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UNIT-II
DRIVE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Torque speed characteristics of a shunt motor:

A constant applied voltage V is assumed across the armature. As the armature
current Ia, varies the armature drop varies proportionally and one can plot the variation of
the induced emf E. The mmf of the field is assumed to be constant. The flux inside the
machine however slightly falls due to the effect of saturation and due to armature
reaction.

The variation of these parameters is shown in Fig. Knowing the value of E and flux one
can determine the value of the speed. Also knowing the armature current and the flux, the
value of the torque is found out. This procedure is repeated for different values of the
assumed armature currents and the values are plotted as in Fig. (a). From these graphs, a
graph indicating speed as a function of torque or the torque-speed characteristics is
plotted Fig. (b)(i).

As seen from the figure the fall in the flux due to load increases the speed due to
the fact that the induced emf depends on the product of speed and flux. Thus the speed of
the machine remains more or less constant with load. With highly saturated machines

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the on-load speed may even slightly increase at over load conditions. This effect gets
more pronounced if the machine is designed to have its normal field ampere turns much
less than the armature ampere turns. This type of external characteristics introduces
instability during operation Fig. (b)(ii) and hence must be avoided. This may be simply
achieved by

providing a series stability winding which aids the shunt field mmf.

Load characteristics of a series motor

Following the procedure described earlier under shunt motor, the torque speed
Characteristics of a series motor can also be determined. The armature current also
happens to be the excitation current of the series field and hence the flux variation
resembles the magnetization curve of the machine. At large value of the armature currents
the useful flux would be less than the no-load magnetization curve for the machine.
Similarly for small values of the load currents the torque varies as a square of the
armature currents as the flux is proportional to armature current in this region. As the
magnetic circuit becomes more and more saturated the torque becomes proportional to Ia
as flux variation becomes small.

Fig. (a) shows the variation of E1, flux, torque and speed following the above
procedure from which the torque-speed characteristics of the series motor for a given
applied voltage V can be plotted as shown in Fig.(b) The initial portion of this torque-
speed curve is seen to be a rectangular hyperbola and the final portion is nearly a straight
line. The speed under light load conditions is many times more than the rated speed of the
motor. Such high speeds are unsafe, as the centrifugal forces acting on the armature and

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commutator can destroy them giving rise to a catastrophic break down. Hence series
motors are not recommended for use where there is a possibility of the load becoming
zero. In order to safeguard the motor and personnel, in the modern machines, a 'weak'
shunt field is provided

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on series motors to ensure a definite, though small, value of flux even when the armature
current is nearly zero. This way the no-load speed is limited to a safe maximum speed. It
is needless to say, this field should be connected so as to aid the series field.

Load characteristics of a compound motor

Two situations arise in the case of compound motors. The mmf of the shunt field
and series field may oppose each other or they may aid each other. The first configuration
is called differential compounding and is rarely used. They lead to unstable operation of
the machine unless the armature mmf is small and there is no magnetic saturation. This
mode may sometimes result due to the motoring operation of a level-compounded
generator, say by the failure of the prime mover. Also, differential compounding may
result in large negative mmf under overload/starting condition and the machine may start

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in the reverse direction. In motors intended for constant speed operation the level of
compounding is very low as not to cause any problem.

Cumulatively compounded motors are very widely used for industrial drives.

High degree of compounding will make the machine approach a series machine like
characteristics but with a safe no-load speed. The major benefit of the compounding is
that the field is strengthened on load. Thus the torque per ampere of the armature current
is made high. This feature makes a cumulatively compounded machine well suited for

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intermittent peak loads. Due to the large speed variation between light load and peak load
conditions, a y wheel can be used with such motors with advantage. Due to the reasons
provided under shunt and series motors for the provision of an additional series/shunt
winding, it can be seen that all modern machines are compound machines. The difference
between them is only in the level of compounding.

Braking the d.c. Motors

When a motor is switched off it `coasts' to rest under the action of frictional
forces.

Braking is employed when rapid stopping is required. In many cases mechanical

braking is adopted. The electric braking may be done for various reasons such as those
mentioned below:

1. To augment the brake power of the mechanical brakes.

2. To save the life of the mechanical brakes.

3. To regenerate the electrical power and improve the energy efficiency.

4. In the case of emergencies to step the machine instantly.

5. To improve the throughput in many production processes by reducing the stopping

time.

In many cases electric braking makes more brake power available to the braking
process where mechanical brakes are applied. This reduces the wear and tear of the
mechanical brakes and reduces the frequency of the replacement of these parts. By
recovering the mechanical energy stored in the rotating parts and pumping it into the
supply lines the overall energy efficiency is improved. This is called regeneration. Where
the safety of the personnel or the equipment is at stake the machine may be required to
stop instantly.

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Extremely large brake power is needed under those conditions. Electric braking
can help in these situations also. In processes where frequent starting and stopping is
involved the process time requirement can be reduced if braking time is reduced. The
reduction of the

1. Dynamic
2. Regenerative
3. Reverse voltage braking or plugging

These are now explained briefly with reference to shunt, series and compound motors.
Dynamic braking
Shunt machine
In dynamic braking the motor is disconnected from the supply and connected to a
dynamic braking resistance RDB. In and Fig. 49 this is done by changing the switch from
position 1 to 2. The supply to the field should not be removed. Due to the rotation of the
armature during motoring mode and due to the inertia, the armature continues to rotate.
An emf is induced due to the presence of the field and the rotation. This voltage drives a

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current through the braking resistance. The direction of this current is opposite to the one
which was owing before change in the connection. Therefore, torque developed also gets
reversed. The machine acts like a brake. The torque speed characteristics separate by
excited shunt of the machine under dynamic braking mode is as shown in Fig. (b) for a
particular value of RDB. The positive torque corresponds to the motoring operation. Fig.
shows the dynamic braking of a shunt excited motor and the corresponding torque-speed
curve. Here the machine behaves as a self-excited generator. Below a certain speed the
self-excitation collapses and the braking action becomes Zero. Process time improves the
throughput.

Basically the electric braking involved is fairly simple. The electric motor can be
made to work as a generator by suitable terminal conditions and absorb mechanical
energy.

This converted mechanical power is dissipated/used on the electrical network

suitably.

Braking can be broadly classified into:

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Einstein College of Engineering

Figure : Dynamic Braking of a shunt motor

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Figure : Dynamic braking of shunt excited shunt machine

Series machine
In the case of a series machine the excitation current becomes zero as soon as the
armature is disconnected from the mains and hence the induced emf also vanishes. In
order to achieve dynamic braking the series field must be isolated and connected to a low
voltage high current source to provide the field. Rather, the motor is made to work like a
separately excited machine. When several machines are available at any spot, as in
railway locomotives, dynamic braking is feasible. Series connection of all the series
fields with parallel connection of all the armatures connected across a single dynamic
braking resistor is used in that case.
Compound generators
In the case of compound machine, the situation is like in a shunt machine. A
separately excited shunt field and the armature connected across the braking resistance
are used.
A cumulatively connected motor becomes differentially compounded generator
and the braking torque generated comes down. It is therefore necessary to reverse the
series field if large braking torques are desired.

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Regenerative braking

In regenerative braking as the name suggests the energy recovered from the
rotating masses is fed back into the d.c. power source. Thus this type of braking improves
the energy efficiency of the machine. The armature current can be made to reverse for a
constant voltage operation by increase in speed/excitation only. Increase in speed does
not result in braking and the increase in excitation is feasible only over a small range,
which may be of the order of 10 to 15%. Hence the best method for obtaining the
regenerative braking is to operate, the machine on a variable voltage supply. As the
voltage is continuously pulled below the value of the induced emf the speed steadily
comes down. The field current is held constant by means of separate excitation. The
variable d.c. supply voltage can be obtained by Ward-Leonard arrangement, shown
schematically in Fig. .

Braking torque can be obtained right up to zero speed. In modern times static
Ward-Leonard scheme is used for getting the variable d.c. voltage. This has many
advantages over its rotating machine counter part. Static set is compact, has higher
efficiency, requires lesser space, and silent in operation; however it suffers from
drawbacks like large ripple at low voltage levels, unidirectional power flow and low over
load capacity. Bidirectional power flow capacity is a must if regenerative braking is
required. Series motors cannot be regeneratively braked as the characteristics do not
extend to the second quadrant.

Plugging

The third method for braking is by plugging. Fig. shows the method of connection
for the plugging of a shunt motor. Initially the machine is connected to the supply with
the switch S in position number 1. If now the switch is moved to position 2, then a
reverse voltage is applied across the armature. The induced armature voltage E and
supply voltage V aid each other and a large reverse current flows through the armature.
This produces a large negative torque or braking torque. Hence plugging is also termed as
reverse voltage braking. The machine instantly comes to rest. If the motor is not switched

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off at this instant the direction of rotation reverses and the motor starts rotating the
reverse direction. This type of braking therefore has two modes viz. 1) plug to reverse
and 2) plug to stop. If we need the plugging only for bringing the speed to zero, then we
have to open the switch S at zero speed. If nothing is done it is plug to reverse mode.
Plugging is a convenient mode for quick reversal of direction of rotation in reversible
rives.

Figure Regenerative braking of a shunt machine

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Figure : Plugging or reverse voltage braking of a shunt motor

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Plugging also it is necessary to limit the current and thus the torque, to reduce the stress
on the mechanical system and the commutator. This is done by adding additional
resistance in series with the armature during plugging.

Series motors
In the case of series motors plugging cannot be employed as the field current too
gets reversed when reverse voltage is applied across the machine. This keeps the
direction of the torque produced unchanged. This fact is used with advantage, in
operating a d.c. series motor on d.c. or a.c. supply. Series motors thus qualify to be called
as `Universal motors'.

Compound motors
Plugging of compound motors proceeds on similar lines as the shunt motors.
However some precautions have to be observed due to the presence of series field
winding. A cumulatively compounded motor becomes differentially compounded on
plugging. The mmf due to the series field can 'over power' the shunt field forcing the flux
to low values or even reverse the net field. This decreases the braking torque, and
increases the duration of the large braking current. To avoid this it may be advisable to
deactivate the series field at the time of braking by short-circuiting the same. In such
cases the braking proceeds just as in a shunt motor. If plugging is done to operate the
motor in the negative direction of rotation as well, then the series field has to be reversed
and connected for getting the proper mmf. Unlike dynamic braking and regenerative
braking where the motor is made to work as a generator during braking period, plugging
makes the motor work on reverse motoring mode.

Deducing the machine performance. (Single phase Induction motor)

From the equivalent circuit, many aspects of the steady state behavior of the
machine can be deduced. We will begin by looking at the speed-torque characteristic of
the machine. We will
Consider the approximate equivalent circuit of the machine. We have reasoned
earlier that the power consumed by the 'rotor-portion' of the equivalent circuit is the
power transferred across the air-gap. Out of that quantity the amount dissipated in R0 r is
the rotor copper loss and the quantity consumed by R0r(1 + s)=s is the mechanical power

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developed. Neglecting mechanical losses, this is the power available at the shaft. The
torque available can be obtained by dividing this number by the shaft speed.

The complete torque-speed characteristic of Induction motor

In order to estimate the speed torque characteristic let us suppose that a sinusoidal
voltage is impressed on the machine. Recalling that the equivalent circuit is the per-phase
representation of the machine, the current drawn by the circuit is given by \

Where Vs is the phase voltage phasor and Is is the current phasor. The
magnetizing current is neglected. Since this current is owing through , the air-gap
power is given by

The mechanical power output was shown to be (1 s) Pg (power dissipated in R0r=s).

The torque is obtained by dividing this by the shaft speed .Thus we have,

Where! S is the synchronous speed in radians per second and s is the slip. Further, this is
the torque produced per phase. Hence the overall torque is given by

The torque may be plotted as a function of `s' and is called the torque-slip (or torque-
speed, since slip indicates speed) characteristic | a very important characteristic of the
induction machine. Equation 16 is valid for a two-pole (one pole pair) machine. In
general, this expression should be multiplied by p, the number of pole-pairs. A typical
torque-speed characteristic is shown in _g. 22. This plot corresponds to a 3 kW, 4 pole,60
Hz machine. The rated operating speed is 1780 rpm.
We must note that the approximate equivalent circuit was used in deriving this
relation. Readers with access to MATLAB or suitable equivalents (octave, scilab

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available free under GNU at the time of this writing) may find out the difference caused
by using the `exact' equivalent circuit by using the script found here. A comparison
between the two is found in the plot of fig. The plots correspond to a 3 kW, 4 pole, 50
machine, with a rated speed of 1440 rpm. It can be seen that the approximate equivalent
circuit is a good approximation in the operating speed range of the machine. Comparing
the two figures. We can see that the slope and shape of the characteristics are dependent
intimately on the machine parameters.

Further, this curve is obtained by varying slip with the applied voltage being held
constant. Coupled with the fact that this is an equivalent circuit valid under steady state, it
implies that if this characteristic is to be measured experimentally, we need to look at the
torque for a given speed after all transients have died down.

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Torque, Nm to obtain this curve by directly starting the motor with full voltage applied to
the terminals and measuring the torque and speed dynamically as it runs up to steady
speed.
Another point to note is that the equivalent circuit and the values of torque
predicted is valid when the applied voltage waveform is sinusoidal. With non-sinusoidal
voltage waveforms, the procedure is not as straightforward.
With respect to the direction of rotation of the air-gap flux, the rotor maybe driven
to higher speeds by a prime mover or may also be rotated in the reverse direction. The
torque-speed relation for the machine under the entire speed range is called the complete
speed-torque characteristic. A typical curve is shown in fig for a four-pole machine, the
synchronous speed being 1500 rpm. Note that negative speeds correspond to slip values
greater than 1, and speeds greater than 1500 rpm correspond to negative slip. The plot
also shows the operating modes of the induction machine in various regions. The slip axis
is also shown for convenience.

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Restricting ourselves to positive values of slip, we see that the curve has a peak point.
This is the maximum torque that the machine can produce, and is called as stalling
torque. If the load torque is more than this value, the machine stops rotating or stalls. It
occurs at a slip ^s, which for the machine of fig is 0.38. At values of slip lower than ^s,
the curve falls steeply down to zero at s = 0. The torque at synchronous speed is therefore
zero. At values of slip higher than s = ^s, the curve falls slowly to a minimum value at s =
1. The torque at s = 1 (speed = 0) is called the starting torque.
The value of the stalling torque may be obtained by differentiating the expression
for torque with respect to zero and setting it to zero to find the value of ^s. Using this
method,

Substituting ^s into the expression for torque gives us the value of the stalling torque ^ T

the negative sign being valid for negative slip.

The expression shows that ^ Te is the independent of R0 r, while ^s is directly
proportional to R0 r. This fact can be made use of conveniently to alter ^s. If it is possible
to change R0 r, then we can get a whole series of torque-speed characteristics, the
maximum torque remaining constant all the while. But this is a subject to be discussed
later.
We may note that if R is chosen equal to becomes unity, which
p means that the maximum torque occurs at starting. Thus changing of R r, wherever
possible can serve as a means to control the starting torque.

While considering the negative slip range, (generator mode) we note that the
maximum torque is higher than in the positive slip region (motoring mode).
Operating Point

Consider a speed torque characteristic shown in fig. For an induction machine,

having the load characteristic also superimposed on it. The load is a constant torque load

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i.e., the torque required for operation is fixed irrespective of speed. The system consisting
of the motor and load will operate at a point where the two characteristics meet. From the
above plot, we note that there are two such points. We therefore need to find out which of
these is the actual operating point.

To answer this we must note that, in practice, the characteristics are never fixed;
they change slightly with time. It would be appropriate to consider a small band around
the curve drawn where the actual points of the characteristic will lie. This being the case
let us considers that the system is operating at point 1, and the load torque demand
increases slightly. This is shown in fig, where the change is exaggerated for clarity. This
would shift the point of operation to a point 10 at which the slip would be less and the
developed torque higher.

The difference in torque-developed 4Te, being positive will accelerate the

machine. Any overshoot in speed as it approaches the point 10 will cause it to further
accelerate since the developed torque is increasing. Similar arguments may be used to
show that if for some reason the developed torque becomes smaller the speed would drop
and the effect is cumulative. Therefore we may conclude that 1 is not a stable operating
point.

Let us consider the point 2. If this point shifts to 20, the slip is now higher (speed
is lower) and the positive difference in torque will accelerate the machine. This behavior
will tend to bring the operating point towards 2 once again. In other words, disturbances
at point 2 will not cause a runaway effect. Similar arguments may be given for the case
where the load characteristic shifts down. Therefore we conclude that point 2 is a stable
operating point.

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torque, Nm From the foregoing discussions, we can say that the entire region of the
speed-torque characteristic from s = 0 to s = ^s is an unstable region, while the region
from s = ^s to s = 0 is a stable region. Therefore the machine will always operate between
s = 0 and s = ^s.
Modes of Operation
The reader is referred to fig which shows the complete speed-torque characteristic
of the induction machine along with the various regions of operation.

Let us consider a situation where the machine has just been excited with three
phase supply and the rotor has not yet started moving. A little reaction on the definition of
the slip indicates that we are at the point s = 1. When the rotating magnetic field is set up
due to stator currents, it is the induced emf that causes current in the rotor, and the
interaction between the two causes torque. It has already been pointed out that it is the
presence of the non-zero slip that causes a torque to be developed. Thus the region of the

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s = 0 and s = 1 is the region where the machine produces torque to rotate a passive
load and hence is called the motoring region. Note further that the direction of rotation of
the rotor is the same as that of the air gap flux.

Suppose when the rotor is rotating, we change the phase sequence of excitation to
the machine. This would cause the rotating stator field to reverse its direction | the
rotating stator mmf and the rotor are now moving in opposite directions. If we adopt the
convention that positive direction is the direction of the air gap flux, the rotor speed
would then be a negative quantity. The slip would be a number greater than unity.
Further, the rotor as we know should be "dragged along" by the stator field. Since the
rotor is rotating in the opposite direction to that of the field, it would now tend to slow
down, and reach zero speed.

Therefore this region (s > 1) is called the braking region. (What would happen if
the supply is not cut-off when the speed reaches zero?) . here is yet another situation.
Consider a situation where the induction machine is operating from mains and is driving
an active load (a load capable of producing rotation by itself). A typical example is that of
a windmill, where the fan like blades of the windmill are connected to the shaft of the
induction machine. Rotation of the blades may be caused by the motoring action of the
machine, or by wind blowing. Further suppose that both acting independently cause
rotation in the same direction. Now when both grid and windact, a strong wind may cause
the rotor to rotate faster than the mmf produced by the stator excitation. A little reaction
shows that slip is then negative.

Further, the wind is rotating the rotor to a speed higher than what the electrical
supply alone would cause. In order to do this it has to contend with an opposing torque
generated by the machine preventing the speed build up. The torque generated is
therefore negative. It is this action of the wind against the torque of the machine that
enables wind-energy generation. The region of slip s > 1 is the generating mode of
operation. Indeed this is at present the most commonly used approach in wind-en

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generation. It may be noted from the torque expression of equation that torque is negative
for negative values of slip.

Braking of d.c shunt motor: basic idea

It is often necessary in many applications to stop a running motor rather quickly.
We know that any moving or rotating object acquires kinetic energy. Therefore, how fast
we can bring the object to rest will depend essentially upon how quickly we can extract
its kinetic energy and make arrangement to dissipate that energy somewhere else. If you
stop pedaling your bicycle, it will eventually come to a stop eventually after moving quite
some distance. The initial kinetic energy stored, in this case dissipates as heat in the
friction of the road. However, to make the stopping faster, brake is applied with the help
of rubber brake shoes on the rim of the wheels.

Thus stored K.E now gets two ways of getting dissipated, one at the wheel-brake
shoe interface (where most of the energy is dissipated) and the other at the road-tier
interface. This is a good method no doubt, but regular maintenance of brake shoes due to
wear and tear is necessary.

If a motor is simply disconnected from supply it will eventually come to stop no

doubt, but will take longer time particularly for large motors having high rotational
inertia. Because here the stored energy has to dissipate mainly through bearing friction
and wind friction. The situation can be improved, by forcing the motor to operate as a
generator during braking. The idea can be understood remembering that in motor mode
electromagnetic torque acts along the direction of rotation while in generator the
electromagnetic torque acts in the opposite direction of rotation. Thus by forcing the
machine to operate as generator during the braking period, a torque opposite to the
direction of rotation will be imposed on the shaft, thereby helping the machine to come to
stop quickly. During braking action, the initial K.E stored in the rotor is either dissipated
in an external resistance or fed back to the supply or both.
Rheostatic braking
Consider a d.c shunt motor operating from a d.c supply with the switch S
connected to position 1 as shown in figure. S is a single pole double throw switch and can
be connected either to position 1 or to position 2. One end of an external resistance Rb is

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connected to position 2 of the switch S as shown.

Let with S in position 1, motor runs at n rpm, drawing an armature current Ia and
the back emf is Note the polarity of Eb which, as usual for motor mode in
opposition with the supply voltage. Also note Te and n have same clockwise direction.

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Now if S is suddenly thrown to position 2 at t = 0, the armature gets disconnected from

the supply and terminated by Rb with field coil remains energized from the supply. Since
speed of the rotor can not change instantaneously, the back emf value Eb is still
maintained with same polarity prevailing at t = 0-. Thus at t = 0+, armature current will
be Ia = Eb/(ra + Rb) and with reversed direction compared to direction prevailing during
motor mode at t = 0-.

Obviously for t > 0, the machine is operating as generator dissipating power to Rb

and now the electromagnetic torque Te must act in the opposite direction to that of n

since Ia has changed direction but has not As time passes after
switching, n decreases reducing K.E and as a consequence both Eb and Ia decrease. In
other words value of braking torque will be highest at t = 0+, and it decreases
progressively and becoming zero when the machine finally come to a stop.

Plugging or dynamic braking

This method of braking can be understood by referring to figures 39.25 and 39.26.
Here S is a double pole double throw switch. For usual motoring mode, S is connected to
positions 1 and 1'.
Across terminals 2 and 2', a series combination of an external resistance Rb and
supply voltage with polarity as indicated is connected. However, during motor mode this
part of the circuit remains inactive.

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To initiate braking, the switch is thrown to position 2 and 2' at t = 0, thereby

disconnecting the armature from the left hand supply. Here at t = 0+, the armature current
will be Ia = (Eb + V)/(ra + Rb) as Eb and the right hand supply voltage have additive
polarities by virtue of the connection. Here also Ia reverses direction-producing Te in
opposite direction to n. Ia decreases as Eb decreases with time as speed decreases.
However, Ia can not become zero at any time due to presence of supply V. So unlike
rheostatic braking, substantial magnitude of braking torque prevails. Hence stopping of
the motor is expected to be much faster then rheostatic breaking.

But what happens, if S continuous to be in position 1' and 2' even after zero speed
has been attained? The answer is rather simple, the machine will start picking up speed in
the reverse direction operating as a motor. So care should be taken to disconnect the right
hand supply, the moment armature speed becomes zero.

Regenerative braking

A machine operating as motor may go into regenerative braking mode if its speed
becomes sufficiently high so as to make back emf greater than the supply voltage i.e., Eb
> V. Obviously under this condition the direction of Ia will reverse imposing torque
which is opposite to the direction of rotation. The situation is explained in figures 39.27
and 39.28. The normal motor operation is shown in figure 39.27 where armature
motoring current Ia is drawn from the supply and as usual Eb < V. Since

The question is how speed on its own become large enough to make Eb <

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V causing regenerative braking. Such a situation may occur in practice when the
mechanical load itself becomes active. Imagine the d.c motor is coupled to the wheel
of locomotive which is moving along a plain track without any gradient as shown in
figure. Machine is running as a motor at a speed of n1 rpm. However, when the track has
a downward gradient (shown in figure 39.28), component of gravitational force along the
track also appears which will try to accelerate the motor and may increase its speed to n2

such that Eb In such a scenario, direction of Ia reverses, feeding power

back to supply.
Regenerative braking here will not stop the motor but will help to arrest rise of
dangerously high speed.

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UNIT-5
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Single-phase AC voltage controller

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