Unit-2

Basic Computer Organization and

Design

Prepared by:
Subject:- COA Asst. Prof. S Joshi
Y JOSHI
•Shweta •1
Code:-3140707 (CSE Department,ACET)
 Topics to be covered
• Instruction codes
• Computer registers
• computer instructions
• Timing and Control
• Instruction cycle
• Memory-Reference Instructions
• Input-output and interrupt
• Complete computer description
• Design of Basic computer
• Design of Accumulator Unit
•Shweta Joshi •2
 Instruction Codes
• An instruction code is a group of bits that instruct the
computer to perform a specific operation. It is usually divided
into parts, each having its own particular interpretation.
• The most basic part of an instruction code is its operation
part.
• The operation code of an instruction is a group of bits that
define such operations as add, subtract, multiply, shift, and
complement.
• The number of bits required for the operation code of an
instruction depends on the total number of operations
available in the computer.
• The operation code must consist of at least n bits for a given
2^n (or less) distinct operations
•Shweta Joshi •3
 Instruction Codes
• Below is shown the instruction format - four bits for the operation code
(abbreviated opcode), and 12 bits to specify the address of an operand
• It is sometimes convenient to use the address bits of an instruction code not as
an address but as the actual operand. When the second part of an instruction
immediate code specifies an operand, the instruction is said to have an
immediate instruction operand. When the second part specifies the address of
an operand, the instruction is said to have a direct address. This is in contrast to
a third possibility called indirect address, where the bits in the second part of
the instruction designate an address of a memory word in which the address of
the operand is found. One bit of the instruction code can be used to distinguish
between a direct and an indirect address. The I bit is 0, so instruction is direct
address instruction,if I is 1 then indirect

•Shweta Joshi •4
 Computer Registers
• It is necessary to provide a register in the control unit for storing the
instruction, code after it is read from memory. The computer needs
processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding a
memory address.
Register Number of bits Register name Function

DR 16 Data register Holds memory operand

AR 12 Address register Holds address for memory

AC 16 Accumulator Processor register

IR 16 Instruction register Holds instruction code

PC 12 Program counter Holds address of instruction

TR 16 Temporary register Holds temporary data

INPR 8 Input register Holds input character

OUTR 8 Output register Holds output character

•Shweta Joshi •5
 Computer Registers
Basic computer registers and memory.

•Shweta Joshi •6
 Computer instructions
• The basic computer has three instruction code formats,
• Each format has 16 bits.
• The operation code (opcode) part of the instruction contains three bits and the
meaning of the remaining 13 bits depends on the operation code encountered.
• A memory-reference instruction uses 12 bits to specify an address and one bit to
specify the addressing code I.
• I is equal to 0 for direct address and to 1 for indirect address.
• The register reference instructions are recognized by the operation code 111 with
a 0 in the leftmost bit (bit 15) of the instruction.
• A register-reference instruction specifies an operation on or a test of the AC
register. An operand from memory is not needed; therefore, the other 12 bits are
used to specify the operation or test to be executed.
• Similarly, an input-output instruction does not need a reference to memory and is
recognized by the operation code 111 with a 1 in the leftmost bit of the
instruction. The remaining 12 bits are used to specify the type of input-output
operation or test performed.

•Shweta Joshi •7
Computer instructions

•Shweta Joshi •8
 Computer instructions
• The set of instructions are said to be complete if the
computer includes a sufficient number of instructions in each
of the following categories:
• 1. Arithmetic, logical, and shift instructions
• 2. Instructions for moving information to and from memory
and processor registers
• 3. Program control instructions together with instructions that
check status conditions
• 4. Input and output instructions

•Shweta Joshi •9
 Timing and Control
• The timing for all registers in the basic computer is controlled
by a master clock generator.
• The clock pulses are applied to all flip-flops and registers in
the system, including the flip-flops and registers in the
control unit.
• The clock pulses do not change the state of a register unless
the register is enabled by a control signal.
• The control signals are generated in the control unit and
provide control inputs for the multiplexers in the common
bus, control inputs in processor registers, and micro
operations for the accumulator.
• The outputs of the counter are decoded into 16 timing signals
T0 through T15 .REFER FIGURE
•Shweta Joshi •10
Timing and Control

•Shweta Joshi •11

 Instruction Cycle
In the basic computer each instruction cycle consists of the
following phases:
1. Fetch an instruction from memory.
2. Decode the instruction.
3. Read the effective address from memory if the instruction has
an indirect address.
4. Execute the instruction.

•Shweta Joshi •12

Instruction Cycle

•Shweta Joshi •13

 Memory Reference Instructions
Below lists the seven memory-reference instructions

Symbol Operation decoder Symbolic description

AND Do ACAC ^ M[AR]

ADD Dr ACAC + M[AR], ECout

LDA D2 AC M[AR],

STA D3 M[AR] AC

BUN D4 PCAR

BSA D5 M[AR]PC, PCAR + 1

ISZ D6 M[AR] M[AR] + 1,

If M[AR] + 1 = 0 then PCPC + 1

•Shweta Joshi •14

 Memory Reference Instructions
Flow chart for memory reference instructions

•Shweta Joshi •15

 I/O and Interrupts
• A computer can serve no useful
purpose unless it communicates with
the external environment. Instructions
and data stored in memory must come
from some input device.
• Computational results must be
transmitted to the user through some
output device Input output
configuration - shows input output
configuration- The terminal sends and
receives serial information. Each
quantity of information has eight bits of
an alphanumeric code. The serial
information from the keyboard is
shifted into the input register INPR . The
serial information for the printer is
stored in the output register OUTR.
These two registers communicate with
a communication interface serially and
with the AC in parallel.
•Shweta Joshi •16
 I/O and Interrupts
• Flow chart for interrupt cycle

•Shweta Joshi •17

 Complete computer description
Flowchart of Complete computer

•Shweta Joshi •18

 Design of Basic computer
• The basic computer consists of the following hardware
components:
• 1. A memory unit with 4096 words of 16 bits each
• 2. Nine registers: AR, PC, DR, AC, IR, TR, OUTR, INPR, and SC
• 3. Seven flip-flops: I, S, E, R, IEN, FGI, and FGO
• 4. two decoders: a 3 x8 operation decoder and 4x16 timing
decoder
• 5. A 16-bit common bus
• 6. Control logic gates
• 7. Adder and logic circuit connected to the input of AC

•Shweta Joshi •19

 Design of Accumulator Unit
• The circuits associated with the AC register are shown in Fig.

•Shweta Joshi •20

 References
• Images , descriptive Tables , from Computer System Architecture, Morris
Mano, 3rd edition Prentice Hall

• Note: These pdf/ppt notes are for purpose of teaching aids to

classroom/online sessions study, and in no case imply for GTU syllabus or
GTU exam. For GTU syllabus or exam related preparation, one may, however
will need to attend college/online lectures and refer books given by GTU in
their official syllabus.

•Shweta Joshi •21