Introduction guide to vibration

monitoring

Measurements, analysis, and terminology

Summary
This guide introduces machinery maintenance workers to condition monitoring analysis
methods used to detect and analyze machine component failures. This guide does not
intend to make the reader an analysis expert. It merely informs the reader about
common analysis methods and lays the foundation for understanding machinery
analysis concepts. Moreover, it tells the reader what is needed to perform an actual
analysis on specific machinery.

JM02001
Jason Mais & Scott Brady
33 Pages
Published May, 2002
Revised

email info@aptitudexchange.com
Internet http://www.aptitudexchange.com

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring

Table of contents

1. Introduction ........................................................................... 3
1.1. Detection vs. Analysis .......................................................................... 3
1.2. Vibration (Amplitude vs. Frequency) ...................................................... 3
2. Overall Vibration or Trending ................................................. 4
2.1. Frequency Range................................................................................. 4
2.2. Scale Factors ...................................................................................... 4
2.3. Measurement Sensor Position ............................................................... 5
2.4. Optimum Measurement Conditions ........................................................ 7
2.5. Trending Overall Readings .................................................................... 7
3. Vibration Measurements Methods .......................................... 8
3.1. Displacement ...................................................................................... 9
3.2. Velocity .............................................................................................10
3.3. Acceleration .......................................................................................10
3.4. Time Waveform Analysis .....................................................................11
3.5. FFT Spectrum Analysis ........................................................................12
3.6. Envelope or Demodulated Process Detection ..........................................13
3.7. Phase Measurements ..........................................................................15
3.8. High Frequency Detection (HFD)...........................................................15
3.9. Other Sensor Resonant Technologies ....................................................15
4. On-line Measurements vs. Off-line Measurements................ 15
5. International Standards Vibration Diagnostic Tables ........... 16
6. Spectrum Analysis Table ...................................................... 18
7. Conclusion............................................................................ 21
8. Further Reading ................................................................... 21
9. Appendix A: Website links ................................................... 22
9.1. Instruments .......................................................................................22
9.2. Sensors .............................................................................................23
10. Appendix B: Some Vibration Terminology............................. 25

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 2 (33)

 Once detected, a cause and effect approach
1. Introduction must be used to take further steps toward
analyzing what caused the problem. Then
This guide introduces machinery
develop a condition monitoring based
maintenance workers to condition
program to prevent the problem from
monitoring analysis methods used to detect
reoccurring. There are several key
and analyze machine component failures.
components that build the foundation for the
This guide does not intend to make the
development a successful condition
reader an analysis expert. It merely informs
monitoring program. First, know and
the reader about common analysis methods
understand industry terminology.
and lays the foundation for understanding
machinery analysis concepts. Moreover, it
tells the reader what is needed to perform 1.2. Vibration (Amplitude vs.
an actual analysis on specific machinery. Frequency)

Vibration is the behavior of a machine’s

Rule 1: Know what you do and do not know!
mechanical components as they react to
internal or external forces. Since most
Often, a situation arises where the answer is rotating component problems are exhibited
not contained within analysis data. At this as excessive vibration, we use vibration
point, “I don’t know” is the best answer. A signals as an indication of a machine’s
wrong diagnosis can be costly and can mechanical condition. Also, each mechanical
rapidly diminish a machinery maintenance problem or defect generates vibration in its
worker’s credibility. Thus, a vibration own unique way. Therefore, we analyze the
specialist is required to analyze the problem. “type” of vibration the machine is exhibiting
to identify its cause and develop appropriate
1.1. Detection vs. Analysis repair steps.

The differences between detecting a When analyzing vibration we look at two

machinery problem and analyzing the cause components of the vibration signal:
of a machinery problem are vast. Replacing frequency and amplitude.
a new bearing with one that indicates a high
level of vibration may or may not be the
• Frequency is the number of times an
solution to bearing failure. Usually, a
event occurs in a given time period (the
secondary issue developed in the machine
event is one vibration cycle). The
and is attributing to premature bearing
frequency at which the vibration occurs
failure. To solve the problem, you must find
indicates the type of fault. That is,
the attributing factor or cause of the bearing
certain types of faults “typically” occur
failure (i.e. misalignment, looseness,
at certain frequencies. By establishing
imbalance). This process is referred to as
the frequency at which the vibration
finding the root cause of the failure. If this
occurs, we can develop a clearer picture
important step is not followed, you simply
as to the cause of the vibration.
replace the bearing without developing a
• Amplitude is the size of the vibration
condition monitoring program. It is essential
to detect machinery problems early enough signal. The amplitude of the vibration
to plan repair actions and minimize signal determines the severity of the
downtime. fault - the higher the amplitude, the
higher the vibration, and the bigger the

© 2012 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 3

 problem. Amplitude depends on the type parameter is the contributor, we need to
of machine and is always relative to the explain the signature of a vibration signal.
vibration level of fully functioning There are two major components of a
machine! vibration signature: frequency range and
• When measuring vibration we use scale factors.
certain standard measurement
methods:
2.1. Frequency Range
• Overall Vibration or Trending
• Phase Monitoring equipment determines the
• Enveloping or Demodulation frequency range of the overall vibration
• High Frequency Detection (HFD) reading. Some data collection devices have
• This guide is divided into several their own predefined frequency range for
sections. Each section explains the key overall vibration measurements. Other data
topic and develops that explanation with collectors allow the user to select the overall
examples that help the reader gain a measurement’s frequency range.
clear understand. A glossary is also Unfortunately, there is an ongoing debate
provided. Reference the glossary for any regarding which frequency range best
unfamiliar terms. measures overall vibration (International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) set a
2. Overall Vibration or Trending standard definition). For this reason, it is
important to obtain both overall values from
In condition monitoring, the most common
the same frequency range.
and logical area to begin with is a trend of
the overall value at which the machine is
As an analogy, we can think of frequency
vibrating. This is referred to as trending or
range as a bucket or pail. If this bucket is
looking at a machine’s overall vibration
sitting on the ground when it begins to rain,
level.
some rain falls into the bucket and some
rain falls to the ground. The rain that falls
Overall vibration is the total vibration energy
into our bucket is within the defined
measured within a specified frequency
frequency range. The rain that falls to the
range. For example, measure the overall
ground is outside the defined frequency
vibration of a rotor and compare the
range.
measurement to its normal value (norm).
Then, assess any inconsistencies. A higher
than normal overall vibration reading 2.2. Scale Factors
indicates that something is causing the
Scale factors determine how a measurement
machine or component to increase its level
is measured, and are: Peak, Peak-to-Peak,
of vibration. The key to success is
Average, and RMS. These scale factors are
determining what that something is.
in direct relationship to each other when
working with sinusoidal waveforms. When
Vibration is considered the best operating
comparing overall values, scale factors must
parameter to judge low frequency dynamic
be consistent. Figure 1 shows the
conditions such as imbalance, misalignment,
relationship of Average vs. RMS vs. Peak vs.
mechanical looseness, structural resonance,
Peak-to-Peak for a sinusoidal waveform.
soft foundation, shaft bow, excessive
bearing wear, or lost rotor vanes. To
determine precisely which operating

© 2012 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 4

 Peak = 1.0
RMS = 0.707 x Peak
Average = 0.637 x Peak
Peak-to-Peak = 2 x Peak

Figure 1. Scale Factors on a Sinusoidal Vibration Waveform.

The Peak value represents the distance to Do not concern yourself with supporting
the top of the waveform measured from a mathematical calculations, as condition
zero reference. For discussion purposes, we monitoring instrument calculate the values
will assign a Peak value of 1.0. and display the results. However, it is
important to remember to measure both
The Peak-to-Peak value is the amplitude signals on the same frequency range and
scale factors.
measured from the top of the waveform to
the bottom of the waveform.
NOTE: For comparison purposes,
measurement types and locations must also
The Average value is the average amplitude
be identical.
of the waveform. The average of a pure sine
waveform is zero (it is as much positive as it
It is important to collect accurate,
is negative). However, most waveforms are
repeatable, and viable data. You can achieve
not pure sinusoidal waveforms. Also,
this by following several key techniques for
waveforms that are not centered at
sensor position.
approximately zero volts produce nonzero
average values.
2.3. Measurement Sensor Position
Visualizing how the RMS value is derived is a
Selecting the machine measurement point is
bit more difficult. Generally speaking, the very important when collecting machinery
RMS value is derived from a mathematical vibration data. Avoid painted surfaces,
conversion that relates DC energy to AC unloaded bearing zones, housing splits, and
energy. Technically, on a time waveform, it structural gaps. These areas give poor
is the root mean squared (RMS). On an FFT response and compromise data integrity.
spectrum, it is the square root of the sum of When measuring vibration with a hand-held
a set of squared instantaneous values. If you sensor, it is imperative to perform consistent
measured a pure sine wave, the RMS value readings and pay close attention to sensor
is 0.707 times the peak value. position, angle, and contact pressure.
When possible, vibration should be
NOTE: Peak and Peak-to-Peak values can be measured as an orthogonal matrix (three-
either true or scaled. Scaled values are positions of direction):
calculated from the RMS value.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 5 (33)

 three positions can provide great insight.
The axial direction (A) Measurements should be taken as close to
The horizontal direction (H) the bearing as possible and avoid taking
The vertical direction (V) readings on the case (the case can vibrate
due to resonance or looseness).
Horizontal measurements typically show the
NOTE: Enveloping or demodulated
most vibration, as the machine is more
measurements should be taken as close to
flexible in the horizontal plane. Moreover,
the bearing load zone as possible.
imbalance is one of the most common
machinery problems, and imbalance
If you choose not to permanently mount the
produces a radial vibration that is part
accelerometer or other type of vibration
vertical and part horizontal. Thus, excessive
sensing device to the machine, select a flat
horizontal vibration is a good indicator of
surface to press the accelerometer against.
imbalance.
Measurements should be taken at the same
precise location for comparison (moving the
Vertical measurements typically show less
accelerometer only a few inches can produce
vibration than horizontal measurements, as
drastically different vibration readings). To
stiffness is caused by mounting and gravity.
ensure measurements are taken at the exact
location every time, mark the measurement
Under ideal conditions, axial measurements
point with a permanent ink marker. We
show very little vibration, as most forces are
highly recommended that the use of
generated perpendicular to the shaft.
permanently mounted sensors whenever
However, issues with misalignment and bent
possible. This assures that data is repeatable
shafts do create vibration in the axial plane.
and consistent. The following section
contains mounting specifications for
accelerometers. If permanently mounted
sensors are not possible, use magnetic
mounts.

Angle:

Always perpendicular to the surface (90° ±

10°)
Pressure:
Magnetic mount: The surface should be free
of paint of grease.
Figure 2. Standard Position Measurements.
Hand-held: Consistent hand pressure must
NOTE: These descriptions are given as be used (firm, but not hard). Please
guidelines for “typical” machinery only. understand that we do not suggest use of
Equipment that is vertically mounted, or in this method.
some way not “typical” may show different Permanent mount: See specifications in
responses. Figure 3.
Since we generally know how various
machinery problems create vibration in each
plane, vibration readings taken in these

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 6 (33)

 Figure 3. Example Spot Face Specifications for Permanently Mounted Sensors
measurements at all extreme rating
2.4. Optimum Measurement
conditions on occasion to guarantee there
Conditions
aren’t outlying problems that only appear at
Ideally, measurements should be taken extreme conditions.
while the machine is operating under normal
conditions. For example, the measurement 2.5. Trending Overall Readings
should be taken when the rotor, housing,
and main bearings reach their normal steady Probably the most efficient and reliable
operating temperatures and the machine’s method of evaluating vibration severity is to
running speed is within the manufacturer’s compare the most recent overall reading
specifications (rated voltage, flow, pressure, against previous readings for the same
and load). If the machine is a variable speed measurement. This allows you to see how
machine, the measurements should be taken the measurement vibration values are
at the same point in the manufacturing or changing or trending over time. This trend
process cycle. This assures the machine’s comparison between present and past
energy is not extremely variable. readings is easy to analyze when the values
Additionally, we recommend obtaining are plotted in a trend plot.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 7 (33)

Figure 4. Example of a Trend Plot.

A trend plot is a line graph that displays “not good” conditions for various wide-
current and past overall values plotted over ranged machinery classifications. Remember
time. Past values should include a base-line that every machine is:
reading. The base-line value may be
acquired after an overhaul or when other Manufactured differently
indicators show the machine running well. Installed differently (foundation)
Subsequent measurements are compared to Operated under different conditions (load,
the base-line to determine machinery speed, materials, environment)
changes. Maintained differently
It is unrealistic to judge a machine’s
Comparing a machine to itself over time is condition by comparing the current
the preferred method of machinery problem measurement value against an ISO standard
detection, as each machine is unique in its or other general rule or level. By comparing
operation. For example, some components current values to historical values, you are
have a normal amount of vibration that able to easily see a machine’s condition
would be considered problematic for most change over time.
machines. Alone, the current reading might
lead an analyst to believe a problem exists, 3. Vibration Measurements
whereas a trend plot and base-line reading Methods
would clearly show a certain amount of
Measuring vibration is the measurement of
vibration is normal for that machine.
periodic motion. Vibration is illustrated with
a spring-mass setup in Figure 5.
ISO Standards are a good place to start
(until machine history is developed).
However, ISO charts also define “good” or

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 8 (33)

Figure 5. Spring-Mass System.

When in motion, mass oscillates on the measures the vibration likely to reveal
spring. Viewing the oscillation as position expected failure characteristics.
over time produces a sine wave. The starting
point (when mass is at rest) is the zero
3.1. Displacement
point. One complete cycle displays a positive
and a negative displacement of the mass in Measured in mils or micrometers,
relation to its reference (zero). Displacement displacement is the change in distance or
is the change in distance or position of an position of an object relative to a reference.
object relative to a reference. The Displacement is typically measured with a
magnitude of the displacement is measured sensor commonly known as a displacement
as amplitude. probe or eddy probe. A displacement probe
is a non-contact device that measures the
There are two measurable derivatives of relative distance between two surfaces.
displacement: velocity and acceleration. Displacement probes most often monitor
shaft vibration and are commonly used on
Velocity is the change in displacement as a machines with fluid film bearings.
function of time. It is the speed at which the
distance is traveled (i.e.0.2 in/sec). Displacement probes only measure the
motion of the shaft or rotor relative to the
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. machine casing. If the machine and rotor are
For example, if it takes 1 second for the moving together, displacement is measured
velocity to increase from 0 to 1 in/sec, then as zero even though the machine can be
acceleration is 1 in/sec2. heavily vibrating.
Thus, vibration has three measurable
characteristics: displacement, velocity, and Displacement probes are also used to
acceleration. Although these three measure a shaft’s phase. The shaft phase is
characteristics are related mathematically, the angular distance between a known mark
they are three different characteristics, not on the shaft and the vibration signal. This
three names for the same quantity. relationship is used for balancing and shaft
orbital analysis.
It is necessary to select a vibration
measurement and sensor type that

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 9 (33)

Figure 6. A Dial Gage (Left) Measures Displacement. A Common Displacement Probe (Right).

The original velocity transducer employed a

3.2. Velocity
coil vibrating in a magnetic field to produce
Velocity measurements are taken in in/sec a voltage proportional to the machine’s
or mm/sec. Velocity is the measure of a surface velocity. Today, with the arrival of
signal’s rate of change in displacement. It is low cost and versatile accelerometers, most
the most common machine vibration velocity values are obtained by integrating
measurement. Historically, the velocity an acceleration reading into the velocity
sensor was one of the first electrical sensors domain.
used for machine condition monitoring. This 3.3. Acceleration
is due in part to the resultant of an equal
amount of generated dynamic motion; Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity.
velocity remains constant regardless of Vibration, in terms of acceleration, is
frequency. However, at low frequencies measured with accelerometers. An
(under 10 Hz) or high frequencies (above 2 accelerometer usually contains one or more
kHz), velocity sensors lose their piezoelectric crystal element and a mass.
effectiveness.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 10 (33)

Figure 7. Accelerometer.

When the piezoelectric crystal is stressed it

3.4. Time Waveform Analysis
produces an electrical output proportional to
acceleration. The crystal is stressed by the The time waveform plot in Figure 8
mass when the mass is vibrated by the illustrates how the signal from an
component to which they are attached. accelerometer or velocity probe appears
when graphed as amplitude (y-axis) over
Accelerometers are rugged devices that time (x-axis). A time waveform in its
operate in a wide frequency range (zero to simplest terms is a record of what happened
well above 400 kHz). This ability to examine to a particular system, machine, or
a wide frequency range is the parameter over a certain period of time. For
accelerometer’s major strength. However, example, a seismograph measures how
since velocity is the most common much the Earth shakes in a given amount of
measurement for monitoring vibration, time when there is an earthquake. This is
acceleration measurements are usually similar to what is recorded in a time
integrated to get velocity (either in the waveform.
accelerometer itself or by the data collector).
Acceleration units are G’s, in/sec2, or Time waveforms display a short time sample
m/sec2. of raw vibration. Though typically not as
useful as other analysis formats, time
We can measure acceleration and derive waveform analysis can provide clues to
velocity by mounting accelerometers at machine condition that are not always
strategic points on bearings. These evident in a frequency spectrum. Thus, when
measurements are recorded, analyzed, and available, time waveform should be used as
displayed as tables and plots by the part of your analysis program
condition monitoring equipment. A plot of
amplitude vs. time is called a time
waveform. Vibration Analysis Methods

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 11 (33)

Figure 8. Example of a Time Waveform
simplified form, the motor has a shaft and
bearings. The gearbox has several shafts
3.5. FFT Spectrum Analysis
and sets of gears.
A Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) is
another useful method of viewing vibration Each component in the diagram vibrates at a
signals. In non-mathematical terms, the certain, individual rate. By processing the
signal is broken down into specific vibration signal using a mathematical
amplitudes at various component formula, an FFT, we can distinguish between
frequencies. As an example, Figure 9 shows several different rates and determine the
a motor (left) coupled to a gearbox (right). which rate vibration coincides with which
Each piece of the machine has individual component.
components associated with it. In a

Figure 9. Frequency Scales Show Component Vibration Signals.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 12 (33)

Figure 10. Example of an FFT Spectrum
vibration signals via multiple processing
For example, we measure the signal’s methods also provides a greater number of
amplitude at 10 Hz, then again at 20 Hz, ways in which to analyze the signal and
etc., until we have a list of values for each measure deviations from the “norm.” The
frequency contained in the signal. The following section contains examples of
values or amplitudes are then plotted on the alternate processing methods.
frequency scale. The number of lines of
resolution is the waveform divided by
3.6. Envelope or Demodulated
number of components. The resulting plot is
Process Detection
called an FFT spectrum.
Repetitive bearing and gear-mesh activity
An FFT spectrum is an incredibly useful tool. create vibration signals of much lower
If a machinery problem exists, FFT spectra amplitude and much higher frequencies than
provide information to help determine the that of rotational and structural vibration
location of the problem. In addition, spectra signals.
can aid in determining the cause and stage
of the problem. With experience we learn The objective of enveloping or demodulated
that certain machinery problems occur at signal processing, as it relates to bearings, is
certain frequencies. Thus, we can determine to filter out low frequency rotational
the cause of the problem by looking for vibration signals and enhance the repetitive
amplitude changes in certain frequency components of bearing defect signals that
ranges. occur in the bearing defect frequency range.
Envelope detection is most commonly used
In addition to time waveforms and FFT for rolling element bearing and gear mesh
spectra, vibration signals can be analyzed analysis where a low amplitude, repetitive
through other types of signal processing vibration signal may be saturated or hidden
methods to determine specific equipment by the machine’s rotational and structural
problems and conditions. Processing vibration noise.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 13 (33)

For instance, when a rolling element bearing a bearing strikes a defect in the bearing.
generates a defect on its outer race, each However, unlike the bell you cannot hear the
rolling element of the bearing over-rolls the ringing in the bearing, as it may be masked
defect as they come into contact. This by the machine’s other sounds or it occurs at
impact causes a small, repetitive vibration a frequency that cannot be detected by the
signal at the bearing’s defects frequencies. human ear.
However, the vibration signal is so low in
energy that it is lost within the machine’s This detection method proves to be a
other rotational and structural vibration successful indicator of a major class of
noises. machine problems. Faults in roller element
bearings, defective teeth in gearboxes,
Similarly, you can strike a bell and create a paper mill felt discontinuities, and electric
ringing sound. This ringing is similar to the motor / stator problems are all applications
ringing that occurs when a rolling element in for enveloping technology

Figure 11. Enveloped and Time Waveform Spectrum With Outer Race Defect. Envelope Detection Filters Out Low
Frequency Rotational Signals and Enhances the Bearing’s Repetitive Impact Type Signals to Focus on Repetitive
Events in the Bearing Defect Frequency Range. (For Example, Repetitive Bearing and Gear-Tooth Vibration
Signals.)

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 14 (33)

 Spall

Figure 12. Indication of a Spall (Defect in the Outer Race)

3.7. Phase Measurements 3.9. Other Sensor Resonant

Technologies
Phase is a measurement, not a processing
method. Phase measures the angular There are varying types of technologies that
difference between a known mark on a use sensor resonant to obtain a
rotating shaft and the shaft’s vibration measurement similar to HFD. Sensor
signal. This relationship provides valuable resonant technologies use the sensor’s
information on vibration amplitude levels, resonant frequency to amplify events in the
shaft orbit, and shaft position, and is very bearing defect range. These technologies
useful for balancing and analysis purposes. enhance the repetitive components of a
bearing’s defect signals and report its
condition. The resultant reading is provided
3.8. High Frequency Detection
by an overall number that represents the
(HFD)
number of impacts (enhanced
High Frequency Detection (HFD) provides logarithmically) the system senses.
early warning of bearing problems. The HFD
processing method displays a numerical, As vibration analysis evolves, sensor
overall value for high frequency vibration resonant technology is used less frequently.
generated by small flaws that occur within a Instead, enveloping or demodulation
high frequency bandpass (5 kHz to 60 kHz). processing is used, as they allow greater
The detecting sensor’s resonant frequency is flexibility within the monitoring system. For
used to amplify the low level signal example, resonant technology requires that
generated by the impact of small flaws. Due the exact same type of accelerometer is
to its high frequency range, the HFD used.
measurement is made with an accelerometer
and displays its value in G’s. The HFD 4. On-line Measurements vs.
measurement may be performed as either a Off-line Measurements
peak or RMS overall value.
In general, there are two types of
measurement processes: on-line and off-
line. Acquiring data in an on-line situation
requires permanently mounted sensors,
cabling, a multiplexing device, and a

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 15 (33)

computer for data storage. On-line substantial amount of time to collect route-
measurements are acquired continuously based data. It also requires manpower from
from the machinery based upon a user
defined collection period. The benefits of on- the maintenance or condition monitoring
line data collection are numerous. On-line department and machine operators. On the
data collection allows condition monitoring other hand, off-line measurements methods
and maintenance departments to are associated with relatively low costs.
concentrate their efforts on corrective
actions and system modification to more Once you make the decision to develop a
readily diagnose problems. Additionally, condition based monitoring program, it is
permanently mounted sensors do not imperative to follow a standard process to
interrupt the manufacturing process and diagnose, document, and solve plant
data is repeatable and accurate. The problems. The development of standards is
disadvantage of an on-line system is the defined to help you develop a condition
initial cost. It is important to keep in mind monitoring program.
that the return on investment of an on-line
system is usually realized in a relatively 5. International Standards
short time period. Vibration Diagnostic Tables
The following sections contain agreed upon
An off-line measurement program is similar
International Standards as they relate to
to a route-based collection program. In a
vibration monitoring. These standards are a
route-based collection program, the user
basis for developing a condition monitoring
defines the types of measurements and
program. However, they are to be used in
machinery to analyze and develops a
conjunction with manufacturer suggested
roadmap or route of the machinery in the
acceptability levels for specific machines and
plant. He/she then follows the developed
industries. Many of the industry or machine
route to obtain the data needed.
type standards can also be obtained through
Additionally, off-line collection requires a
condition monitoring or vibration monitoring
handheld analyzer, cabling, and a sensor or
companies
sensors. Unfortunately, it requires a

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 16 (33)

 ISO 2372 Vibration Diagnostic Table
(Overhung – Horizontal Shaft)
Excessive Excessive Excessive Excessive

Horizontal Vertical Axial Structural

Vibration Vibration Vibration Vibration

Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Notes
Imbalance YES NO YES NO Horizontal and Axial
> Vertical

Misalignment YES NO YES NO Horizontal and Axial

> Vertical

Looseness YES YES NO YES Vertical Horizontal

Electrical To detect an electrical

Faults problem:
Measured
as Vibration Turn off machine
power and monitor
vibration. If the
vibration immediately
drops, the problem is
electrical.
Note: On an overhung machine, imbalance and Note: YES = ISO 2372
misalignment may display similar characteristics. Unsatisfactory – Unacceptable Levels.
Use phase measurements to differentiate between
the two. NO = ISO 2372
Good – Satisfactory Levels.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 17 (33)

 ISO 2372 Vibration Diagnostic Table
(Vertical Shaft)
Excessive Excessive Excessive Excessive

Horizontal Vertical Axial Structural

Vibration Vibration Vibration Vibration

Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Notes
Imbalance YES NO NO NO Radial > Axial

Misalignment YES NO YES NO Axial > Radial

Looseness YES NO NO YES

Electrical To detect an electrical

Faults problem:
Measured
as Vibration Turn off machine
power and monitor
vibration. If the
vibration immediately
drops, the problem is
electrical.

Note: Radial 1 and Radial 2 positions differ by 90 Note: YES = ISO 2372
degrees. Unsatisfactory – Unacceptable Levels.

NO = ISO 2372
Good – Satisfactory Levels.

6. Spectrum Analysis Table

The following section contains a list of
common issue within the vibration gamut.
Moreover, it contains a general guide to the
type of measurements used to diagnose
problems, suggested vibration signatures,
and phase relationships of those signatures.

Use this as a generalized reference chart to

develop your condition monitoring program.
Manufacturer reference resources are also
available. Please contact them for further
suggestions and standards of the industry.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 18 (33)

 Phase Relationship
Primary Detection Dominant
(Note: phase ref. within Comments
Plane Units Frequencies
±30 degrees)

IMBALANCE

90-degree phase shift as

sensor is moved from
Acceleration /
horizontal to vertical position
Mass Radial Velocity / 1x
with no phase shift in the
Displacement
radial direction across the
machine or coupling.

Acceleration /
Overhung Axial and
Velocity / 1x Axial reading will be in phase
Mass Radial Account for change
Displacement
in sensor orientation
180-degree phase shift in the when making axial
Acceleration /
Bent Axial and axial direction across the measurements.
Velocity / 1x
Shaft Radial machine with no phase shift in
Displacement
the radial direction.

MISALIGNMENT
Acceleration / 180-degree phase shift in
With severe
Angular Axial Velocity / 1x and 2x the axial direction will exist
misalignment, the
Displacement across the coupling.
spectrum may contain
180-degree phase shift in multiple harmonics
the radial direction will exist from 3x to 10x
across the coupling. Sensor running speed. If
Acceleration / vibration amplitude in
will show 0-degrees or 180-
Parallel Radial Velocity / 1x and 2x the horizontal plane is
degrees phase shift as it is
Displacement increased 2 or 3
moved from horizontal to
vertical position on the same times, then
bearing. misalignment is again
indicated. (Account
Combinati for change in sensor
180-degree phase shift in
on of Acceleration / orientation when
Axial and the radial and axial direction
Angular Velocity / 1x and 2x making axial
Radial will exist across the
and Displacement measurements)
coupling.
Parallel

MECHANICAL LOOSENESS
Vibration amplitudes
may vary significantly
as the sensor is
placed in differing
Acceleration / Phase reading will be
Wear / Axial and 1x, 2x, locations around the
Velocity / unstable from one reading
Fitting Radial 3x…10x bearing. (Account for
Displacement to the next.
change in sensor
orientation when
making axial
measurements)

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 19 (33)

 Phase Relationship
Primary Detection Dominant
(Note: phase ref. within Comments
Plane Units Frequencies
±30 degrees)

LOCAL BEARING DEFECTS

With acceleration
measurements,
bearing defect
frequencies appear as
Race Acceleration / a wide “bump” in the
Radial 4x…15x No correlation.
Defect Enveloping spectrum. Bearing
defect frequencies are
non-integer multiples
of running speed (i.e.,
4.32 x running speed)

GEAR DEFECTS
The exact frequency
relates to the number
of teeth each gear
Gear Acceleration / contains times the
Radial 20x…200x No correlation.
Mesh Enveloping rotational speed
(running speed) to
which the gear is
attached.

ELECTRICALLY INDUCED VIBRATION

Line Defect Frequencies
Acceleration /
Frequency can be seen at exactly
AC Motors Radial Velocity / No correlation.
(100 or 120 twice the line
Displacement
Hz) frequency.

DC Motor problems
due to broken fields
Acceleration / windings, bad SCR’s
SCR
DC Motors Radial Velocity / No correlation. or loose connections
Frequency
Displacement are reflected as higher
amplitudes at the SCR
frequencies

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 20 (33)

 Technical Associates of Charlotte (diagnostic
7. Conclusion charts, background articles and books):
http://www.technicalassociates.net
This guide simply provides an introduction to
the field of vibration monitoring and
Vibration Institute: http://www.vibinst.org
diagnosis. A few references are suggested
for more information and related
Vibration Resources: http://vibrate.net
@ptitudeXchange documents.

8. Further Reading
Barkov A., Barkova, N. "Condition
Assessment and Life Prediction of Rolling
Element Bearings - Parts I and II". Sound &
Vibration, June pp. 10-17 and September
pp. 27-31, 1995.

Berry, James E. "How to track rolling

element bearing health with vibration
signature analysis". Sound and Vibration,
November 1991, pp. 24-35.

Hewlett Packard, The Fundamentals of

Signal Analysis. Application Note 243: 1994.

Hewlett Packard, Effective Machinery

Measurements using Dynamic Signal
Analyzers. Application Note 243-1: 1997.

Mitchell, John. Machinery Analysis and

Monitoring. Penn Well Books, Tulsa OK:
1993.

SKF Evolution journal, a number of case

studies: http://evolution.skf.com

Paper Mills Gaining from Condition

Monitoring, 1999/4

Paper Mill Gains from Condition Monitoring,

2000/3

High Tech keeps Mine competitive, 2001/2

Fault Detection for Mining and Mineral
Processing Equipment, 2001/3

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 21 (33)

9. Appendix A: Website links
9.1. Instruments
Advanced Monitoring Technologies: http://www.amt.nb.ca
ACIDA GmbH: http://www.acida.de
Alta Solutions, Inc: http://www.altasol.com
Bently Nevada: http://www.bently.com
Brüel & Kjær North America: http://www.bkhome.com
Brüel & Kjær Vibro: http://www.bkscms.com
CSI : http://www.compsys.com/index.html
Commtest Instruments : http://www.commtest.com
Dactron : http://www.dactron.com
Development Engineering International : http://www.dei-ltd.co.uk/index.htm
Diagnostic Instruments : http://www.diaginst.co.uk
Entek : http://www.entek.com
G-Tech Instruments Incorporated : http://www.g-tech-inst.com
Icon Research : http://www.iconresearch.co.uk
Indikon Company, Inc : http://www.iconresearch.co.uk
IOtech : http://www.iotech.com
L M S International : http://www.lmsintl.com
Machinery Condition Monitoring Inc : http://www.mcmpm.com
Müller-BBM VibroAkustik Systeme : http://www.muellerbbm-vas.com/eng
OROS : http://www.oros-signal.com
PdMA Corporation : http://www.pdma.com
Predict-DLI : http://www.predict-dli.com
Prüftechnik AG : http://www.pruftechnik.com/main/index.htm
SKF Condition Monitoring : http://www.skfcm.com
SKF Dymac : http://www.dymac.net
Solartron : http://www.solartron.com
SoundTechnology : http://www.soundtechnology.com/home.htm
SPM Instrument AB : http://www.spminstrument.se
Stanford Research Systems : http://www.srsys.com
VMI Vibrations Mät Instrument AB: http://www.vmi-instrument.se/index.htm
Vibrationsteknik AB : http://www.vtab.se
Vibro-Meter : http://www.vibro-meter.com
Windrock, Inc : http://www.windrock.com/Main.htm

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 22 (33)

9.2. Sensors

Entran Accelerometers - Complete on-line catalog. Manufacturing quality accelerometers for 30 years.
http://www.entran.com

National Instruments - Accelerometers - NI allows you to use industry-standard technologies to create

custom measurement and automation solutions that deliver greater productivity, shorter development
time, and lower total costs.
http://www.ni.com

Omega Engineering, Inc. Flow & Level - Omega Engineering, Inc. - world leader in process
measurement & control products. The one stop source for all your pressure, load, and force needs.
http://www.omega.com

Accelerometer Measurement Products - Accelerometer-based sound and vibration measurement

products from IOtech. Free catalog and signal conditioning handbook.
http://www.iotech.com

Accelerometer at Globalspec.com - Find information on accelerometer through SpecSearch, the

powerful parametric search engine that enables you to search for the exact performance characteristics
you need.
http://www.globalspec.com

Data Loggers - Small, Simple, Affordable - 32k data pts/ch, 16 bit - Smallest data loggers available for
temperature, humidity, count, acceleration, voltage, 4-20mA, pressure. Wireless data loggers. Also
rugged, waterproof units.
http://www.microdaq.com

Accelerometers - Manufacturers - On Direct Industry you can browse the list of accelerometers
manufacturers and ask for documentation or a quotation.
http://www.directindustry.com

Signal Conditioning - Strain gage, bridge completion, accelerometer, anti alias filter, excitation,
thermocouple, RTD, software controlled.
http://www.alligatortech.com

Complete line of Low Cost Accelerometers and Inclinometers. - Rieker manufactures a complete line
of Inclinometers, Accelerometers, Tilt Switches, Ball Bank Indicators, Slip Indicators & Safe Curve Speed
Indicators servicing the Construction Industry, Aircraft, and DOT since 1917.
http://www.riekerinc.com
Accelerometers and Acceleration products in Stock at Sensotec - Accelerometers and Acceleration
products from Sensotec. We have general-purpose, piezoelectric, and submersible accelerometers.
http://www.sensotec.com/accelstk.htm

DC-Operated Inclinometers and Accelerometers - DC-Operated Inclinometers and Accelerometers

http://www.schaevitz.com/products/inertial/index.html

ENDEVCO - is the world's leading supplier of dynamic instrumentation systems. - ENDEVCO is the
world's leading supplier of dynamic instrumentation

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 23 (33)

http://www.endevco.com

New Age Consulting Service, Inc. Nacs.Net web developement, e-commerce solutions, Bandwidth
- New Age Consulting Service, Inc. provides Internet and network consulting services for both business
and personal computing. We specialize in integrating Internet technology with existing networks to suit
your present and future Internet communication...
http://www.summitinstruments.com

ThinkQuest Library of Entries - ThinkQuest is an online program that challenges students, educators at
all levels to develop educational Web sites for curriculum and staff development
http://library.advanced.org/2745/data/meter.htm

HCI Accelerometer - Want to brush up on your aerobatics but think you can't afford the expense or panel
space for an accelerometer? Accelerometer (G-Meter) Order by phone of mail using check, money order,
or credit card. HCI 3461 Dissen Road New Haven, MO. 63068 (573)...
http://www.halcyon.com/wpowers/gmeter.html

Patriot Sensor and Controls Corporation - Patriot Sensors and Controls Corporation (PSCC) is a
leading supplier of Accelerometers, Pressure Transducers, and Linear Motion Transducers. We utilize
state of the art technologies to provide innovative, reliable and versatile sensor solutions for...
http://www.xducer.com

Precision Aligned Tri-Axial Accelerometer with Signal Conditioning - Specification

Accelerometer34103:
http://www.wuntronic.de/accelerometer/34103_sp.htm

A triaxial rate gyroscope and accelerometer - A triaxial rate gyroscope and accelerometer. The
acquisition of extensive kinematics information with a sensor system with minimal external complexity is
important in the field of biomedical and automotive applications,
http://www.stw.nl/projecten/T/tel4167.html

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 24 (33)

10. Appendix B: Some Vibration Terminology
1X – The Running Speed of the machine (Fundamental Frequency).

2X, 3X, etc … – The frequency at 2, 3, etc … times the running speed of the machine.

Acceleration – The time rate of change of velocity. Acceleration measurements are usually made
with accelerometers.

Accelerometer – A sensor whose output is directly proportional to acceleration.

Acoustic Emissions – Sound emissions that are emitted when an object or material vibrates.
These emissions may or may not be heard but can be detected with proper equipment.

Aerodynamic and Flow induced Vibration – Air flow from fans and fluid flow pumps induced
vibration each time the fan or pump impeller discharges air of fluid. These pulsing discharges
can be detected at a frequency equal to the shaft speed times the number of fan blades or pump
impellers.

Alarm Setpoint – Any value beyond which is considered unacceptable or dangerous to machinery
operation.

Alignment – A condition whereby the axes of machine components are either coincident, parallel,
or perpendicular, according to design requirements.

Amplitude – The magnitude of dynamic motion or vibration. Expressed in terms of peak-to-peak,

zero-to-peak, or RMS.

Analog-To-Digital Converter – A device, or subsystem, that changes real-world analog data (as
from sensors, for example) to a form compatible with digital (binary) processing.

Anti-aliasing Filter – A low pass filter designed to filter out frequencies higher than ½ the sample
rate in order to prevent aliasing.

Attenuation – The reduction in signal strength over the distance traveled. The amount of
attenuation will vary with the type of material.

Asynchronous – Vibration components that are not related to rotating speed (non-synchronous).

Averaging – In a dynamic signal analyzer, digitally averaging several measurements to improve

statistical accuracy or to reduce the level of random asynchronous components.

Axial – In the same direction as the shaft centerline.

Axial Vibration – Vibration that is in line with a shaft centerline.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 25 (33)

Axis – The reference plane used in plotting routines. The X-axis is the frequency plane. The Y-
axis is the amplitude plane.

Balancing – A procedure for adjusting the radial mass distribution of a rotor so that the
centerline of the mass approaches the geometric centerline of the rotor.

Ball Pass Frequency – The frequency generated when a rolling element passes over a flaw in the
inner race, BPFI, or over the outer race, BPFO.

Band-Pass Filter – A filter with a single transmission band extending from lower to upper cutoff
frequencies. The width of the band is determined by the separation of frequencies at which
amplitude is attenuated by 3 dB (0.707).

Bandwidth – The spacing between frequencies at which a bandpass filter attenuates the signal by
3 dB.

Base-line Spectrum – A vibration spectrum taken when a machine is in good operating condition;
used as a reference for monitoring and analysis.

Blade or Vane pass frequency – The number of fan blades or pump vanes times the rotational
speed equals the specific frequency.

Center Frequency – For a bandpass filter, the center of the transmission band.

Centerline Position – The average location, relative to the radial bearing centerline, of the shaft
dynamic motion.

Clipping – A condition reached when the signal amplitude exceeds the limits of the amplifier or
supply voltage. Signal peaks will be rounded or flattened resulting in inaccurate data.

Condition Monitoring – Determining the condition of a machine by interpretation of

measurements taken either periodically or continuously while the machine is running.

CPM – Cycles per minute.

CPS – Cycles per second. Also referred to as Hertz (Hz).

Critical Speeds – In general, any rotating speed that is associated with high vibration amplitude.
Often the rotor speeds, which correspond to natural frequencies of the system.

Cycle – One complete sequence of values of a periodic quantity.

Damping – The absorption of energy that will bring a system to rest when the driving force is
removed.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 26 (33)

Decay Rate – The rate at which an object stops vibrating after being struck.

Decibel (dB) – A logarithmic representation of amplitude ratio, defined as 20 times the base ten
logarithm of the ratio of the measured amplitude to a reference.

Displacement – The change in distance or position of an object relative to a reference.

Download – Transferring information to the measurement device from the host computer.

Dynamic Range – The difference between the highest voltage level that will overload the
instrument and the lowest level that is detectable. Dynamic range is usually expressed in
decibels.

Engineering Units – Physical units in which a measurement is expressed, such as in/sec,

micrometers, or mils. Selected by the user.

EU – See ENGINEERING UNITS.

Enveloping Process – The signal processing technique where the higher frequency harmonic
signals are electronically processed to provide a mathematical sum of these harmonics over a
selected range.

Fast Fourier Transform – A calculation method of converting a time waveform to a frequency

display that shows the relationship of discrete frequencies and their amplitudes.

Field – One data item. Examples of fields are POINT Type, Description, etc.

Filter – An electronic device designed to pass or reject a specific frequency band.

FFT – See Fast Fourier Transform.

Frequency – The repetition rate of a periodic event, usually expressed in cycles per second (Hz),
cycles per minute (CPM), revolutions per minute (RPM), or multiples of running speed (orders).
Orders are commonly referred to as 1X for running speed, 2X for twice running speed, and so
on.

Frequency Domain – An FFT graph (amplitude vs. frequency).

Free Running – A term used to describe the operation of an analyzer or processor, which
operates continuously at a fixed rate, not in synchronism with some external reference event.

Frequency Range – The frequency range (bandwidth) over which a measurement is considered
valid. Usually refers to upper frequency limit of analysis, considering zero as the lower analysis
limit.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 27 (33)

G (g) – A standard unit of acceleration equal to one of earth’s gravities, at mean sea level. One
g equals 32.17 ft/sec squared or 9.807 meters per second squared.

Gap – (See Probe Gap.)

Gear Mesh Frequency – The frequency generated by two or more gears meshing teeth together.

Global Bearing Defect – Relatively large damage on a bearing element.

Hanning Window – DSA window function that provides better frequency resolution than the flat
top window, but with reduced amplitude accuracy.

Harmonic – A frequency that is an integer multiple of a fundamental frequency. For example

5400 RPM is the third harmonic of 1800 RPM. Harmonics are produced either by an event that
occurs multiple times per revolution, or by a distortion of the running speed component’s pure
sine wave.

Hertz (Hz) – Cycles per second. CPM/60.

Hertzian Contact Zone – In a bearing, the area at which the ball transfers the load on the
raceway.

High Pass Filter – A filter with a transmission band starting at a lower cutoff frequency and
extending to (theoretically) infinite frequency.

Imbalance – A condition such that the mass of a shaft and its geometric centerlines do not
coincide.

Keyphasor Phase Reference Sensor – A signal used in rotating machine measurements,

generated by a sensor observing a once-per-revolution event. (Keyphasor is a Bently-Nevada
trade name.)

Lines – Common term used to describe the filters of a Digital Spectrum Analyzer (e.g. 400 line
analyzer).

Linear, non-linear – When the vibration levels are trended over time and the trend is a straight
line, either rising or falling, the trend is referred to as linear because the amount of increase is
the same for each equal increase in time. A non-linear increase would be the case where, as
time progresses, the amplitude increases or decreases, at a larger and larger amount, each time
frame. Projections can be made from linear trends, they cannot be made from none-linear
trends.

Measurement units – Mils. Displacement is measured in mils, a mil is one thousandths of an inch.
Displacement is stated in Peak to Peak. See sine Wave.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 28 (33)

IPS. Inches per second. A measurement of velocity, the speed the item being measured is
moving. Velocity is stated in Peak.

G’s. Acceleration . The rate of change of the velocity. A measure of the force being applied to
the item being measured. Acceleration is stated in Peak.

These measurement units are mathematically related. IPS can be derived from the integration
of Gs and displacement derived by integration of velocity.

GE. Enveloped acceleration. A special signal processing method that uses selectable filters and
mathematical processing to enhance very low level signals. Used primarily for bearing and gear
analysis.

Misalignment – A physical condition where the shafts of two coupled units are not parallel
(angular misalignment) or are not in the same vertical and horizontal planes, (offset)
Misalignment will generate a spike on the frequency spectrum at twice the operating speed of
the units.

Low Pass Filter – A filter whose transmission band extends from an upper cutoff frequency down
to DC.

Measurement units – Mils. Displacement is measured in mils, a mil is one thousandths of an inch.
Displacement is stated in Peak to Peak. See sine Wave.

IPS. Inches per second. A measurement of velocity, the speed the item being measured is
moving. Velocity is stated in Peak.

G’s. Acceleration . The rate of change of the velocity. A measure of the force being applied to
the item being measured. Acceleration is stated in Peak.

These measurement units are mathematically related. IPS can be derived from the integration
of Gs and displacement derived by integration of velocity.

GE. Enveloped acceleration. A special signal processing method that uses selectable filters and
mathematical processing to enhance very low level signals. Used primarily for bearing and gear
analysis.

Misalignment – A physical condition where the shafts of two coupled units are not parallel
(angular misalignment) or are not in the same vertical and horizontal planes, (offset)
Misalignment will generate a spike on the frequency spectrum at twice the operating speed of
the units.

Modulating – When the vibration signal amplitude rises and falls over time. For example, a flaw
on the inner race of a bearing will rotate in and out of the load zone. When in the zone, the
amplitude will be high and when it rotates out of the zone the amplitude will fall. In the

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 29 (33)

frequency spectrum modulating signals will generate sideband harmonics, the spacing of the
harmonics will equal the speed (CPM) of the shaft.

Mounting stud – a threaded screw used to attach a sensor to the structure.

Multi-Parameter Monitoring – A condition monitoring method that uses various monitoring

technologies to best monitor machine condition.

Natural Frequency – The frequency of free vibration of a system. The frequency at which an non-
damped system with a single degree of freedom will oscillate upon momentary displacement
from its rest position.

Noise – Any undesired signal

Non-intrusive examination – The technique of determining the mechanical condition of

equipment without stopping, opening, or modifying the equipment

Non-synchronous – The amplitude sum of all frequencies that are not below 1X or multiples of
1X. See synchronous and sub-synchronous.

Oil analysis – A laboratory technique to analyze the composition of lubricating oil to determine if
any foreign materials are present. Presence of bearing material would indicate wearing of the
bearing and the quantity would indicate the amount of wear. Used primarily on plain bearings.

Orbit – The path of shaft centerline motion during rotation.

Outage – There are two types of outages, planned or forced. A planned outage is when the unit
is shutdown and work is performed as planned. A forced outage is when the unit fails and work
is performed usually on an emergency basis.

Overall – A number representing the amount of energy found between two frequencies. The
frequency range that the overall is derived from and the type (Average, RMS, Peak, Peak-to-
Peak) are usually user selectable.

Overall Amplitude – Total amount of vibration occurring in the frequency range selected.

Overlap Processing – The concept of performing a new analysis on a segment of data in which
only a portion of the signal has been updated (some old data, some new data).

Peak – The maximum positive amplitude shown on a sine curve. See sine wave.

Peak Hold – A menu choice on data collectors. The data collector will continuously collect data
and as the amplitude varies, will capture and hold the latest peak amplitude. This will continue
until the data collection is halted.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 30 (33)

Peak Spectra – A frequency domain measurement where, in a series of spectral measurements,
the one spectrum with the highest magnitude at a specified frequency is retained.

Peak to Peak – The sum of the maximum and minimum amplitudes shown on a sine curve. See
sine wave.

Period – The time required for a complete oscillation or for a single cycle of events. The
reciprocal of frequency, F=1/T

Periodic maintenance – Maintenance that is performed on a calendar or some measure of time

basis, i.e., every 12 or 18 months, every so many RPMs, or every so many hours.

Phase – A measurement of the timing relationship between two signals, or between a specific
vibration event and a Keyphasor pulse.

Phase Reference – A signal used in rotating machinery measurements, generated by a sensor

observing a once-per-revolution event.

Phase Response – The phase difference (in degrees) between the filter input and output signals
as frequency varies; usually expressed as lead and lag referenced to the input.

Phase Spectrum – Phase frequency diagram obtained as part of the results of a Fourier
transform.

Piezoelectricity – The property exhibited by some materials where a mechanical stress causes
the material to produce an electric charge. Both man made and natural piezoelectric materials
are used in accelerometers.

POINT – Defines a machinery location at which measurement data is collected and the
measurement type.

Position – The average location, relative to the radial bearing centerline, of the shaft dynamic
motion.

Predictive Maintenance – Usually maintenance that is performed again based on a calendar. The
term is usually interchanged with periodic maintenance.

Probe – An eddy-current sensor, although sometimes used to describe any vibration sensor.

Probe Gap – The physical distance between the face of an eddy probe tip and the observed
surface. The distance can be expressed in terms of displacement (mils, micrometers) or in terms
of voltage (millivolts), which is the value of the (negative) dc output signal and is an electronic
representation of the physical gap distance. Standard polarity convention dictates that a
decreasing gap results in an increasing (less negative) output signal; increasing gap produces a
decreasing (more negative) output signal.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 31 (33)

Radial – Direction perpendicular to the shaft centerline.

Radical measurement – Measurements taken perpendicular to the axis of rotation to measure

shaft dynamic motion or casing vibration

Radial Vibration – Vibration that is perpendicular to a shaft’s centerline.

Resonance – Resonance – The condition of vibration amplitude and phase change response
caused by a corresponding system sensitivity to a particular forcing frequency. A resonance is
typically identified by a substantial amplitude increase, and related phase shift. See natural
frequency

RMS – Root Mean Square – The measure of energy displayed in a frequency spectrum. It is
derived by squaring each spectrum line, summing the results, and taking the square root of the
sum. It also equals (Peak ) X 0.707. See sine wave.

Rolling element Bearing – Bearings whose low friction qualities derive from lubricated rolling
elements (balls or rollers).

Rotor – The rotating portion of a pump, fan or motor.

ROUTE – A measurement POINT collection sequence.

Runout – The amount of wobble at the end of a rotating shaft.

Run Up/Run Down – The monitoring of machinery conditions during a start up or shut down
process.

SEE Technology (Spectral Emitted Energy) – The analysis process where the high frequency
acoustic signals generated when the rolling element in a bearing passes over a flaw in the
bearing surface. The signals are emitted by the microscopic movement of the metal crystals as
they rub against each other. These signals are then enveloped and presented in the low
frequency spectrum. The display signal will be at the characteristic bearing frequencies, BPFO,
BPFI, etc.

Sensitivity – The ratio of magnitude of an output to the magnitude of a quantity measured. Also
the smallest input signal to which an instrument can respond.

Sensor – A transducer that senses and converts a physical phenomenon to an analog electrical
signal.

Setpoint – (See alarm setpoint.)

Sidebands – Evenly spaced peaks centered on a major peak.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 32 (33)

Signal Analysis – Process of extracting information about a signal’s behavior in the time domain
and/or frequency domain. Describes the entire process of filtering, sampling, digitizing,
computation, and display of results in a meaningful format.

Spectrum – A display of discrete frequencies and their amplitudes.

Spectrum Analyzer – An instrument that displays the frequency spectrum of an input signal.

Thermocouple – A temperature sensing device comprised of two dissimilar metal wires which,
when thermally affected (heated or cooled), produce a change in electrical potential.

Time Domain – A dynamic amplitude vs. time graph.

Time Waveform – (See Waveform.)

Transducer – A device that translates a physical quantity into an electrical output.

Trend – The measurement of a variable (such as vibration) vs. time.

Trigger – Any event that can be used as a timing reference.

Upload – Transferring data from the measuring device to the host computer.

Vibration – The behavior of a machine’s mechanical components as they react to internal or

external forces. Magnitude of cyclic motion; may be expressed as acceleration, velocity, or
displacement. Defined by frequency and time-based components.

Waveform – A presentation or display of the instantaneous amplitude of a signal as a function of

time.

Introduction guide to vibration monitoring © 2012 SKF Group 33 (33)