
requirements.

14.10 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
Ans 1: SDLC is the process of development of software. The software develpment
goes through these cycles till it is replaced.
Ans 2: No, design requires extensive detailing of what is to be developed, that can be
done only if proper analysis has been done.
Ans 3: Database life cycle is the process of analysis, design and development of a
database for a system.
Check Your Progress 2
Ans 1: It provides a specification for logicalschema, which can be directlytransformed
to tables. 67
Structured Query Language Ans 2: It is a creative process and detailing and discussion at each step makes design
and Database Develoment
robust.
Ans 3: Realizing the design, populating the database, supporting users & user processes.
Check Your Progress 3
Ans 1: Testing uncover errors.
Ans 2: Operational maintenance; Porting; Requirement changes.

14.11 REVIEW QUESTIONS FROM AUTHORS

Aim: The following review questions are aimed at assessing the students' knowledge
and understanding of software development life cycle and database development
process.
1. Explain in details, the meaning of Software Development Life Cycle.
2. Describe the importance of Software Development Life Cycle.

3. What is SDLC model? Mention three types of the most common used SDLC
models.
4. What is a waterfall model? Outline the steps in waterfall model.
5. What are the advantages of using waterfall model?
6. Explain when to use waterfall model.
7. What are the disadvantages of using waterfall model?
8. Explain in details the steps involved in Database Life Cycle.
9. Describe the tasks involved during implementation stage ofdatabase life cycle.

10. Outline the activities which take place during testing and evaluation of a
database.

14.12 FURTHER READING

1. Watt, A., &Eng, N. (2013). Database Design - 2nd Edition. Retrieved May 23,
2016, from BC Open TextBooks, https://opentextbc.ca/dbdesign/chapter/chapter-
13-database-development-process/
Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca
2. Open, T. (2016). The Database Development Life Cycle. Retrieved April 15,
2016, from OpenLearn - The Open University, http://www.open.edu/openlearn/
science-maths-technology/computing-and-ict/information-and-communication-
technologies/the-database-development-life-cycle/content-section-1.1.1

14.13 ATTRIBUTION
The content of this unit (Database Development Process) of the Learning Material -
68 Introduction to Databases (including its images, unless otherwise noted) is from Chapter
13 of the book Database Design by Adrienne Watt and Nelson Eng licensed under Database Development
Process
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca
The following materialof this unit was written by Grace Mbwete:
1. Introduction
2. Activity 14.0

3. Unit Summary
Video 20 - Review Questions and Activities
https://tinyurl.com/j59x9rz

69