INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE DESENVOLVIMENTO RURAL E BIOCIENCIAS

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS

English Course (Regular and Distance Education)

Subject: Research Methods Year-I, Semester-I, 2024

Unit-I: Scientific Research and the Structure of Research Project

I. Definition of Research

The word research comes from French “recherché” which means “to seek
closely”. For Richards et al (1992:315), research is the study of events, problems
or phenomenon using systematic and objective methods, with the aim to
understand them better, solve problems and develop principles and theories about
them. Such study takes place under the scope of science, in a specific subject
area. Normally, research starts with a question on a specific problem.

Problems may be of different kinds and nature, such as: Global warming; Epidemic
diseases (coronavirus, Ebola, SARS, HIV/AIDS); Natural catastrophes, Pollution,
Corruption, Criminality, Unemployment; Terrorism, Massive failure in Education, et.
cetera. In Medicine, for instance, researchers are struggling to find out the vaccine
to cure and eradicate AIDS. In order for them to achieve successfully such
purpose, they need to ask themselves several questions as the starting point of
research activity, as follows: a) How does the HIV virus weaken the antibodies in
the human immune system? b) What should the vaccine against HIV virus consist
of? In Education, researchers may need to know the reasons of massive failure at
secondary schools and put forward these questions, as the departing point of
research activity: a) Why do learners fail in huge numbers at secondary schools?

Before the researchers answer all these questions, they may have to collect
information (data). Data may include verbal information, objects, patterns of social
behavior or habits, anything that might be relevant in the accomplishment of the
research, collected through appropriate and scientifically approved methods and
instruments, from different groups of people (participants or subjects) affected by
the problems under investigation. After data have been tested, analyzed and
interpreted, researchers will come up with answers to the questions advanced
before in the form of reported information as final research results. The information
will make part of scientific knowledge that will help researchers to solve problems in
Medicine or in Education, as presented above.

II. Types of knowledge

Before we embark on describing the types of knowledge, it is worthwhile to briefly

provide the concept of knowledge. According to the Longman Active Study
Dictionary of English (1987:336), knowledge is the information about facts or life
experience from people, useful to tackle with social or environmental adversities.

The production of vegetables in dry seasons, for instance, consists of watering the
seedlings twice a day, until they grow bigger enough, otherwise the plants will die.
This practice is a traditional knowledge that has prevailed probably for centuries. It
is part of our ancestors’ experience in agriculture and most of them have never
been to school. In today’s world, such practice continues. The agronomy engineers
also water the plants in food production, using sophisticated irrigation system. On
the one hand, our ancestors’ knowledge in vegetable production is traditional
because it has been transmitted from generation to generation through simple
observation, transmission of personal experience and imitation. It does not require
the investigation of chemical composition of soils. It is empirical, primitive or
popular knowledge, also known as common sense (Marconi & Lakatos, 2010:57).
On the other, there is what is called scientific knowledge, the one that is
transmitted through formal training in agriculture. It is a reasoned knowledge
because, apart from empirical practices of agricultural practices, it is concerned
with giving scientific explanation about a phenomenon, by answering questions like
why some plants grow vividly in green color in certain areas of the farm and, in
other parts, the plants become yellow and lose their leaves? In both types of
knowledge, there is a common truth held: Vegetables may grow well, if watered
twice a day in dray seasons, at the early stages of development. If that is the case,
what would be the main differences between common sense and scientific
knowledge?

Common sense and scientific knowledge do not differ from one another through the
truth of facts, the nature of object studied or the person who possesses the
knowledge. The difference resides on the way or procedures each employs to
arrive at the very same truth. In such circumstances, we can come to the
conclusions that follow: a) Science is not the only path to access the truth and; b)
The same phenomenon can be an object of observation, either to scientists or to
ordinary people. Apart from common sense and scientific knowledge, there is what
is called theological knowledge whose truth is unquestionable (exact) and not
verifiable, accessed through the faith of believers. It is systematic knowledge of the
world about it is origin, meaning, purpose, and its destiny, as the creation of God.

III. Classification of research

Researches can be classified according to the nature, approach, objectives,

methods and procedures. Regarding to nature, researches can be classified into
two types: Basic and Applied research (Kervin et al, 2006:39). The difference
between the two is, as follows: basic research aims to generate new knowledge
(theories and principles) relevant in the advancement of science; whose truth can
be of general or relative validity in a short, medium or long term, without an
expected and immediate practical application. It is an established referential
knowledge that guides the forthcoming researches in a particular scientific area.
Meanwhile, applied research generates knowledge with reference to a theory, for
the solution of a particular and localized problem in a specific area of knowledge.

In terms of approach, researches can be quantitative, qualitative and mixed

approaches. In quantitative approach, researches work with quantifiable data
expressed in numbers. That is, the collected information is analyzed through
statistical techniques, such as percentage, averages, correlation quotient and
standard deviation. In qualitative approach, researches collect extensive or
narrative data in the form of texts or comments and, while interpreting them, the
information is coded and organized into categories of meaning. The mixed
approach is the association of parts of both quantitative and qualitative procedures
in single research.

Researches are also described as exploratory, descriptive and explanatory, in

relation to the objectives. Exploratory research (considered as the initial stage of
many researches) is conducted with the objective of getting familiar with the
problem, phenomenon or event to be investigated; make it clear (what the problem,
event or phenomenon consists of) and design sound hypotheses from it. For such
purpose, it collects data thorough bibliographic review, documental analysis, and
interview with the most informed or experienced people about the problem.
Exploratory research can take the form of survey, case study or bibliographic
research. Descriptive research aims to account for the main characteristics of a
problem or phenomenon, the population involved and, identify the kind of
relationship that exits among variables. For data collection process, it uses
questionnaires and applies a systematic observation. In general, it takes the form of
survey. Explanatory research explains the causes that contribute to the
occurrence of phenomenon or problems. Explanatory or explicative researches
generate profound and relevant knowledge of matters in science because they
explain the reasons or the “why” of things. In natural sciences (Biology, Physics,
Chemistry, etcetera), explanatory researches are carried out under experimental
design and, in social sciences, they take the form of ethnographic research that
involves observation (participant observation) and interviews.

IV. Methods

Scientific research depends on a series of intellectual and technical procedures so

that its objectives should be achieved. Such procedures are known as scientific
methods, a set of mental processes (ways of reasoning) to be employed in a
research process that includes deductive, inductive and hypothetico-deductive
methods.

Deductive method (also known as top-down or descending method) - according

to its proponents (Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz), only the reason can take us to
the true knowledge. Deductive method aims at explaining the content of premises
or theories through a process of reasoning that departs from a general idea to a
more specific one and, reaches at a conclusion. For example:

Human beings are mammal – General idea (theory or premise)

John is a human being – Specific idea

Therefore, John is also a mammal – Conclusion

This type of reasoning applied in deductive method is also known as syllogism.

Inductive method (ascending or bottom-up method), proposed by Bacon,

Hobbes, Locke and Hume, applies a reasoning process that differs from deductive
method. According to the proponents of inductive method, knowledge is generated
from experiences that one has in mind about life and the surrounding environment,
acquired through observation, regardless of the pre-established theories. That is,
generalizations (theories or hypotheses) derive from observation and analysis of
specific facts or phenomenon from nature in isolation. For example:

Antonio is a mammal

John is a mammal

Ana is a mammal

Antonio, John and Ana are human beings

Therefore, all human beings are mammal.

Hypothetico-deductive method- according to Popper, the proponent of the

method, it is used when the available knowledge is not enough to explain the facts
from the nature. When this happens, we are in the presence of a problem. In order
to explain the difficulties expressed in the problem, new hypotheses should be
designed from the problem encountered. Such hypotheses will later be confirmed
or rejected. As the deductive method seeks to confirm, at all accounts, the
hypotheses; the hypothetico-deductive method, in contrary, looks for the empirical
evidences in order to reject the hypotheses and come up with new generalizations
(Gil, 1999; Trivinos, 1992).
 V. Procedures

Researches can also be classified according to the way (techniques and

procedures) they are to be worked out, depending on the nature of facts to be
researched, the researcher’s objectives and the instruments of data collection.
According to the procedures, scientific research can be classified into:

Bibliographic research – it is based on the analysis of data extracted mainly from

published articles, books, scientific journals and other materials available on
internet.

Documental research – it works with data contained in documents and regulatory

norms from companies and institutions.

Experimental/Explanatory research – it consists of analyzing the relationship

between variables and the effects that one variable causes on other. Experimental
research aims at explaining the cause-and-effect relationships that exist among
variables.

Survey – it aims to discover peoples’ opinion, behavior or attitudes in relation to a

specific issue or object, through questionnaires and interviews.

Case study – it consists of a detailed and profound investigation of a phenomenon,

involving a very limited number of participants or objects, and see if a specific
theory actually applies to the phenomenon under study or not. Case studies are
usually conducted at the beginning of a broad research, as exploratory research, in
order to have the real image of a problem or phenomenon.

Forum – II: Select from the elements that follow, the one that makes scientific
knowledge different from common sense and justify your answer:
a. Object of investigation
b. Methods of investigation
c. The researcher
d. The truth in both