Chapter 4: Vector Geometry

4.1 Vectors and lines

4.2 Projections and Planes

4.3 The cross product

4.4 Linear operations on R3

4.5 An application in computer graphics

 4.1 Vectors and lines in the 3-space ℝ3
z
c
𝑎 0
P(a,b,c)≡ 𝑏 ≡ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑣Ԧ (or 𝐯) 𝑶 = 0,0,0 = 0
𝑐 0
𝑣Ԧ
● Length of 𝐯 is 𝐯 =OP= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 ≥ 0
O
a x ● 𝐯 =0 if and only if 𝐯 = 0
b
●𝐯 is a unit vector if 𝐯 =1
y k𝑎
2 ● k𝑣=(ka,
Ԧ kb, kc)= k𝑏 ● k𝑣Ԧ =|k|. 𝑣Ԧ
(k is any real number) k𝑐
Example. Given v= −1 . Find:
1
a) 𝐯
−1
b) 2v and v
2
𝐯
c) 𝐯

𝐯
d) 𝐯
𝑣 𝐯 If v≠ 𝟎, the 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 of vector kv is the
If v≠ 𝟎, then is a unit vector, i.e. =1 same as v if k>0, and opposite to v if k<0
𝑣 𝐯
Similarly, in the 2-space ℝ2
−1
Example. In 2-space, given u= .
1 0
𝑶 = 0,0 =
Find: 0
● Length of 𝐯 is 𝐯 =OP= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
a) 𝐮
● 𝐯 =0 if and only if 𝐯 = 0
1
b) 𝐮
2 ●𝐯 is a unit vector if 𝐯 =1
c) -u y 𝑘𝑎
● k𝐯=(k𝑎, k𝑏)=
𝑘𝑏 ● k𝑣Ԧ =|k|. 𝑣Ԧ
d) -2u
𝐮
e) u 1
𝐮 P≡v=(𝑎, 𝑏)
1
𝒖 𝐮 2
f) 𝒖
2
x
−1 −1 𝑶
2
-2u

𝑣
If v≠ 𝟎, then 𝑣
is a unit vector, −2
𝐯 If v≠ 𝟎, the 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 of vector kv is the
i.e. =1
𝐯
same as v if k>0, and opposite to v if k<0
Vectors and lines
Two vecors are equal if and only if they have the 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 and the 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
Let v = 𝑂𝑃 ≡P(𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ) and 𝐮 = 𝑂𝑄 ≡ 𝐐(𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ).
y
● 𝐮 = 𝐯 iff 𝑎2 =𝑎1 and 𝑏2 = 𝑏1 .

𝐮 + 𝐯 = (𝑎1 +𝑎2 , 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 ) ●Vector 𝐮 + 𝐯 = (𝑎1 +𝑎2 , 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )

Q≡ 𝐮=(𝑎2 , 𝑏2 )

● Vector 𝑃𝑄 = 𝐮 − 𝐯 = (𝑎2 -𝑎1 , 𝑏2 - 𝑏1 )

P≡v=(𝑎1 , 𝑏1 )
𝑶 x

●The distance PQ= 𝑃𝑄 = 𝐮 − 𝐯 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 2 + 𝑏2 − 𝑏1 2

1
Example. 1. Given u=(1,-3), v=(-2,1). Find u+v, u-v, u+ v, ||u+2v||.
2

2. Given u=P(1,-3,0), Q(0,1,1). Find the distance PQ.

Vectors and lines
Let v = 𝑂𝑃 and 𝐮 = 𝑂𝑄.

●The parallelogram law: ● The tip-to-tail rule

vector 𝐮 + 𝐯 is the diagonal with the
𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄
same tail as u and v.
i.e. 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄- 𝑂𝑃 = u-v.
𝐮+𝐯
Q Q

P P
𝑶 𝑶
●The vector u and w are parallel if and only if u=kw, (k is a number).
i.e. u and w has the same direction or have opposite directions.

𝐰
𝐰

𝐮
𝐮
Example.
1. Let u = (2, 0, 1); v = (3, 1, 0). Find the length of the vector (10u+2v).

2. Let u = (2; 1; 2) and v = (-1; 0; 1). Find x such that 3u + 7v =|| u || (2x+v)

3. Let P(1,2,1), Q(1,0,-1), R(2,2,0) be the vertices of a parallelogram with adjacent

sides QP and QR. Find the other vertex S.
Example.

4. Which of the following statements are true? (u, v in ℝ3 )

(i) || -5u || = -5|| u ||

(ii) || u-v || = || u || -|| v ||

(iii) If u, v, u+v are nonzero and u and (u+v) are parallel, then u and v are also parallel.

5. Ex. 4.1.2, 4.1.3, 4.1.4, 4.1.7, 4.1.10, 4.1.11, 4.1.12, 4.1.17,4.1.18, 4.1.19, 4.1.21(page 220-
222, text book)
Equations of lines
Equations of lines
Equations of lines
4.2 Projections and planes
The dot product

= 𝑢𝑇 𝑣

Examples

Given u=(1,2,0), v=(-1,1,2), w=(0,1,-1) . Find

a) 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗
1
b) 𝒖 ⋅ 2 𝒗
c) 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒖
d) 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒖 and ||u||
e) 𝒖 ⋅ (𝒗 − 𝒘)
4.2 Projections and planes
The dot product

= 𝑢𝑇 𝑣

Properties
The dot product

Example
The dot product

Two vectors u and v are orthogonal if u=0 or v=0, or the angle

𝜋
between u and v is , and we have
2

u and v are orthogonal if and only if 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 = 0

Examples
1. Find x such that

2. Find angle between u=(1,0,3) and v=(2,0,1)

3. Consider the triangle with vertices P(2, 0, -3), Q(5, -2, 1), and R(7, 5, 3). Verify that
PQR is a right-angled triangle and compute the area of the triangle PQR.
Projections
Equation of planes
Shortest distance problems
4.3 Cross product
Cross product
 Cross product

Lagrange identity

Consequently,
Area and Volume
4.4 Linear transformations on R3
Transformations in plane
Transformations in space
Transformations in space
Transformations in space
Transformations in space
Transformations of areas and volumes
4.5 Applications in computer graphics