Gear Drives

1 Introduction

The slip and creep in the belt or rope drives is a common phenomenon, in the transmission of motion or power
between two shafts. The effect of slip is to reduce the velocity ratio of the drive. In precision machine, in which a
definite velocity ratio is importance (as in watch mechanism, special purpose machines..etc), the only positive drive
is by means of gears or toothed wheels.

Friction Wheels: Kinematiclly, the motion and power

transmitted by gears is equivalent to that transmitted by friction
wheels or discs in contact with sufficient friction between
them. In order to understand motion transmitted by two
toothed wheels, let us consider the two discs placed together as
shown in the figure 1.

Fig. 1.

When one of the discs is rotated, the other disc will be rotate as long as the tangential force exerted by the driving
disc does not exceed the maximum frictional resistance between the two discs. But when the tangential force
exceeds the frictional resistance, slipping will take place between the two discs. Thus the friction drive is not
positive a drive, beyond certain limit. Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively
engaging teeth. The gear teeth act like small levers. Gears are highly efficient (nearly 92%) due to primarily rolling
contact between the teeth, thus the motion transmitted is considered as positive. Gears essentially allow positive
engagement between teeth so high forces can be transmitted while still undergoing essentially rolling contact. Gears
do not depend on friction and do best when friction is minimized.

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Let the wheel A be keyed to the rotating shaft and the wheel B to the shaft, to be rotated. A little
consideration will show, that when the wheel A is rotated by a rotating shaft, it will rotate the wheel B in the
opposite direction as shown in Fig. 2 (a).

The wheel B will be rotated (by the wheel A) so long as the tangential force exerted by the wheel A does not
exceed the maximum frictional resistance between the two wheels. But when the tangential force (P) exceeds
the frictional resistance (F), slipping will take place between the two wheels. Thus the friction drive is not a
positive drive.

Fig. 2.

In order to avoid the slipping, a number of projections (called teeth) as shown in Fig. 2 (b), are provided on
the periphery of the wheel A, which will fit into the corresponding recesses on the periphery of the wheel B. A
friction wheel with the teeth cut on it is known as toothed wheel or gear. The usual connection to show the
toothed wheels is by their pitch circles.

2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear Drive

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of the gear drive as compared to belt, rope and chain
drives :

Advantages:

1. It transmits exact velocity ratio.

2. It may be used to transmit large power.

3. It has high efficiency.

4. It has reliable service.

2. It has compact layout.

Disadvantages:

1. The manufacture of gears require special tools and equipment.

2. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, ERITREA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.

3 Classification of Toothed Wheels

Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of revolution. The axes
may be

1. Gears for connecting parallel shafts,

2. Gears for connecting intersecting shafts,
3. Gears for neither parallel nor intersecting shafts.

Gears for connecting parallel shafts

1. Spur gears: Spur gears are the most common type of gears. They have straight teeth, and are
mounted on parallel shafts. Sometimes, many spur gears are used at once to create very large gear
reductions. Each time a gear tooth engages a tooth on the other gear, the teeth collide, and this
impact makes a noise. It also increases the stress on the gear teeth. To reduce the noise and stress
in the gears, most of the gears in your car are

External contact Internal contact

Spur gears
Spur gears are the most commonly used gear type. They are characterized by teeth, which are
perpendicular to the face of the gear. Spur gears are most commonly available, and are generally the
least expensive.

 Limitations: Spur gears generally cannot be used when a direction change between the two shafts
is required.
 Advantages: Spur gears are easy to find, inexpensive, and efficient.

2. Parallel helical gears: The teeth on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the gear. When
two teeth on a helical gear system engage, the contact starts at one end of the tooth and gradually
spreads as the gears rotate, until the two teeth are in full engagement.

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 Helical gears Herringbone gears (or double-helical gears)

This gradual engagement makes helical gears operate much more smoothly and quietly than spur
gears. For this reason, helical gears are used in almost all car transmission.

Because of the angle of the teeth on helical gears, they create a thrust load on the gear when they
mesh. Devices that use helical gears have bearings that can support this thrust load.

One interesting thing about helical gears is that if the angles of the gear teeth are correct, they can be
mounted on perpendicular shafts, adjusting the rotation angle by 90 degrees.

Helical gears to have the following differences from spur gears of the same size:

o Tooth strength is greater because the teeth are longer,

o Greater surface contact on the teeth allows a helical gear to carry more load than a spur gear
o The longer surface of contact reduces the efficiency of a helical gear relative to a spur gear

Rack and pinion : (The rack is like a gear whose axis is at

infinity.)

Racks are straight gears that are used to convert rotational

motion to translational motion by means of a gear mesh. (They
are in theory a gear with an infinite pitch diameter). In theory,
the torque and angular velocity of the pinion gear are related
to the Force and the velocity of the rack by the radius of the
pinion gear, as is shown.

Perhaps the most well-known application of a rack is the rack and pinion steering system used on
many cars in the past.

Gears for connecting intersecting shafts: Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a
shaft's rotation needs to be changed. They are usually mounted on shafts that are 90 degrees
apart, but can be designed to work at other angles as well.

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The teeth on bevel gears can be straight, spiral or hypoid. Straight bevel gear teeth actually have
the same problem as straight spur gear teeth, as each tooth engages; it impacts the corresponding
tooth all at once.

Just like with spur gears, the solution to this problem is to curve the gear teeth. These spiral teeth
engage just like helical teeth: the contact starts at one end of the gear and progressively spreads
across the whole tooth.

Straight bevel gears

Spiral bevel gears

On straight and spiral bevel gears, the shafts must

be perpendicular to each other, but they must also
be in the same plane. The hypoid gear, can engage
with the axes in different planes.

This feature is used in many car differentials. The

ring gear of the differential and the input pinion
gear are both hypoid. This allows the input pinion
to be mounted lower than the axis of the ring gear.
Figure shows the input pinion engaging the ring
gear of the differential. Since the driveshaft of the
car is connected to the input pinion, this also lowers Hypoid gears
the driveshaft. This means that the driveshaft doesn't pass into the passenger compartment of the
car as much, making more room for people and cargo. Neither parallel nor intersecting shafts:
Helical gears may be used to mesh two shafts that are not parallel, although they are still
primarily use in parallel shaft applications. A special application in which helical gears are used
is a crossed gear mesh, in which the two shafts are perpendicular to each other.

Crossed-helical gears

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Worm and worm gear: Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are needed. It is common
for worm gears to have reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater.

Many worm gears have an interesting property that no other gear set has: the worm can easily
turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm. This is because the angle on the worm is so
shallow that when the gear tries to spin it, the friction between the gear and the worm holds
the worm in place.

This feature is useful for machines such as conveyor systems,

in which the locking feature can act as a brake for the
conveyor when the motor is not turning. One other very
interesting usage of worm gears is in the Torsen differential,
which is used on some high-performance cars and trucks.

4 Terms Used in Gears

Fig. 3. Spur Gear and Pinion pair 6

.

Terms used in Gear

Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.

Dedendum: The radial distance between the bottom of the tooth to pitch circle.

Base Circle: The circle from which is generated the involute curve upon which the tooth profile is based.

Center Distance: The distance between centers of two gears.

Circular Pitch: Millimeter of Pitch Circle circumference per tooth.

Circular Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along an arc following the Pitch Circle

Clearance: The distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the space into which it fits on the meshing
gear.

Contact Ratio: The ratio of the length of the Arc of Action to the Circular Pitch.

Diametral Pitch: Teeth per mm of diameter.

Face: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the top of the tooth.

Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.

Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the bottom of the teeth

Gear: The larger of two meshed gears. If both gears are the same size, they are both called "gears".

Land: The top surface of the tooth.

Line of Action: That line along which the point of contact between gear teeth travels, between the first point of
contact and the last.

Module: Millimeter of Pitch Diameter to Teeth.

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Pinion: The smaller of two meshed gears.

Pitch Circle: The circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from the center of the gear to the pitch point.

Diametral pitch: Teeth per millimeter of pitch diameter.

Pitch Point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of two meshing gears, where the Line of Centers crosses the pitch
circles.

Pressure Angle: Angle between the Line of Action and a line perpendicular to the Line of Centers.

Root Circle: The circle that passes through the bottom of the tooth spaces.

Root Diameter: The diameter of the Root Circle.

Working Depth: The depth to which a tooth extends into

the space between teeth on the mating gear.

Figure 2-2 Two gearing tooth profiles

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 Belt, Rope and Chain Drive

1 Introduction
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds.
The amount of power transmitted depends upon the following factors:
1. The velocity of the belt.
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
4. The conditions under which the belt is used.

It may be noted that

(a) The shafts should be properly in line to insure uniform tension across the belt section.
(b)The pulleys should not be too close together, in order that the arc of contact on the smaller
pulley may be as large as possible.
(c)The pulleys should not be so far apart as to cause the belt to weigh heavily on the shafts, thus
increasing the friction load on the bearings.
(d)A long belt tends to swing from side to side, causing the belt to run out of the pulleys, which
in turn develops crooked spots in the belt.
(e) The tight side of the belt should be at the bottom, so that whatever sag is present on the loose
side will increase the arc of contact at the pulleys.
( f ) In order to obtain good results with flat belts, the maximum distance between the shafts
should not exceed 10 metres and the minimum should not be less than 3.5 times the diameter of
the larger pulley.

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 2 Selection of a Belt Drive
Following are the various important factors upon which the selection of a belt drive depends:
1. Speed of the driving and driven shafts,
2. Speed reduction ratio,
3. Power to be transmitted,
4. Centre distance between the shafts,
5. Positive drive requirements,
6. Shafts layout,
7. Space available, and
8. Service conditions.

3. Types of Belts

Though there are many types of belts used these days, yet the following are important from the
subject point of view:
1.Flat belt. The flat belt, as shown in Fig. (a), is mostly used in the factories and workshops,
where a moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two
pulleys are not more than 8 metres apart.
2.V-belt. The V-belt, as shown in Fig. (b), is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a
moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys
are very near to each other.
3.Circular belt or rope. The circular belt or rope, as shown in Fig. (c), is mostly used in the
factories and workshops, where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to
another, when the two pulleys are more than 8 meters apart.

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If a huge amount of power is to be transmitted, then a single belt may not be sufficient. In such a
case, wide pulleys (for V-belts or circular belts) with a number of grooves are used. Then a belt
in each groove is provided to transmit the required amount of power from one pulley to another.

4 Types of Flat Belt Drives

The power from one pulley to another may be transmitted by any of the following types of belt
drives:
1. Open belt drive. The open belt drive, as shown in Fig. 11.3, is used with shafts arranged
parallel and rotating in the same direction. In this case, the driver A pulls the belt from one side
(i.e. lower side RQ) and delivers it to the other side (i.e. upper side LM). Thus the tension in the
lower side belt will be more than that in the upper side belt. The lower side belt (because of more
tension) is known as tight side whereas the upper side belt (because of less tension) is known as
slack side, as shown in Fig.

2. Crossed or twist belt drive. The crossed or twist belt drive, as shown in Fig. 11.4, is used with
shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the opposite directions. In this case, the driver pulls the
belt from one side (i.e. RQ) and delivers it to the other side (i.e. LM). Thus the tension in the belt
RQ will be more than that in the belt LM. The belt RQ (because of more tension) is known as
tight side, whereas the belt LM (because of less tension) is known as slack side, as shown in Fig.

A little consideration will show that at a point where the belt crosses, it rubs against each other
and there will be excessive wear and tear. In order to avoid this, the shafts should be placed at a
maximum distance of 20 b, where b is the width of belt and the speed of the belt should be less
than 15 m/s.

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3. Quarter turn belt drive. The quarter turn belt drive also known as right angle belt drive, as
shown in Fig. (a), is used with shafts arranged at right angles and rotating in one definite
direction. In order to prevent the belt from leaving the pulley, the width of the face of the pulley
should be greater or equal to 1.4 b, where b is the width of belt. In case the pulleys cannot be
arranged, as shown in Fig. (a), or when the reversible is desired, then a quarter turn belt drive
with guide pulley, as shown in Fig. (b), may be used.

4. Belt drive with idler pulleys. A belt drive with an idler pulley, as shown in Fig. (a), is used
with shafts arranged parallel and when an open belt drive cannot be used due to small angle of
contact on the smaller pulley. This type of drive is provided to obtain high velocity ratio and
when the required belt tension cannot be obtained by other means.
When it is desired to transmit motion from one shaft to several shafts, all arranged in parallel, a
belt drive with many idler pulleys, as shown in Fig. (b), may be employed.

5. Compound belt drive. A compound belt drive, as shown in Fig., is used when power is
transmitted from one shaft to another through a number of pulleys.

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6. Stepped or cone pulley drive. A stepped or cone pulley drive, as shown in Fig, is used for
changing the speed of the driven shaft while the main or driving shaft runs at constant speed.
This is accomplished by shifting the belt from one part of the steps to the other.

7. Fast and loose pulley drive. A fast and loose pulley drive, as shown in Fig., is used when the
driven or machine shaft is to be started or stopped when ever desired without interfering with the
driving shaft. A pulley which is keyed to the machine shaft is called fast pulley and runs at the
same speed as that of machine shaft. A loose pulley runs freely over the machine shaft and is
incapable of transmitting any power. When the driven shaft is required to be stopped, the belt is
pushed on to the loose pulley by means of sliding bar having belt forks.

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5. Velocity Ratio of Belt Drive
It is the ratio between the velocities of the driver and the follower or driven. It may be expressed,
mathematically, as discussed below:
Let d1 = Diameter of the driver,
d2 = Diameter of the follower,
N1 = Speed of the driver in r.p.m., and
N2 = Speed of the follower in r.p.m.
Length of the belt that passes over the driver, in one minute = π d1N1
Similarly, length of the belt that passes over the follower, in one minute = π d2 N2

Since the length of belt that passes over the driver in one minute is equal to the length of belt that
passes over the follower in one minute, therefore
π d1 N1 = π d2 N2

When the thickness of the belt (t) is considered, then velocity ratio,

6. Velocity Ratio of a Compound Belt Drive

Sometimes the power is transmitted from one shaft to another, through a number of pulleys, as
shown in fig. Consider a pulley 1 driving the pulley 2. Since the pulleys 2 and 3 are keyed to the
same shaft, therefore the pulley 1 also drives the pulley 3 which, in turn, drives the pulley 4.

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Let
d1 = Diameter of the pulley 1,
N1 = Speed of the pulley 1 in r.p.m.,
d2, d3, d4, and N2, N3, N4= Corresponding values for pulleys 2, 3 and 4.
We know that velocity ratio of pulleys 1 and 2,

Similarly, velocity ratio of pulleys 3 and 4,

Multiplying the above equations gives

7 Slip of Belt
In the previous articles, we have discussed the motion of belts and shafts assuming a firm
frictional grip between the
belts and the shafts. But sometimes, the frictional grip becomes insufficient. This may cause
some forward motion of the driver without carrying the belt with it. This may also cause some
forward motion of the belt without carrying the driven pulley with it. This is called slip of the
belt and is generally expressed as a percentage.
The result of the belt slipping is to reduce the velocity ratio of the system. As the slipping of the
belt is a common phenomenon, thus the belt should never be used where a definite velocity ratio
is of importance.

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Creep of Belt
When the belt passes from the slack side to the tight side, a certain portion of the belt extends
and it contracts again when the belt passes from the tight side to slack side. Due to these changes
of length, there is a relative motion between the belt and the pulley surfaces. This relative motion
is termed as creep. The total effect of creep is to reduce slightly the speed of the driven pulley or
follower. Considering creep, the velocity ratio is given by

9. Length of an open Belt Drive

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We have already discussed that in an open belt drive, both the pulleys rotate in the same
direction as shown in Fig.
Let
r1 and r2 = Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys,
x = Distance between the centres of two pulleys (i.e. O1 O2), and
L = Total length of the belt.

Let the belt leaves the larger pulley at E and G and the smaller pulley at F and H as shown in
Fig. Through O2, draw O2 M parallel to FE.

From the geometry of the figure, we find that O2 M will be perpendicular to O1 E.

Let the angle MO2 O1 = α radians.

We know that the length of the belt,

L = Arc GJE + EF + Arc FKH + HG

= 2 (Arc JE + EF + Arc FK)

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9.Length of a Cross Belt Drive

We have already discussed that in a cross belt drive, both the pulleys rotate in opposite directions
as shown in Fig.
Let
r1 and r2 = Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys,
x = Distance between the centres of two pulleys (i.e. O1 O2), and
L = Total length of the belt.

Let the belt leaves the larger pulley at E and G and the smaller pulley at F and H, as shown in
Fig. Through O2, draw O2M parallel to FE.

From the geometry of the figure, we find that O2M will be perpendicular to O1E.

Let the angle MO2 O1 = α radians

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We know that the length of the belt,
L = Arc GJE + EF + Arc FKH + HG
= 2 (Arc JE + EF + Arc FK)

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It may be noted that the above expression is a function of (r1 + r2). It is thus obvious that if sum
of the radii of the two pulleys be constant, then length of the belt required will also remain
constant, provided the distance between centres of the pulleys remain unchanged.

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Applications:

21
Applications – Reciprocating Pump

Applications – Centrifugal Pump

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 Chain Drives
We have seen in previous chapters on belt and rope drives that slipping may occur. In order
to avoid slipping, steel chains are used. The chains are made up of number of rigid links
which are hinged together by pin joints in order to provide the necessary flexibility for
wraping round the
driving and driven wheels. These wheels have projecting teeth of special profile and fit into
the corresponding recesses in the links of the chain as shown in Fig. The toothed wheels are
known as *sprocket wheels or simply sprockets (* these wheels resemble to spur gears). The
sprockets and the chain are thus constrained to move together without slipping and ensures
perfect velocity ratio.

The chains are mostly used to transmit motion and power from one shaft to another, when the
centre distance between their shafts is short such as in bicycles, motor cycles, agricultural
machinery, conveyors, rolling mills, road rollers etc. The chains may also be used for long
centre distance of upto 8 metres. The chains are used for velocities up to 25 m/s and for
power upto 110 kW. In some cases, higher power transmission is also possible.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Chain Drive over Belt or Rope Drive
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of chain drive over belt or rope drive:
Advantages
1. As no slip takes place during chain drive, hence perfect velocity ratio is obtained.
2.Since the chains are made of metal, therefore they occupy less space in width than a belt or
rope drive.
3. It may be used for both long as well as short distances.
4. It gives a high transmission efficiency (upto 98 percent).
5. It gives less load on the shafts.
6. It has the ability to transmit motion to several shafts by one chain only.
7. It transmits more power than belts.
8. It permits high speed ratio of 8 to 10 in one step.
9. It can be operated under adverse temperature and atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages
1. The production cost of chains is relatively high.
2.The chain drive needs accurate mounting and careful maintenance, particularly lubrication
and slack adjustment.
3. The chain drive has velocity fluctuations especially when unduly stretched.

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Note: The number of teeth on the smaller sprocket plays an important role in deciding the
performance of a chain drive. A small number of teeth tends to make the drive noisy. A large
number of teeth makes chain pitch smaller which is favourable for keeping the drive silent
and reducing shock, centrifugal force and friction force. In order to have smooth operation,
the minimum number of teeth on the smaller sprocket or pinion may be taken as 17 for
moderate speeds and 21 for high speeds.
Classification of Chains
The chains, on the basis of their use, are classified into the following three groups:
1. Hoisting and hauling (or crane) chains,
2. Conveyor (or tractive) chains, and
3. Power transmitting (or driving) chains.
These chains are discussed, in detail, in the following pages.
1. Hoisting and Hauling Chains
These chains are used for hoisting and hauling purposes and operate at a maximum velocity
of 0.25 m/s. The hoisting and hauling chains are of the following two types:
1. Chain with oval links. The links of this type of chain are of oval shape, as shown in
Fig.(a). The joint of each link is welded. The sprockets which are used for this type of chain
have receptacles to receive the links. Such types of chains are used only at low speeds such as
in chain hoists and in anchors for marine works.

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 2. Chain with square links. The links of this type of chain are of square shape, as shown
in Fig.(b). Such types of chains are used in hoists, cranes, dredges. The manufacturing
cost of this type of chain is less than that of chain with oval links, but in these chains,
the kinking occurs easily on overloading.

3. Conveyor Chains
These chains are used for elevating and conveying the materials continuously at a speed upto
2 m/s. The conveyor chains are of the following two types:
1. Detachable or hook joint type chain, as shown in Fig (a), and
2. Closed joint type chain, as shown in Fig (b).
The conveyor chains are usually made of malleable cast iron. These chains do not have
smooth running qualities. The conveyor chains run at slow speeds of about 0.8 to 3 m/s.

4. Power Transmitting Chains

These chains are used for transmission of power, when the distance between the centres of
shaft is short. These chains have provision for efficient lubrication. The power transmitting
chains are of the following three types.
1. Block or bush chain. A block or bush chain is shown in Fig. This type of chain was used
in the early stages of development in the power transmission.

It produces noise when approaching or leaving the teeth of the sprocket because of rubbing
between the teeth and the links. Such types of chains are used to some extent as conveyor
chain at small speed.
2. Bush roller chain. A bush roller chain as shown in Fig, consists of outer plates or pin link
plates, inner plates or roller link plates, pins, bushes and rollers. A pin passes through the
bush which is secured in the holes of the roller between the two sides of the chain. The rollers
are free to rotate on the bush which protects the sprocket wheel teeth against wear. The pins,
bushes and rollers are made of alloy steel.

A bush roller chain is extremely strong and simple in construction. It gives good service
under severe conditions. There is a little noise with this chain which is due to impact of the

25
rollers on the sprocket wheel teeth. This chain may be used where there is a little lubrication.
When one of these chains elongates slightly due to wear and stretching of the parts, then the
extended chain is of greater pitch than the pitch of the sprocket wheel teeth. The roller chains
are standardised and manufactured on the basis of pitch. These chains are available in single-
row or multi-row roller chains such as simple, duplex or triplex strands, as shown in Fig.

3. Silent chain. A silent chain (also known as inverted tooth chain) is shown in Fig.

It is designed to eliminate the bad effects caused by stretching and to produce noiseless
running. When the chain stretches and the pitch of the chain increases, the links ride on the
teeth of the sprocket wheel at a slightly increased radius. This automatically corrects the
small change in the pitch. There is no relative sliding between the teeth of the inverted tooth
chain and the sprocket wheel teeth. When properly lubricated, this chain gives durable
service and runs very smoothly and quietly. The various types of joints used in a silent chain
are shown in Fig.

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