Research Methodology

Lecture 5

Dr Min Shan Htun

 Contents
• Sampling Techniques
 Learning outcomes
The aims of this lecture are to enable students
to:
• Understand sampling techniques
 Sample and Population
Population
• All members that meet a set of specifications or a
specified criterion
• A single number of any given population is referred to
as an element

Sample
• When only some elements are selected from a
population, we refer to that as a sample
• When all elements are included, we call it as a census
 Example

An example would be to count all students (the

population) enrolled in a particular university
and then report the number of male and female
students.
• Finding: 60% were female and 40% male
• Question: whether this difference in
percentage is significantly different from
chance
• The fact is that the percentages that exist in the
school population are parameters
• They are not estimates derived from a sample
• Had we taken a small sample of students and
found this 60/40 split, it would then be
appropriate to ask whether differences this large
could have occurred by chance alone.
• Data derived from a sample are treated
statistically. Using sample data, we calculate
various statistics, such as the mean and standard
deviation
• The sample statistics summarize aspects of
the sample data
• Data, when treated with other statistical
procedures, allow us to make certain
inferences
• From the sample statistics, we make
corresponding estimates of the population
– Sample mean population mean
– Sample standard deviation population
standard deviation
 Data Sampling
• Data sampling is a statistical analysis
technique used to select, manipulate and
analyze a representative subset of data points
to identify patterns and trends in the larger
data set being examined.
Sampling Techniques
 Sampling Techniques
• There are two types:
– Probability sampling, and
– Non-probability sampling
Sampling Techniques
 Probability Sampling
• Each element of the population has an equal
chance to be selected
• The population and its characteristics are
known to the researcher
• The probability for every element is non-zero.
 Probability Sampling

• Simple Random Sampling

• Stratified sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Multi stage Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

• In this technique, each person

has an equal chance of being
selected for participation and
each combination of
participants is equally similar.
• This very popular method is
known as non-systematic
sampling.
• Examples: Random selection
from ID number, bank account
number, etc.
 Stratified Sampling
• This popular method
involves subdividing
population into groups and
selecting a given number
from each of the group.
• Researcher must know the
population total and divide
this into subgroups or
strata.
• The subsamples are drawn
within different strata and
each stratum is more or
less equal regarding
certain characteristics.
• To stratify means to classify or to separate
people into groups according to some
characteristics:
– Position
– Rank
– Income
– Education
– Sex
– Ethnic background
• Example: undergraduate students’ attitudes towards
KFC can be deduced from the following method.
– The students are subdivided into four categories
– A subsample is then selected from each group, possessing
more or less the same characteristics as the subgroup.

Undergraduate subgroup subsample

students
Freshman 500 200
Sophomore 450 180
Junior 300 200
Senior 250 150
Cluster Sampling
• This method involves dividing the
target population into groups and
choosing from which groups to
collect the data.
• The purpose of cluster sampling is
to sample economically while
retaining the characteristics of a
probability sample
• The primary sampling unit (SPU) is
no longer the individual element
in the population but a larger
cluster of elements located in
proximity to one another.
 Cluster Sampling
• For example, a researcher
wishes to find out the attitude
of students towards their
university.
• The university can be clustered
as schools, programmes,
departments, majors, subjects,
etc. in order to choose the
group of respondents.
Systematic Sampling
• This technique is used by employing intervals
between prospective respondents, such as
taking even, odd or nth numbers or applying a
sequence in a list.
• Example: Any systematic selection from ID, or
bank account numbers etc.
Multi stage Sampling
• This is a popular type of cluster sampling in
which primary sampling unit is a geographic
area, or even one family or one household.
• This sampling involves two or more steps that
combine some of the probability techniques.
• The relationship between household income
and land purchasing in urban and rural areas
is an example of multistage area sampling
 Non-Probability Sampling

• Convenience Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Referral /Snowball Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
• Samples are selected based on the availability.
• Use when the availability of sample is rare and also
costly.
• Example: In shopping malls or airports, individuals
are selected as they pass a certain location and
interview concerning issues.
 Purposive Sampling
• This is based on the intention or the purpose
of study.

• Only those elements will be selected from the

population which suits the best for the
purpose of our study.

• Know as judgmental sampling or authoritative

sampling
 Quota Sampling
• This type of sampling depends of some pre-set
standard.

• For example: If our population has 45%

females and 55% males then our sample
should reflect the same percentage of males
and females.
Referral /Snowball Sampling
• Initial respondents are
selected by probability
methods
• Additional respondents
are obtained from
information provided by
the initial respondents
• Example: investigating the extinction of a particular tribe of
Africa
• Some experts have to be found as initial respondents,
• Based on their references, the researcher is able to select
other respondents
 Bias in Sampling
• It is a systematic error in sampling procedures
that lead to a distortion in the result of the
study
 Sample Size Formula
• There are two types of formula to determine
the sample size:
– Unknown population
– Known population
Unknown Population
!" $
• 𝑛= ( )
#
Where
Z = value associated with confidence interval,
S = Standard deviation
n = sample size
E = specify level of precision/level of
confidence/range of error
Known Population
! ! "#
• 𝑛= where
$!
Z = value associated with confidence interval
p = estimated proposition of success (estimate the
population proportion)
q = (1 – p) or estimated proportion of failure
n = sample size
E = specify level of precision/level of
confidence/range of error

%
Minimum required sample size = "
('( )
#
Example:
Confidence Level: 95%
p (Probability): 0.5
Margin of Error: 0.04 (4%)
Population size: 2500
Calculation:
Alpha divided by 2 = ( 1 – 0.95)/2 = 0.025
Z = 1.96
Sample size = 600.25
Minimum required size = 484
Any questions?