SECOND EXAM

• CRIME SCENE RESPONSE PROCEDURE

• Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) is one of the most critical stages of any criminal investigation.
The initial actions taken at the crime scene by the First Responders, Investigators and SOCO
Team members at the outset of the investigation are of such vital importance that oftentimes
their actions would determine the outcome of the investigation.
• However, while CSI is the most mportant stage of the investigation in terms of collecting vital
forensic evidence and information, this initial stage is also often the most chaotic and
therefore prone to errors.
• However, that the IOC has the primary responsibility over the crime scene and takes control
and supervision in the overall crime scene investigation. A systematic and organized
procedure on crime scene investigation is therefore the key to ensuring that all potential
physical evidence are properly preserved and collected, all possible witnesses are identified
and documented, and all the necessary basic procedures are undertaken properly
• Specific Functions, Responsibilities and Procedures:
• The following are the functions and responsibilities of the different players
during the crime scene investigation as well as procedures to be observed:
• First Responder:
• a. The first Police Officers to arrive at the crime scene are the FRs who were
dispatched by the local police station/unit concerned after receipt of
incident/flash/alarm report;
• b. Immediately, the FR shall conduct a preliminary evaluation of the crime
scene. This evaluation should include the scope of the incident, emergency
services required, scene safety concerns, administration of life saving
measures, and establishment of security and control of the scene;
• c. The FR is mandated to save and preserve life by giving the necessary first aid
measures to the injured and their medical evacuation as necessary. The FR
shall likewise secure and preserve the crime scene by cordoning the area to
prevent unauthorized entry of persons;
• d. The FR shall take the dying declaration of severely injured person/s, if any.
The FR shall make the initial assessment on whether a crime has actually been
committed and shall conduct the preliminary interview of witnesses to
determine what and how the crime was committed;
• e. If and when there is a suspect present in the area, the first responder shall arrest, detain
and remove the suspect from the area; and
• f. The FR, upon the arrival of the IOC, shall turn-over the crime scene to the duty
investigator/IOC after the former has briefed the investigator of the situation.
• Role of the Investigator On Case Investigator-on-Case (IOC) /Duty
Investigator:
• a. Upon arrival at the crime scene, the IOC shall request for a briefing from the
FR and make a quick assessment of the crime;
• b. At this stage, the IOC shall assume full responsibility over the crime scene
and shall conduct a thorough assessment of the scene and inquiry into
incident. If necessary the IOC may conduct crime scene search outside the area
where the incident happened employing any of the various search methods;
• c. Based on the assessment, if the IOC determines that a SOCO team is
required, he shall report the matter to his COP and request for a SOCO,
otherwise, the IOC shall proceed with the CSI without the SOCO team and shall
utilize CSI Form “4” – SOCO Report Forms in the conduct of the CSI;
• d. The IOC may by himself if the situation so demands, conduct CSI if, there is no Provincial
Crime Laboratory Office/Regional Crime Laboratory Office in the province. The IOC must,
however, ensure that the correct procedures in the collection of evidence are observed to
ensure the admissibility of the evidence;
• e. The Police Station Operation Center, upon directive of the COP, shall make the request for
the SOCO team through the Provincial/City Operations Center; 5
• f. It shall be the responsibility of the Provincial/City Operations Center to facilitate the
request for the SOCO Team; g. Upon the arrival of the SOCO Team, the IOC shall accomplish
the CSI Form “2” - Request for the Conduct of SOCO and submit the same to the SOCO Team
Leader. The SOCO team shall not enter the crime scene unless the IOC makes the official
written request wherein he assures the SOCO team of his presence and support; and h. The
IOC shall brief the SOCO Team upon their arrival at the crime scene and shall jointly conduct
the preliminary crime scene survey.
• Procedure of processing the Crime Scene
• Crime Scene Security – Perimeter Management
• Officers must contain the crime scene and secure it from persons with
unnecessary access. A perimeter should be established around the crime
scene as soon as possible. The establishment of the initial perimeter can and
should be taking place as the scene is being made safe and aid is being
rendered to the victims. Establishing a perimeter in this early stage
accomplishes several important goals:
• It creates a barrier that will protect officers and evidence within the crime
scene.
• It creates a barrier that will keep the public, news media and unnecessary
police officers/officials out of the crime scene.
• It defines a potential threat zone within the scene and a safety zone outside
the perimeter.
• The SOCO Team shall not join any operations conducted by the local police or accompany
the FRs or the IOC in going to the crime scene. They will only respond upon request
through the Operations Center and after the IOC has already made proper assessment of
the crime scene;
• Upon receipt of the Request for Conduct of SOCO, the SOCO Team shall then conduct the
scene of the crime operations which include among others the narrative description of the
crime scene, photography, videography, crime scene search, crime scene sketch, crime
scene location sketch, physical evidence recording and collection, and other procedures
necessary;
• In case the SOCO Team needs to temporarily suspend the processing, the Chief of Police
shall be primarily responsible and accountable for securing the crime scene and ensuring
its integrity until the return of SOCO Team and the conclusion of the CSI;
• After the termination of the SOCO, the SOCO Team Leader shall brief the IOC
on the initial results and thereafter conduct the final crime scene survey
together with the IOC; and
• Release of the Crime Scene
• a. The IOC shall decide on the lifting of the security cordon and the release of
the crime scene upon consultation with the SOCO Team Leader and he shall be
responsible in ensuring that all pieces of potential evidence were collected by
the SOCO Team as any re-entry into the crime scene after its release to the
owner will require a Search Warrant issued by the Court;
• b. The IOC shall accomplish the CSI Form “6” – IOC/Investigator’s CSI Form
before the cordon shall be lifted;
• The IOC shall ensure that appropriate inventory has been provided by the
SOCO Team and shall only lift the security cordon and release the crime scene
only after completion of the documentation process;
• The IOC or the COP shall turn-over the crime scene to the owner of the
property or where the crime scene is a public place, to any local person in
authority;
• The IOC as well as the SOCO Team shall completely fill-up the forms specified
in this SOP. The IOC shall accomplish and submit the Investigator’s Report
with all the required attachments to the COP within two (2) working days
from the date of incidence
 Death and Injury Investigation
• DEATH BY INJURY
• TYPES OF WOUND's INJURIES
• The five common types of wounds are abrasion, avulsion, incision, laceration, and
puncture. An abrasion is a wound caused by friction when a body scrapes across a
rough surface. An avulsion is characterized by a flap. An incision is a cut with clean
edges. A laceration is a cut with jagged edges. A puncture is a wound where something
passes through or becomes impaled in the skin e.g. knife, splinter, needle, nail
• BLUNT FORCE WOUND
• I.When a person is struck with blunt object, such as pipe, club, or fist, the severity of the
injury can range from mild to severe.
• II.ABRASIONS are scratches and scrapes involving outer layers of the skin, including
grazes and impact impressions
• Examination of abrasion can indicate:
• The exact site of where an object struck the skin.
• The direction the wounding object was travelling when it struck the skin.
• CONTUSION (BRUISE) is an injury that does not break the skin but results in some
discoloration. Contusion may be produced postmortem. The force or intensity of a blow
cannot be judged by the size or color of the bruise. Bruise do not necessarily occur at the
site of impact.
• LACERATIONS
• A laceration is a torn ragged wound to the skin or internal organs. Lacerations can occur as
a result of a blow with a blunt instrument (club, fist, stick ) or from extreme trauma as would
be found in an automobile accident.
• A laceration to the external layers of skin is referred to as contaneous laceration. Internal
lacerations referred to as cutaneous laceration. Internal lacerations refer to the rupture,
splitting, or fragmentation of internal organs.
• The edged of the laceration will be abraded (scraped as in abrasion).
• The edges of the wound will have ragged edges.
• There may be bridging of vessels and nerves (vessels and nerves will remain intact and
visible within the wound “bridging” from one side of the wound to the other).
• The skin surrounding the laceration may be undercut (separated from the underlying
muscle/bone). This sometimes referred to as shelving.
• Contusion by Hematoma

• A bruise, also known as a contusion, typically appears on the skin after

trauma such as a blow to the body. It occurs when the small veins and
capillaries under the skin break. A hematoma is a collection (or pooling) of
blood outside the blood vessel.. A pool of mostly clotted blood forms in an
organ, tissue, or body space. A hematoma is usually caused by a broken
blood vessel that was damaged by surgery or an injury.
• Stab wound - is produced by
penetration of sharp pointed and
sharp edged instrument, like a
knife, saber, dagger, and scissors.
It may involve the skin or mucous
surface.
• Punctured - wound is the result of
a thrust of a sharp pointed
instrument. The external injury is
quite small but the depth is to a
certain degree. It is commonly
produced by an ice pick, needle, nail,
spear, pointed stick, thorn, and fang
of animal hook
• Lacerated - wound is a tear of the skin and
the underlying tissues due to forcible
contact with blunt instrument. It may be
produced by a hit with a piece of wood,
iron bar, fist blow, stone, but of fire, or
other objects without sharp objects.
• A laceration is a wound that is produced by
the tearing of soft body tissue. This type of
wound is often irregular and jagged(rough)
• Incised wounds - are wounds that are
usually longer than they are deep. They
are caused by a sharp item cutting or
slashing into the skin, making a long
laceration or cut.
• A laceration - is a wound that is produced
by the tearing of soft body tissue. This
type of wound is often irregular and
jagged. A laceration wound is often
contaminated with bacteria and debris
from whatever object caused the cut.
• Chopping Wounds - A chop wound
represents a combination of sharp and
blunt force injuries, typically produced by
a heavy or "powerful" object that has an
edge that is somewhat sharp to very
sharp, or by a sharp object wielded with a
tremendous amount of force
• Defense wounds - Defensive wounds are
any type of injuries that result from an
attempt, or repeated attempts, to defend
against an assailant using such sharp
edged weapons as knives or blunted
instruments such as fists and clubs. Such
wounds are usually deeply indented stab
wounds, but can be either blunt or sharp
in nature
• COUP AND CONTRA COUP INJURIES
• Coup signifies that the injuries are located beneath the impact (usually
caused by blow).
• Contra coup, the injuries are on the opposite side from where the blow was
initiated.
• CLASSIFICATION OF WOUNDS: As to the severity

• Mortal wound – a wound that is caused immediately after infliction or shortly

thereafter that is capable of causing death.

• Mortal parts:

• Heart and big blood vessels

• Brain and upper portion of the spinal cord, Lungs, Stomach, liver, spleen, and
intestine
• Non-mortal wound – the wound that cannot produce death
immediately after infliction or shortly thereafter
• SPECIAL TYPES OF WOUNDS

• Defense wound

• a wound that is the result of a person’s instinctive reaction to self-protection.

• Defense wounds - Defensive wounds are any type of injuries that result from an
attempt, or repeated attempts, to defend against an assailant using such sharp-edged
weapons as knives or blunted instruments such as fists and clubs. Such wounds are
usually deeply indented stab wounds but can be either blunt or sharp in nature
• Self-inflicting wound - wound produced on one’s self. As distinguished from
suicide, the person has no intention to end his life.

• CLASSES OF WOUNDS

• Petechiae: This is circumscribed extravasations of the blood in the subcutaneous tissue

or underneath the mucous membrane. The cause of the passage of blood from the
capillaries may be due to the increased intra-capillary pressure or increased permeability
of the vessel. Petechiae are tiny, circular, non-raised patches that appear on the skin or in
a mucous or serous membrane. They occur as a result of bleeding under the skin.
Petechiae often looks like a rash, which can be alarming.
• Musculoskeletal injuries: Musculoskeletal Disorders or MSDs are injuries and disorders that affect the
human body’s movement or musculoskeletal system. Any injury that affects the bones, muscles, ligaments,
nerves, or tendons resulting in pain is considered a musculoskeletal injury. While pain may be widespread
and affect the entire body, it is often localized in the hands and wrists due to its high use and exposure.
• Sprain- partial or complete disruption in the continuity of muscular or ligamentous support of a joint. It is
usually caused by a blow kick or torsion force.

• Dislocation- displacement of the articular surface of bones entering into the formation of a joint.

• Histotoxic Anoxic Death - This is due to the failure of the cellular oxidative process, Although the oxygen is
delivered to the tissues, it cannot be utilized properly Cyanide and Alcohol are common agents responsible for
histotoxic anoxic death. Also called histoxic hypoxia) is the inability of cells to take up or use oxygen from the
bloodstream, despite physiologically normal delivery of oxygen to such cells and tissues. ( Death by Cyanide
poisoning).

• occurs when the body does not get any oxygen. This may result in a hypoxic-anoxic injury. A lack of oxygen in
the brain causes brain cells to die and can increase the likelihood of brain damage or death.

• (A high altitude, where the concentration of atmospheric oxygen is decreased.

• Deep sea diving if there is an inadequate supply of oxygen in the breathing gas or if a rusting cylinder has
extracted oxygen, for example.)
• COUP AND CONTRA COUP INJURIES

• Coup signifies that the injuries are located beneath the impact (usually caused by blow).

• Contra coup, the injuries are on the opposite side from where the blow was initiated.
• Gunshot and Shrapnel Wounds

• An open wound brought about by a penetrating power of the projectile propelled by the expansive force of a
gas or gunpowder

• Shrapnel wounds commonly referred to a wound that is usually produced by a fragment of a high or low
velocity of an explosive; such as a grenade and or Improvised Explosive Device(IED)

• Characteristics of the entrance wound

• In general the size of the entrance wound is usually smaller than the bullet or the projectile owing or due to
the reaction of the skin. The shape may be oval or circular. The edge of the wound is inverted with a
contusion collar or abrasion collar of the wound and gunpowder at the entrance.
• In contact or closed-range fire, there is burning of the skin and singeing(scorch)
of hair due to flame and gunpowder tattooing
Tattoing

Burning

• Contact fire the entrance wound is burst due to the sudden release of the
expansive force of gas. There is burning of the tissues around the wound
because it is within the Muzzle flame zone, the soot is also usually present as
well as the smudging within the tissues of the victim
• Unburned and partially burned gunpowder is responsible for tattooing, stippling
(speckling), or peppering around the wound. It becomes lesser and lesser until
disappears beyond the distance of 24 inches
• There s a bursting of the tissue or the blackening of the skin as in contact fire
but the particles of the gunpowder are present not only on the inside but as well
as around the entrance wound

Presence of gunpowder

• THE EVIDENCE OF A SUICIDAL GUNSHOT WOUND

• A near-contact fire, evidenced by burning or tattooing around the world.
• Presence of one gunshot wound
• Body part involved is accessible to the dexterous hand
• Presence of suicide note
• EVIDENCE OF ACCIDENTAL SHOOTING

• Usually one shot

• No special area of the body involved

• Testimonies of witnesses

• EVIDENCE OF HOMICIDAL GUNSHOT WOUND

• The site of the entrance wound has no point of election

• Discharge of a firearm is made when the victim is some distance away

• Signs of struggle may be present

• Signs of disturbance in the surroundings may be present

• DEATH INVESTIGATION (HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION)

• THE THREE BRIDGES IN HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION SHALL NOT BE CROSSED

➢ The first bridge is the body that has been moved.

➢ The second bridge is when the cadaver has been embalmed.

➢ The third bridge is when the dead person is burned or cremated.

• Injuries and deaths due to Extreme Temperatures

1. What are thermal injuries

Is caused when the human body is exposed to a high or lower environmental temperature
1. What is the effect of cold temperature?

• If the human body exposed to a severe cold or freezing it may result in a

disassociation power of oxygen from hemoglobin and may weaken the tissue to
utilize or develop oxygen, long exposure of the human body causes necrosis
and gangrene of the human flesh
• A single or short exposure of the human body to a cold environment is more dangerous
than ordinary cold dry air. The old age as well as young children will easily be affected
by this type of climate because the thermo- regulating tissue of young children is not
yet fully develop while the old age their thermos regulating tissue is slightly weakened.
While woman have a strong resistant to cold temperature than a man, due their greater
deposits of subconscious fats. Person who suffers malnutrition and fatigue are prone to
effects of cold temperature
• Effects of Frostbite

• Long exposure to a severe cold temperature may result in a mechanical description of

cell structure due to a lowering of body temperature, the internal tissue and muscle of
a person will become rigidity or stiffening of the body or pallor ( Paleness )
• What is Trench Foot

• Is a condition of a human tissue whose foot is exposed to a high

temperature of freezing like walking barefooted to snow. The person whose
foot is exposed to a severe cold temperature may result to stiffening of the
muscle cramps.
• CRIME AGAINST PROPERTY
• THEFT
• Crimes against property are crimes of theft, where no force or threat of
force is directed against an individual.
• Personal property are taken without the consent or knowledge of the
owner. Pickpockets, simple snatching and other forms are included in this
classification. Theft inside a house or a building where entry is thru an open
or closed door but unlocked, this is theft; Breaking the glass panes of a show
window and extending an arm to get the valuables inside is theft as the
force upon things is not used as means of entry.
• If the one who breaks the glass pane bodily entered the show window, it
would be robbery with force upon things.
 DEATH INVESTIGATION
• HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION
• THE THREE BRIDGES IN HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION WHICH SHALL NOT BE CROSSED
• The first bridge is the body has been moved.
• The second bridge is when the cadaver has been embalmed.
• The third bridge is when the dead person is burned or cremated.
• AUTOPSY It is the process by which the pathologist or the medico-legal officer conducts an
examination on the cadaver to determine the exact cause of death. Autopsy should be
performed at once when there is the slightest reason to suspect the probability of homicide
• AUTOPSY DISTINGUISHED FROM POST MORTEM EXAMINATION
• Post Mortem examination is the cursory examination of the dead body by the medico-legal
officer at the crime scene. Autopsy is more detailed.
• AUTOPSY OR NECROPSY REPORT - It is the medical document or report stating the cause of
death of the victim.
• To determine the cause and manner of death the forensic pathologist will usually conduct
an autopsy.
• The purpose of an autopsy is to observe and make a permanent legal record as soon as
possible of the gross and minute anatomical peculiarities of a recently discovered dead
body. Autopsies are typically done at a medical investigators office, local hospital, or at the
country morgue, although some are done in private offices or in funeral parlors.
• Necropsy versus Autopsy
• The two terms autopsy and necropsy refer to the process of examining a body after death. An autopsy is
the examination of a corpse in order to establish the exact cause of death. Necropsy is the surgical dissection
and examination of a carcass for the purpose of identifying the cause of death of the particular animal.
Thus, the key difference between autopsy and necropsy is that autopsy is performed on humans whereas
necropsy is performed on animals.
• Traditionally, the term “necropsy” has been used to refer to a post-mortem examination on an animal
species, while “autopsy” has been reserved exclusively for human patients.
• Cause of Death vs. Manner of Death
• The cause of death is the specific injury or disease that leads to death.
• The manner of death is the determination of how the injury or disease leads to death. There are five manners
of death (natural, accident, suicide, homicide, and undetermined).
• Four Categories of Death
• Natural Causes:
• Quite simply when the body ceases to function of its own accord or if there are
mitigating medical factors such as terminal illness, heart disease or the like, which
would bring about death - this is generally referred to as death by natural causes
• .
• Homicide:
• The taking of one human life by another human being by means of pre-
meditated murder. The term pre-meditated means to have purposely
planned and executed the murder of another human being in cold blood
whilst trying to elude capture by the authorities.

• Accidental Death:
• As the term would suggest the death of an individual by means other than a
natural death, murder or suicide. Accidental death can sometimes be
manslaughter - murder but committed out of an involuntary act of violence
towards another.
• Likewise accidental death can also be categorised as death by misadventure. This means
that the victim has died by accident either whilst doing something they should not have
been doing or by taking risks that would put them in mortal danger. A lot of extreme sports
participants have died and their deaths have been classified as death by misadventure
because of the extreme nature of their pastimes.
• Suicide:
• The deliberate taking of one's own life due to extreme emotional distress often brought
about by severe depression. Suicide is neither accidental nor is it classified as death by
misadventure simply because the individual has set about on a course of action that would
end with their own inevitable death.
• Normally this would occur by means of drug overdose, the cutting of one's wrists to induce
uncontrollable bleeding, or indeed stepping out in front of a moving vehicle.
• DEATH SCENE INVESTIGATION
• For the pathologist and criminal investigator to perform a thorough
investigation, the death scene must be well documented.
• By understanding the role of the pathologist and the natural changes that
occur in the body after death, the criminal investigator can gather
information that is useful to everyone involved in the investigation.
• POSTMORTEM CHANGES IN THE BODY
• POSTMORTEM is in reference to events or changes that occur after
death.
• ANTIMORTEM is in reference to events or changes that occur before
death.
• When a person dies, there series of changes in the body goes through that
predictable.
• These changes can aid in:
• The approximate time of death and
• Whether or not the body was moved after death occurred.
• Understand and recognizing these changes in particularly useful for the
crime scene investigator.
• ALGOR MORTIS (BODY COOLING)
• COOLING OF THE BODY (ALGOR MORTIS):
• Algor mortis (Latin: algor—coldness; mortis—of death), the second stage of death, is the
change in body temperature post mortem, until the ambient temperature is matched.
• After death the metabolic process inside the body ceases. No more heat is produced but the
body loses slowly its temperature by evaporation or by conduction to the surrounding
atmosphere
• The rate of cooling of the body is not uniform. It is rapid during the first two hours after
death and as the temperature of the body gradually approaches the temperature of the
surroundings, the rate becomes slower
• At the time of death, a condition called "primary flaccidity(Softeness)" occurs.
Following this, the muscles stiffen in rigor mortis. All muscles in the body are
affected. Starting between two and six hours following death, rigor mortis
begins with the eyelids, neck, and jaw
• The initial “phase” following a death is what is known as primary flaccidity. This occurs
directly after a person dies and becomes fully present within an hour.
• Algor Mortis vs. Alvor Mortis
• Algor mortis is the process by which the body cools after death. Cooling takes place only if
the ambient temperature is cooler than the body temperature at the time of death
• Livor mortis on the posterior aspects of the body is caused by settling of the blood because
of gravity when the body is in a supine( in active) position
• LIVOR MORTIS
• Livor Mortis or hypostasis is a purplish discoloration of the body and organ surfaces. It
results when blood settles to the lower parts of the body. It becomes visible in the skin
between half jour and two hours after death.
• Pallor Mortis, Pallor mortis (Latin: pallor "paleness", mortis "of death"), the first stage of
death, is an after-death paleness that occurs in those with light/white ski
• Livor Mortis - Livor mortis, also known as hypostasis, is the discoloration of the skin due to
the pooling of blood in the dependent parts of the body following death. ... Gravity will
make the blood settle and the areas where it settles turns to a dark blue or purple color,
which is termed 'lividity
• Early on, the blood remains in the vessels, so the livor can be blanched by applying
pressure to the affected part. During this blanchable stage, if the body is moved and the
body position is changed after the livor mortis becomes visible, the livor mortis can migrate
away from those dependant areas to the new dependant areas.
• Livor mortis can be useful for determining if the body was moved after death. Because the
livor settles to the lower extremities of the body, if livor mortis is found on the upper
extremities of the body, it had to be moved.
• Rigor Mortis - Rigor mortis (Latin: rigor "stiffness", mortis "of death"), or postmortem
rigidity, is the third stage of death. It is one of the recognizable signs of death,
characterized by stiffening of the limbs of the corpse caused by chemical changes in
the muscles postmortem.
• RIGOR MORTIS
• Rigor Mortis is a condition in which the muscles of the body become hardened as a
result of chemical changes within the muscle fibers.
• The process is due to the appearance of lactic acid and other by-products of
metabolism.
• As the acid products accumulate in the muscle fibers, the protoplasm, which is in a
liquid state in life, begins to gel, making the muscle rigid.
• Rigor mortis vs. Algor Mortis
• Rigor mortis is the postmortem stiffening of the body's muscles. It may or may not
involve some degree of actual shortening of the muscles. Algor mortis is the process
by which the body cools after death. Cooling takes place only if the ambient
temperature is cooler than the body temperature at the time of death
• RIGOR MORTIS
• Rigor Mortis is a condition in which the muscles of the body become hardened as a result
of chemical changes within the muscle fibers.
• The process is due to the appearance of lactic acid and other by-products of metabolism.
• As the acid products accumulate in the muscle fibers, the protoplasm, which is in a liquid
state in life, begins to gel, making the muscle rigid.
• The small muscles are affected first (chin muscles). Rigor mortis is detected in 2 to 4
hours, complete in 6 to 12 hours, remains for 12 to 18 hours, begins to leave in 24 to 36
hours, and completely gone in 40 to 60 hours. However, there are documented cases
where it has been gone in 9 to 23 hours, and others where it is still present after 64 hours.
• The onset and departure of rigor mortis is greatly affected by previously noted
environmental conditions.
• Because of the great variability of the onset of the rigor mortis, it is not a good
indicator for determining the time of death.
• An outward visual indication of the rigor mortis is the presence of “goose
bumps” or “goose flesh” on the skin.
• Rigor mortis is a good indicator of whether or not the body was moved after
the onset of rigor mortis.
• DESICCATION ( Dehydration)
• occurs most prominently on the mucous membranes, which during life are kept
moist (by blinking, lip licking, etc) and are no longer protected from drying. The
membrane may look “burned”, and the conjunctiva may actually be black.
• DECOMPOSITION
• Decomposition also referred to as putrefaction, is the sequence of physiochemical events
that begins with death and ends with the dissolution of the nondurable parts of the body.
• It begins with a greenish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes.
• The epidermis becomes detached from the membrane and slips off the body.
• Autolysis refers to the action of digestive enzymes or ferments that break down the
complex protein and carbohydrate molecules in the body to simpler compounds.
• During life, these digestive enzymes only act on food in the stomach, but after death will
break down surrounding tissue.
• The combined effects of putrefaction and autolysis cause the soft tissues of the body to
decompose and break down into a liquid state.
• PURGE
• As the body begins to transform into a liquid state and gases build within the body, the gases
force the fluid from the body.
• This fluid ranges from dark red and dark brown to black, and has a very unpleasant odor.
• The gases will force the putrefied liquid from the body through the mouth, nose, vagina, and
anus.
• This liquid is referred to as purge

• MUMMIFICATION occurs when the body dries out faster than decomposition takes place
usually in hot, dry environments.