Lesson 1: Topic 1: The Relationship of Reading and Writing B.

B. Close reading involves paying close attention to details, such as word

choice, structure, and literary devices, to uncover deeper layers of
The relationship of Reading and Writing significance.
C. Close reading involves four techniques (Engaging with the text, Adding
a. Reading is the process of interpreting and understanding written or printed marginal notations, Keeping a reading log, and Using heuristics), which
words, symbols, or information in a language, typically by visually scanning could help you analyze and understand a literary piece comprehensively.
and comprehending the context.
b. Writing is the act of expressing thoughts, ideas, or information through the Close Reading Techniques
creation of written symbols or text.
c. Reading and writing are interconnected as readers analyze and interpret A. Close reading techniques involves engaging with the text, adding
texts, and then express their thoughts through writing. marginal notations, keeping a reading log, and using heuristics.
B. Engaging with the text involves analyzing and interpreting a piece of
Importance of the Relationship of Reading and Writing literature to understand its meanings, themes, and stylistic elements.
C. Adding marginal notations refers to making notes, comments, or
A. Reading and writing are closely linked skills that complement each other. annotations in the margin of a text while reading.
When you read, you absorb information, ideas, and styles, which you can D. Keeping a reading log means jotting down your thoughts, feelings, and
then use to improve your own writing. Similarly, writing helps reinforce your reflections as you read books or literary pieces.
understanding of language and enhances your ability to comprehend written E. Using heuristics means applying practical rules or methods to analyze
material. and understand literature more effectively.
B. Both reading and writing are fundamental forms of communication.
Reading allows you to understand others' ideas, perspectives, and stories, LESSON 2: Shaping a Response, Determining a Purpose and
while writing enables you to express your own thoughts, experiences, and Understanding
creativity. Forms of Response, Knowing Your Audience; and, Choosing A Voice.
C. Through reading, you learn to analyze, evaluate, and interpret
information. Writing requires you to organize your thoughts, make coherent Literary criticism is the comparison, analysis, interpretation, and/or
arguments, and support your ideas with evidence. evaluation of works of literature. Literary criticism is essentially an opinion,
D. Both activities contribute to overall language development and supported by evidence, relating to theme, style, setting or historical or
proficiency. Reading exposes you to diverse vocabulary, sentence political context. It usually includes discussion of the work’s content and
structures, and writing styles, which enriches your language skills. Writing, integrates your ideas with other insights gained from research. Literary
on the other hand, allows you to practice using language effectively, criticism may have a positive or a negative bias and may be a study of an
improving your grammar, syntax, and vocabulary usage. individual piece of literature or an author’s body of work.
E. Reading stimulates imagination and creativity by exposing you to different
worlds, characters, and ideas. Writing provides an outlet for expressing your 1. SHAPING A RESPONSE
own creativity and unique perspectives.
Up to this point, you have mainly been gathering your responses and
Close Reading ideas, thinking through the work and your involvement in it. At some point—
and you will have to be the judge of when—you will want to share your ideas
A. Close reading is when you carefully and deeply analyze a text to with someone else. Before crafting your response, it is necessary to know
understand its meaning, themes, and techniques. the process of writing a critic. Below is the explanation of the Writing
Process.
 Poetry is a 'criticism (interpretation) of life'. Criticism is an interpretation of
that interpretation.
1.1 THE WRITING PROCESS • The chief function of criticism is to enlighten and stimulate by the proper
interpretation of the works of literature.
DESCRIBE: give the reader a sense of the writer’s overall purpose and • If a great poet makes us partakers of his larger sense of the meaning of
intent. life, a great critic may make us partakers of his larger sense of the meaning
ANALYZE: examine how the structure and language of the text convey its of literature.
meaning.
INTERPRET: state the significance or importance of each part of the text. 2.3 UNDERSTANDING FORMS OF RESPONSE
ASSESS: make a judgment of the work’s worth or value. Responding to literature is important as it facilitates growth, understanding,
and appreciation of literary works. It allows educators to gather information
2. DETERMINING A PURPOSE AND UNDERSTANDING FORMS OF about students' literal, interpretive, or critical analysis of literature, and
RESPONSE encourages learner involvement with literature, leading to better
understanding and enjoyment of literary works.
2.1 PURPOSE- The purpose of literary criticism is to deeply engage with a Based on one article from the Language Arts Journal of Michigan identifies
work of literature in order to interpret its meaning, broaden its reader's three forms of response:
understanding, and mark the work's position in cultural history.
(1) emotional response, which involves the reader's feelings and reactions
2.2 THE FUNCTION OF CRFITICISM to the text;
JUDGEMENT- criticism means judgement. The literary critic, therefore, is (2) intellectual response, which involves the reader's understanding and
primarily an expert who uses his special faculty and training to examine the interpretation of the text; and,
merits and defects of a piece of literary art or the work of a given author and (3) associative response, which involves the reader's identification of
pronounce a verdict upon it. associated thoughts and feelings that come to mind.
• The primary function of a literary critic is to arrive at and pronounce a
meaningful judgement of value. Contents of literature essay:
• I. A. Richards says: "To set up as a critic is to set up as a judge of values."
• Literary criticism, says Rene Wellek, "is judgement of books, reviewing and INTRODUCTION: The introduction captures the reader's interest and
finally the definition of taste, of the tradition, of what is a classic." presents the main point of the essay. It should also contain a thesis
EVALUATION- When a critic attempts to judge the value of a work of art or statement that conveys the central argument of the essay.
literature, he can be said to have evaluated the work.
• "Evaluative, judicial, or normative criticism attempts to judge the merits of BODY: The body of the essay consists of paragraphs that support
the literature in relation to a literary, social, moral, or other, value system." the thesis statement with explanations and evidence from the literary
(Lee T. Lemon: A Glossary for the Study of English, p. 99) work, such as a short story, poem, or play. The body paragraphs
•T. G. Williams says: "The function of a literary critic is the evaluation of what should analyze the text, explain how the author uses literary devices,
has been written, in terms of aesthetic principles appropriate to literature." and build an argument using evidence from the text. Each paragraph
(English Literature, a Critical Survey) in the main body should focus on one topic.
INTERPRETATION- If judgement be the real end of criticism, interpretation
may be employed as a means to that end. CONCLUSION: The conclusion summarizes the main points and
• "To feel the virtue of the poet or the painter, to disengage it, to set it forth - reinforces the thesis statement. It is important to carefully read the
these are the three stages of the critic's duty." (Walter Pater) text and come up with a thesis statement before beginning a literary
analysis essay.
 Approaches refer to different perspectives and methods that
readers use to analyze and interpret literature or any other subject of study.
3. KNOWING YOUR AUDIENCE In literary criticism, there are different approaches that offer different
To identify the audience of your presentation, you should consider overview in understanding and evaluating pieces. These approaches may
several factors, including the knowledge level of the audience about the focus on the formal elements of a text or piece, such as its structure,
subject, their relationship to you, and their potential expectations. Some language to evaluating and examining its historical, cultural, or social
questions to ask when analyzing your audience include: contexts, as well as its psychological aspects.

4. CHOOSING A VOICE A SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

In rhetoric and literary studies, voice is the distinctive style or manner
Each of us is a product of more biological, intellectual, emotional, and
of expression of an author or narrator. As discussed below, voice is one of
spiritual influences than we can recognize much less name. When we apply
the most elusive yet important qualities in a piece of writing.
this assertion to works of literature, we can say that they are products of a
Voice in the context of a written text refers to the: time, a place, a culture, and an individual and that they have the capacity to
affect, and perhaps even change, the world into which they are introduced.
distinctive style,
tone; and, attitude of the author as expressed in the writing. The French critic Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893) was one of the
It is the personality that comes through the words and the way the earliest theorists to explore this idea. Hoping to establish a scientific basis for
writer conveys their message. literary criticism, he tried to make interpretations by applying the methods of
The voice of a written work can be: biological science to literature. He looked at the historically verifiable causes
of a text. He wanted the facts.
authoritative,
informal,
formal, FOUR CATEGORIES OF RELEVANT APPROACHES
conversational,
or playful, among other possibilities. Author-Focused: How can we understand literary works by
understanding their authors?
It is an essential element in engaging the audience and conveying the Biographical criticism focuses on the author’s life. It tries to gain a better
writer's intended meaning and emotions. Understanding the voice of a understanding of the literary work by understanding the person who wrote it.
written text is crucial in effectively communicating the author's opinions and
ideas to the audience Psychological criticism applies psychological theories, especially
Freudian psychoanalysis and Jungian archetypal depth psychology.
LESSON 2: FAMILIAR APPROACHES
Freudian psychoanalysis - offers a framework in understanding
characters, motivation, desires and conflicts in literature.
CONVENTIONAL WAYS OF READING LITERATURE
Jungian archetypal depth psychology - provides a framework of
Taking a course in literary criticism is an exercise in discovering identifying archetypal patterns and symbols in literature.
how many different ways you can read a single text. Some approaches will Psychological criticism works on literature to explore the psychological
be familiar—so familiar that they may seem to be not so much special issues embedded in them. It may analyze a story’s characters or plot, a
strategies for dealing with a work but simply the natural way to read. poet’s use of language and imagery, the author’s motivations for writing, or
any other aspect of a literary work from a psychological perspective.
 Post-colonial criticism focuses on the impact of European colonial
Text-Focused: How can we understand literary works in terms of powers on literature. It seeks to understand how European hegemonic
themselves? political, economic, religious, and other types of power have shaped the
portrayals of the relationship and status differentials between Europeans and
Formalism, along with one of its more conspicuous modern colonized peoples in literature written both by the colonizers and the
iterations, New Criticism, focuses on a literary text itself, aside from colonized
questions about its author or the historical and cultural contexts of its
creation. The formalist critic therefore tries to understand that meaning by Critical race theory focuses on systemic racism and interrogates the
paying attention to the specific form of the text. New Criticism was a dynamics of race and race relationships. In origin, it is a specifically
particular kind of Formalism that arose in the mid-twentieth century and American school of critical theory that sees White racism as an everyday fact
enjoyed great influence for a time. Typical questions involved in this of life in America, visible throughout all aspects of culture and society.
approach include the following Summary

Reader-Focused: How can we understand literary works by Reading Literature: Critical Approaches Literature can be read
understanding the subjective experience of reading them? from a number of viewpoints or with certain agendas in mind. "Criticism" in
this context does not mean to find fault with; it means to analyze from a
certain standpoint. A skilled reader will use a number of critical approaches
Reader-response criticism emphasizes the reader as much as the text. It when reading literature. The approaches of literary criticism give us the
seeks to understand how a given reader comes together with a given literary ability to provide diverse perspectives for analyzing, evaluating, and
work to produce a unique reading. interpreting literature, further enriching our understanding of texts and pieces
of literature and their cultural significance. Each approach encourages
In the words of literature scholar Lois Tyson, “reader-response theorists readers to engage critically with text, so you are thinking critically when
share two beliefs: criticizing, and it helps situate literature within its cultural and historical
context. It encourages diversity and inclusivity and highlights marginalized
Context-Focused: How can we understand literary works by voices and perspectives, contributing to a more inclusive literary canon.
understanding the contextual circumstances—historical, societal,
cultural, political, economic-out of which they emerged? These approaches also dwell on the psychological and emotional
Historical criticism focuses on the historical and social dimensions of literature, widening our understanding of characters
circumstances that surrounded the writing of a text. It may examine motivation and readers’ responses and also offering insights into the human
biographical facts about the author’s life (which can therefore connect this experience. These approaches help the readers appreciate the artistry and
approach with biographical criticism) as well as the influence of social, craftsmanship involved in making text, from narrative structures to linguistic
political, national, and international events. It may also consider the influence techniques. Many of these approaches have left a mark on understanding
of other literary works. and addressing contemporary issues such as social justice, identity politics,
and environmental concerns, demonstrating the similarities of literary
Feminist criticism focuses on prevailing societal beliefs about women in criticism in the present world. Overall, these different approaches to literary
an attempt to expose the oppression of women on various levels by criticism offer treasured tools for discovering and exploring the complexity
patriarchal systems both contemporary and historical. It also explores the and diverseness of literature, fostering an environment with deeper and
marginalization of women in the realm of literature itself. wider insights about literature and literary pieces. Also, it appreciates the
Typical questions involved in this approach include the following: ways in which literature knows the world.

Lesson#: THE EFFECTS OF GENRE

 ultimately rests on the theoretical stances and interpretive techniques critics
The definition of genre employ in addition to the intricate interplay between form, content, and
cultural reception.
The genre definition in literature refers to a category of artistic work that
has a specific form or characteristics. The word ''genre'' comes from the
French word for ''kind'' or ''type.''
Lesson 6. Conventional Ways of Writing about Literature - Explication -
What is the purpose of genre? Analysis -
Genre in literary criticism serves as a framework for analyzing and Comparison and Contrast
understanding literature based on shared characteristics, themes, and
conventions. Conventional Writing

Four major literary genres Conventional writing is a type of formal writing style, used by many
Poem, fiction, nonfiction, drama academic disciplines, that conforms to the standard rules of grammar,
punctuation and language use. Examples of this is anything you read in a
What is textual criticism common magazine, newspaper, or church bulletin is conventional writing.
Textual criticism is the scholarly examination of texts to determine their Conventional Ways of Writing about Literature:
authenticity, accuracy, and integrity, identifying errors, variations, and
discrepancies through transmission or translation. Explication

Genre creates expectations

Familiarity with genres also makes life easier for readers. If they have a An explication, sometimes called by its French name, explication de
general idea about how research reports work, they can read them faster texte, usually examines a fairly brief work or sometimes a single passage
and make sense of the information in them more quickly from a larger one. In it, you are expected to present an interpretation of the
work, explain its meaning, or show how the writer achieves a particular
Genre analysis can help writers effect. To do so you make a close reading, noting all the nuances of the
language and style and then assessing how they fit together to create the
Genres provide structure and expectations for both writers and readers,
whole. Explication was a mainstay of the New Critics (Chapter 3). It is
helping writers target specific audiences and convey their message
important to remember that an explication is not a summary. That is, it is not
effectively.
a brief recitation of plot, which can result from following the chronological
sequence of events, nor is it a paraphrase of a poem, which comes from
Summary examining the poem line by line or stanza by stanza. Instead, you should
Genres provide structure and expectations for both writers and readers, think about the work or passage in terms of significant literary elements,
helping writers target specific audiences and convey their message such as symbols, motifs, or figurative language, and then point out the
effectively. Style has a complex influence on literary criticism since it greatly meanings and effects they have.
influences how literary works are translated and assessed. Some contend
that style limits creativity and originality, while others believe that style offers Analysis
a framework for understanding and evaluating writings within certain
historical and cultural settings. The influence of genre on literary criticism
 An analysis of anything involves dividing it into its parts, then noting information at a time about each story. For example, you might discuss the
how they relate to or create the whole. Analysis is a traditional assignment setting of each story, then the symbolism, followed by the theme. (Of course,
popular with teachers of literature, because it can be applied to the study of there should be strong connections among the elements you choose to
characters, plot structure, or imagery—a wide variety of literary elements. examine.) Both models call for a conclusion in which you make inferences
For example, if you were asked to analyze the character of Sarty in “Barn and generalizations about the essential sameness, difference, or relative
Burning,” you would think about various aspects of his being, such as his worth of the two texts.
family background, societal pressures, education, and experiences. How do
these things work together so that in the end he runs away from his
childhood into adulthood? Sometimes an analysis traces the stages of Summary
development of an event. In the case of Sarty’s final act, for example, you
would look for signs of his evolving decision or for formative events that Conventional writing is a type of formal writing style used by many
change the way he sees his life—and that of his father. Analysis is a academic disciplines that conforms to the standard rules of grammar,
process, not a single unchanging entity. In an analysis, you will not be able punctuation, and language use. Examples of this are anything you read in a
to discuss every aspect of a work, nor do you need to. Instead, you restrict common magazine, newspaper, or church bulletin as conventional writing.
your concern to those issues that are pertinent to the character or another There are three conventional ways of writing literature discussed:
literary element that you are analyzing. explication, which shows how the form deepens the meaning of the content;
analysis, which takes a step beyond summary and describes the writer's
Comparison and Contrast personal findings and interpretations of the source material; and comparison
and contrast. Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar,
Essay questions on examinations often take the form of comparison while contrast in writing discusses elements that are different. A compare-
and contrast because the form allows an instructor to assess your and-contrast essay, then, analyzes two subjects by comparing them,
knowledge about more than one topic in a single question. It also makes contrasting them, or both.
evident your ability to think critically, as it asks you to assess the similarities Lesson 2: Topic 5: Study of a Single Author’s Works and Model
and differences of two persons or things, usually with a view to evaluating Student Analysis Between Gloom and Splendor: A Historical Analysis
their worth relative to one another. When you meet such an assignment, you of Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown”
would do well to begin with a simple list of how your two topics are similar
and different in significant ways. If you are comparing two works, they should Study of a Single Author’s Works
have some meaningful point of commonality—for example, the subject,
A. An analysis of several works by the same author takes the basic
author, or setting. The word significant is important here, because you
techniques of comparison and contrast one step further, for it continues to
cannot draw meaningful inferences from your study if you are dealing with
search for characteristics that recur from one work to another, albeit
trivial instances of comparison. In the end, you will want to draw conclusions
sometimes with variations and changes.
about which is better, stronger, more important, longer-lasting, or more
B. You are trying to find the artist’s creative fingerprints—what makes him or
desirable. Without such a central idea, an organizing focus, your information
her unique and, thereby, recognizable.
will remain disconnected bits of data that mean nothing. There are several
C. The more you have read of a single writer’s work, the easier it will be for
different ways to present your conclusions, but two basic organizational
you to identify typical attitudes, concerns, and strategies.
patterns are always available. Say you are comparing “Barn Burning” with
D. In all cases, you will want to trace the appearance of whatever you are
“Spotted Horses,” another short story by Faulkner. Using the first pattern
examining through several works of the same author.
described above, you can present your discussion of “Barn Burning” in the
first half of your paper, then turn your attention to “Spotted Horses,” noting
Model Student Analysis Between Gloom and Splendor:
where the two stories share meaningful similarities but also where they
A Historical Analysis of Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown”
diverge in other important ways. The second pattern presents one piece of
 He also came across a lot of prominent people there including the
About the Author minister Goody Cloyse and Deacon Gookin, both of whom were his spiritual
advisers. When he was about to be confirmed to the group, he heard the
A. Nathaniel Hawthorne, a 19th-century American writer of novels and short familiar voices of his villagers and even the voice of his wife Faith, who were
stories, is considered an important representative of Puritanism; symbolism all determined to make an appointment with the evil.
and romanticism in American literature.
B. Hawthorne drew the details of his story from the history of Salem, Astonished by what he had seen and heard, he was tormented both
Massachusetts—his birthplace and home to the infamous Salem witch trials. morally and psychologically. He cried out to his wife “Look up to the Heaven,
and resist the wicked one” (Nan, 2009), only to found himself alone in the
Synopsis of Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown” forest. The next morning, he came back to Salem village, with a dismal,
gloomy and doubtful mood because he was never able to believe in
Hawthorne’s psychological interpretation towards the vicious goodness or piety again. He lived the rest of his life until the moment of his
humanity and the growth of human beings through Young Good Man death. Allegorically, this ending mirrors the end of the Garden of Eden story
Brown’s “journey in the forest”. Using the background witchcraft to explore in which God punishes Adam and Eve for having acquired a forbidden level
uncertainties of the belief that trouble a man’s heart and soul, the story goes of knowledge.
as follows:
Including this allusion ultimately allows Hawthorne to suggest that
The story begins as Goodman Brown says goodbye to his wife, giving into temptation and knowing the true nature of evil comes at a great
Faith, outside of their house in Salem Village. Faith, wearing a pink ribboned price. In this short story, Hawthorne explores certain writing techniques into
cap, asks him to stay with her, but he explains that he must travel for one practice to create the characters, the most important of which is symbolism.
night only. He reassures her that if she says her prayers and goes to sleep Hawthorne’s suspicious attitude toward the world determines his writing style
early, she will come to no harm while he is away. Departed his young dear as well as his position in American literature as a great master of symbolism.
wife to go on a “journey in the forest”, which was indeed the witch’s Sabbath
that he was so reluctant to reveal. Later guided by a fellow traveler who was Different Symbols in the Story
the reflection of the evil, he discovered that his ancestors were all faithful
servants to the devil. Symbolism - is the use of description of some outward object in such a way
that we shall discover in it some hidden meanings. The utilization of
The rising action begins as Goodman Brown comes upon a man in symbolism in the story can tell us as much as possible in as few words as
the forest who appears to have been waiting for him to arrive. Goodman possible.
Brown’s response to the man’s criticism of his delayed appearance, that
“Faith kept [him] back awhile,” functions on a symbolic level to indicate that
man’s inherent goodness cannot fully prevent a moral shift toward evil. Other Name symbolism - such as a veil, a cross, a footprint or a birthmark which
key symbols in this moment include the man’s staff and the way in which he becomes symbolic of some moral quality or defect in his characters;
physically resembles Goodman Brown. The staff, appearing to look like “a A. “Young Goodman Brown” – implies that he is indeed a good man,
great black snake,” acts as a reference to the biblical serpent in the Garden which is a reference to his Christian faith.
of Eden who tempts Eve to take from the forbidden tree of the knowledge of B. “Faith”- the antagonist in our story is also the Puritan’s way of naming,
good and evil. This image highlights the tempting nature of evil and implies which symbolizes the loyalty to God and the love for God.
that the man in the forest is an embodiment of the devil. The fact that the Symbolic meaning of objects
devil has physical similarities to young Goodman Brown also foreshadows
another key theme, which is that the capacity for evil exists within A. The pink ribbons - they represent the tainted innocence, the spiritual
everyone. imperfection of all mankind. (Ferguson, 1969).
B. The fellow traveler, the maple sticks and the tree - in Young Good the study of literary devices and techniques, emphasizing the formal
Man Brown, the maple stick of Brown’s fellow traveler is an obvious token of elements of literature.
evil. When it first appeared, it was described as “bore the likeness of a great
black snake, so curiously wrought that it might almost be seen to twist and
wriggle itself like a living serpent” (Nan, 2009). Prague Linguistic Circle
C. The Salem village - the village is the reflection of civilized lives of human
beings, where there are moral and secular restrictions everywhere. So, it In parallel to Russian Formalism, the Prague Linguistic Circle, led by
represents the luminous side of human beings which is in contrast with the scholars such as Roman Jakobson and Jan Mukařovský, developed a
dark forest representing what Freud called “id”, being composed of all kinds similar approach to the study of literature.
of desires.
D. “Sunset” and “sunrise” - “sunset” heralds the forthcoming of the American New Criticism
darkness, reflecting the inner evil of human’s inner heart. It is also in contrast
with “sunrise” which implies the luminosity, reflecting the maxims human In the 1930s and 1940s, formalist ideas began to influence American
beings must adhere to. literary criticism, leading to the emergence of the New Criticism. The New
E. Critics, including figures like John Crowe Ransom, Cleanth Brooks, and
Lesson 8: Formalism Historical Background Allen Tate, emphasized close reading and the analysis of formal elements in
Formalism literary texts.

- Formalism is a literary and artistic theory that emphasizes the intrinsic The key principle of Formalism and the New Criticism
qualities of a work of art, focusing on its formal elements rather than its
social, historical, or biographical context. - Formalist critics believe that the form and structure of a literary work are
- It emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction against the dominant integral to its meaning and aesthetic value. They prioritize the analysis of
literary criticism of the time, which often prioritized external factors in the formal elements such as language, imagery, symbolism, rhythm, and
analysis of a work. structure, considering them essential to understanding the work's overall
- the formal elements of a literary work, such as language, structure, impact and message.
imagery, symbolism, rhythm, and sound, are considered essential to its Language
meaning and aesthetic value. - refers to the written or spoken words used in a literary work or the verbal
expression used in other forms of art. It includes the choice of words,
Historical Background of Criticism sentence structure, and overall linguistic style employed by the artist.
Imagery
- Before formalism emerged as the New Criticism in the mid-20th - refers to the use of descriptive language that appeals to the senses and
century, it had its roots in the early 20th century literary and artistic creates vivid mental pictures or sensory experiences for the audience. It
movements. Here is a brief history of formalism leading up to its involves the use of vivid and evocative details to create visual, auditory,
development as the New Criticism: tactile, olfactory, or gustatory sensations.
Symbolisms
Russian Formalism - involves the use of objects, actions, or characters to represent abstract
ideas or concepts beyond their literal meaning. Symbols are often used to
- The origins of formalism can be traced back to the Russian Formalist convey deeper meanings, themes, or messages in a work of art.
movement, which emerged in the early 20th century. Led by scholars such Structure
as Viktor Shklovsky and Roman Jakobson, Russian Formalism focused on - refers to the organization and arrangement of the elements within a work of
art. In literature, it includes the overall organization of the plot, narrative, or
poem, as well as the arrangement of sections, chapters, or stanzas. In visual theory included Viktor Shklovsky, Boris Eikhenbaum, Roman Jakobson, and
art, it involves the composition, arrangement of visual elements, and the use Yuri Tynianov.
of space within the artwork.

Rhythm III. Goals and Concepts

- refers to the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables or the flow and Russian formalism introduced several key concepts to literary theory.
musicality of language in a literary work. It can also refer to the repetition or
variation of visual elements in visual art. 1. Defamiliarization, or Ostranenie in Russian. This concept refers to the
idea that literature should strive to make the familiar unfamiliar in order to
Contributions of John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, and Robert Penn challenge readers’ perceptions and create a new way of looking at the world.
Warren to the development of Formalism and New Criticism: This can be achieved through the use of literary devices such as metaphor,
symbolism, and ambiguity.
2. Idea of Literariness. This refers to the degree to which a work of
- John Crowe Ransom (1888-1974) was an American poet, critic, and literature is self-conscious and emphasizes its own literary qualities.
professor. He was a key figure in the emergence of the New Criticism and According to Russian formalists, literariness is an important aspect of
played a significant role in shaping its principles. literature because it distinguishes it from other forms of communication such
as journalism or everyday speech.

- Allen Tate (1899-1979) was an American poet, critic, and essayist. He 3. Importance of close reading and textual analysis. Formalist scholars
was one of the leading figures of the New Criticism and made significant believed that the meaning of a work of literature could be found by closely
contributions to its development. analyzing its linguistic and structural elements. This approach to literary
analysis was a departure from earlier literary theories, which often focused
on the historical or biographical context of a work.
- Robert Penn Warren (1905-1989) was an American poet, novelist, and
critic. He was a prominent figure in both Formalism and the New Criticism. lV. Impact on Literary Theory

Lesson 9 Topic: Russian Formalism Mikhail Bakhtin Russian formalism had a significant impact on literary theory around the
l. What is Russian Formative world, particularly in the fields of structuralism and semiotics. Formalist
scholars introduced several concepts that continue to be used in literary
Russian Formalism is a literary theory that emerged in Russia during the criticism today, including defamiliarization, literariness, and close textual
early 20th century. It was a major movement in literary criticism that focused analysis.
on the formal properties of literature, aiming to analyze these properties in
However, despite its many contributions to literary theory, Russian formalism
order to gain a deeper understanding of the meaning and significance of a
fell out of favor in the Soviet Union in the 1930s. The Soviet government
work of literature.
deemed it too elitist and too concerned with formal properties at the expense
ll. History of content and political messages. Nonetheless, Russian formalism
continued to influence literary theory in other parts of the world, particularly
The founders of Russian formalism were a group of literary scholars who in the West, where it played a major role in the development of structuralism.
were interested in exploring the structural and linguistic aspects of literature.
They believed that the meaning of a work of literature could not be found in V. So How Do We Do It?
the content or subject matter alone, but rather in the way that the content To apply Russian formalism to critically analyze literature,
was organized and presented. Key contributors to the development of this
1. Start by examining the formal and structural aspects of the work. Lesson 10: Reading as a Formalist, Form, Diction, and Unity
This means looking at the literary devices used by the author, such as
metaphor, rhyme, and symbolism, and analyzing how they contribute to the Reading as a Formalist
meaning of the work. For example, one could examine how the use of
metaphor in a poem creates new meanings and associations that contribute The critic who wants to write about literature from a formalist perspective
to the overall theme or message of the work. must first be a close and careful reader who examines all the elements of a
text individually and questions how they come together to create a work of
2. Consider the concept of defamiliarization and how it is used in the art.
work. This involves looking at how the author uses language and literary
devices to make the familiar seem strange or unfamiliar, forcing the reader to Because formalism calls for a close reading of the text, the first time through
approach the work with a fresh perspective. By analyzing the use of a given work you cannot expect to notice all the subtleties and details that
defamiliarization, one can gain insight into how the author is challenging the will ultimately figure in your analysis.
reader’s assumptions and ways of seeing the world.
Form
3. Focus on the structural and formal aspects of the work. This means
examining the sequencing of events, the use of point of view, and other Form is actually the whole that is produced by various structural elements
structural elements to understand how they contribute to the meaning of the working together.
work. For example, one could examine how the use of different narrative Form grows out of the work’s recurrences, repetitions, relationships, motifs—
perspectives in a novel creates a complex and layered understanding of the all the organizational devices that create the total effect. Together they are
characters and their motivations. the statement of the work.
4. Keep in mind the concept of literariness and how it contributes to
Diction
the meaning of the work. This involves looking at how the use of literary
devices and formal elements distinguishes the work from ordinary language A formalist will look at words closely, questioning all of their denotations
use, and how these elements contribute to the overall meaning and function (explicit dictionary meanings) and connotations (implied but not directly
of the work. indicated meanings). As Brooks posited, the reader must consider how a
By applying these concepts of Russian formalism to literary analysis, one word or phrase creates meaning that no other word or phrase could.
can gain a deeper understanding of the formal and structural aspects of the Etymology (the history of a word) becomes significant, and allusions to other
work, as well as how the use of literary devices contributes to the overall works may import surprising meanings. Tracing allusions is a sticky point for
meaning and function of the work. formalists, because it means going outside the text to find meaning.
Nevertheless, if the reader is to explore all facets of the text, it is important to
lV. Conclusion discover everything that a given reference suggests.
In conclusion, Russian formalism is an important literary theory that
emphasizes the importance of formal properties in understanding a work of
literature. Its focus on defamiliarization, literariness, and close textual Unity
analysis has had a lasting impact on literary theory and criticism. While it fell  If a work has unity, all of its aspects fit together in significant ways that
out of favor in the Soviet Union, it continued to influence literary theory create a whole.
around the world and remains a significant field of study today.  Each element, through its relationship to the others, contributes to the
totality of the work, its meaning.
 Patterns that inform and give relevance to the rest often appear as ∙ Such an opening announces the core of the analysis that the rest of your
verbal motifs, images, symbols, figurative language, meter, rhyme, or paper will explain in more detail.
sound. ∙ If you choose this approach, you will need to write at least a draft of your
 The narrator’s point of view can also be an important unifying element. discussion before working on the introduction, because you have to
know what you are going to say before you can summarize it.
Lesson 11: Writing a Formalist Analysis – Prewriting – Drafting and
Revising ∙ An introduction that follows this pattern will undoubtedly clarify your topic
and intentions for your readers, but it may not be the most attractive or
*Model Student Analysis: “Robinson’s ‘Richard Cory’: A Formalistic interesting way to address them.
Interpretation” ∙ A more colorful alternative is to begin by directly referencing the text
Writing a Formalist Analysis – Prewriting – Drafting and Revising itself. ∙ For example, if you are working with a short story, you can
recount a particularly meaningful incident from it, or if you are writing
I. Prewriting about a poem,
∙ When you approach the actual writing of your analysis, you may find you can quote a few lines, followed by an explanatory comment of
that your reading log is mostly filled with definitions of words or lists of why the excerpt is important to understanding the work as a whole.
images. ∙ It is now time to see how those words and images are woven
together, even those that do not naturally fit. The Body:
∙ You may want to revisit the text, looking for patterns (recurrences that ∙ The main part of your paper will be devoted to showing how the various
appear with such regularity that they are eventually anticipated), visual elements of the text work together to create meaning.
motif, and repeated words and phrases, for significant connotations,
∙ You will want to touch on the form, diction, and unity, citing examples of
multiple denotations, allusions, and etymological ramifications to
how they operate together and reinforce one another to develop a
meaning, for unity, as expressed by the meaningful coherence of all
theme– a meaning that has some universal human significance.
elements of the work; and for the tension produced by paradox and
irony. ∙ Your job is to describe what you find in the work, then to assess its effect
on the whole.
∙ Another approach to prewriting is to spend some time freewriting about
what you have read. ∙ Where you find conflicts, or aspects of the work that do not seem to
lead to the same ends, you must work to resolve the tension they
∙ You can begin with a symbol or a strong image and see where it takes
create. ∙ If a repeated image is dominant in a story, or a repeated
you.
phrase particularly insistent, you may want to give it first place in your
∙ If the text has the unity a formalist looks for, any single observation is discussion, that is, you can choose to begin with the most significant
likely to lead you to an understanding of the other aspects of the text to element in the work, letting it subsume the other aspects that formalists
which it is connected. consider important.
∙ On the other hand, you may decide to treat form, diction, and unity as
equally significant, giving roughly the same amount of consideration to
II. Drafting and Revising each.
∙ You will also want to give a good bit of attention to any instances of
The Introduction: paradox and irony, explaining how their presence in the work creates
tension and how their resolution provides satisfaction.
∙ A common way to begin a formalist analysis is to present a summary ∙ This is a good opportunity to draw examples from the text or to quote
statement about how the various elements of the work come together to significant passages.
make meaning.
 ∙ As in all critical essays, references to the work that illustrate your Clean favored, and imperially slim.
discussion will both strengthen and clarify what you are saying. ∙ Keep in
mind that it is more effective to organize your discussion around the
literary elements you have examined rather than follow the sequence of And he was always quietly arrayed,
events in narrative or the stanzaic progression of a poem.
∙ For the writer who tries to move sequentially through the text as the author And he was always human when he talked;
has constructed it, making analytical comments along the way, the
But still he fluttered pulses when he said,
temptation to forsake analysis and simply summarize the work is hard to
resist. “Good-morning,” and he glittered when he walked.
The Conclusion:

∙ The end of your paper is an appropriate place to state (or reiterate) the
connection between form and content. And he was rich—yes, richer than a king—
∙ Up to this point, you have been describing how the text operates in And admirable schooled in every grace:
particular ways and explaining the meaning that emerges from those In fine, we thought that he was everything
ways.
∙ Now you have the opportunity to make some generalizations about the To make us wish that we were in his place
overall relationship of form and content.
∙ You can decide whether you have explored a text that has its own laws of
being and operates successfully within them, or whether it is a work in So, on we worked, and waited for the light;
which the formal elements, not easily reconciled, are eventually
And went without the meat, and cursed the bread;
harmonized to make meaning.
And Richard Cory, one calm summer night,
Went home and put a bullet through his head

*Model Student Analysis: “Robinson’s ‘Richard Cory’: A

Formalistic Interpretation” A. Central Theme
∙ The central theme is not a direct moral lesson against wealth and
materialism; instead, it focuses on the idea that appearances can be
misleading.
Richard Cory B. Townspeople’s Admiration
By Edwin Arlington Robinson ∙ The townspeople admire Richard Cory for his wealth, charm, and
popularity, wishing they were in his place, highlighting their misguided
admiration.
C. Tragic Twist
Whenever Richard Cory went down town,
∙ The poem takes a surprising turn at the end, revealing that Richard
We people on the pavement looked at him: Cory commits suicide, creating a sense of shock and unfinished business.
He was a gentleman from sole to crown, D. Chief Irony
∙ The chief irony lies in the townspeople’s admiration for a man who is e. Rowena, R. (2018). define Psychological Criticism can be applied to
secretly miserable to the point of suicide, revealing the paradoxical any genre of literature, from poetry to novels to plays, and can be used
nature of their admiration. to analyze a wide range of literary works, from classic literature
to contemporary bestsellers.
f. Ansbacher, R. (1978, p 7.) define Psychological Criticism invites readers to
E. Diction and Regal Connotations
explore the psychological dimensions of a text, shedding light on the
∙ The poem’s diction, especially in the first ten lines, is filled with regal intricate interplay between the characters’ inner lives and the external
connotations, portraying Richard Cory as a gentleman and implying world depicted in the narrative.
wealth and charm. g. Psychological Criticism it enriches our understanding of literature
F. Dichotomy by offering a deeper appreciation of human psyche and the universal
∙ The dichotomy between the outward appearance of success and the reality themes that resonate across different literary works.
of inner turmoil becomes evident only when Cory’s suicide is revealed.
G. Townspeople’s Material Urges h. Zizek, S. (2007). define Psychological Criticism this approach often
involves examining the character’s personalities, their relationships with
∙ The Townspeople, driven by material urges, wish to emulate Richard Cory,
others, and the ways in which they cope with internal and external
as suggested their struggles and the line “To make us wish that we were
challenges.
in his place.”
H. No Realization of Dichotomy i. Psychological Criticism a genre of discourse employed by literary
critics used to share the results of their interpretive efforts.
∙ There is no indication that the townspeople realize the contrast between Historical Background
Cory’s outward and inner states, emphasizing their continued admiration
despite the tragic revelation. • As far back as the fourth century BC, Aristotle commented on the effects
I. No Moral Lesson Against Materialism of tragedy on an audience, saying that by evoking pity and fear, tragedy
∙ The poem does not convey a moral lesson against materialism, and there creates a catharsis of those emotions.
is no evidence of the townspeople ceasing their material striving after ➢ Does literature make us better individuals?
Cory’s death. - Matthew Arnold believed it could. Poetry, he said, could “inspirit
J. Safest Interpretation and rejoice the reader.”
∙ The safest interpretation is that appearances can sometimes be ➢ Where does the impulse to write come from?
misleading, cautioning against making assumptions based solely on - William Wordsworth said poetry springs from “emotion recollected
outward success. in tranquility.”
Lesson 12: Psychological Criticism: Historical Background and Practicing ➢ What is creativity?
Psychological Criticism - Samuel Taylor Coleridge thought there were two types of creativity:
Psychological Criticism the primary imagination, which he described as “the living power and
prime agent of all human perception,” and the secondary one, which
a. It refers to the way in which the work of a particular writer is was capable of re-creating the world of sense through its power to
analyzed through a psychological lens. fuse and shape experience.
b. Also known as Psychoanalytical Criticism.
c. The analysis focuses on the biographical circumstances of an author. - As Coleridge explained it, “(Creativity) dissolves, diffuses,
d. The main goal is to analyze the unconscious elements within a literary dissipates, in order to recreate.” Even Friedrich Nietzsche spoke of
text based on the background of the author. personalities as being Apollonian, by which he meant they were
 guided by the use of critical reasoning, or Dionysian, referring to ❖ The ego is the rational part of the psyche. However, most of the
personalities ruled by creative-intuitive power. activities done within the ego is unconscious. The id and the ego
• It was then that Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) advanced his startling work in harmony between the pleasure principle and the reality
theories about the workings of the human psyche, its formation, its principle.
organization, and its maladies. ❖ The superego is the censor of the psyche; it abides by the
• His students and followers, such as Alfred Adler, Otto Rank, and Carl morality principle.
Jung, later built on Freud’s ideas of probing the workings of the human
psyche to understand why people act as they do. Of particular interest
to literary critics is Jung, who provided the concepts of the collective Practicing Psychological Criticism
unconscious, myths, and archetypes, which have helped readers see
Practicing psychological criticism involves applying psychological
literature as an expression of the experience of the entire human
theories and methodologies to analyze literature.
species.
• Later, in the 1950s, Northrop Frye developed Jung’s ideas in ways that This includes examining characters' unconscious desires, fears,
were more directly applicable to literature. More recently, Jacques and defense mechanisms, interpreting symbols and archetypes, exploring
Lacan has received serious attention for his efforts to build on Freud’s the influence of early childhood experiences on personality development,
work, turning to linguistic theories to assert that language shapes our and considering readers' emotional responses to texts.
unconscious and our conscious minds, thereby giving us our identity.
• Preceding the significant contributions of Jung, Lacan, and others, By doing so, practitioners gain deeper insights into the
however, Freud began the quest for understanding by providing new psychological dimensions of literature, enriching their understanding and
ways of looking at ourselves. The power of his theories is evident in the appreciation of human behavior and storytelling.
number and variety Today the psychological literary critic can base his inferences on the
of fields they have affected, fields as disparate as philosophy, works of numerous important theorists, but it is Freud’s ideas that have
medicine, sociology, and literary criticism. provided the basis for this approach, and his ideas are still fundamental to
it.
• The absence of an aesthetic theory makes psychoanalytic criticism both
more and less useful to a reader. On the one hand, because it does not To work as a psychological critic, whether you are directly applying
contradict other schools of criticism, it can be used as a complement to Freudian theory or working with the ideas of his followers, it is necessary to
them. That is, instead of ruling out other perspectives on a text, it can understand some of his concepts about the human psyche.
exist alongside them, even enrich and extend them.
• The French feminist critics, a case in point, have made good use of
Lacan’s ideas in forming their own critical approaches. On the other LESSON 13: FREUDIAN PRINCIPLES
hand, the lack of an aesthetic theory means that psychoanalytic criticism Sigmund Freud, a man whose ideas have profoundly shaped our
can never Account for the beauty of a poem or the artistry that has understanding of the human mind. Born in 1856, Freud was an Austrian
created it. The reader must turn to other types of analysis to explore neurologist who became known as the father of psychoanalysis, a method
those other dimensions of literature. for treating mental illness through dialogue between a patient and a
• The theory focused on the three parts of the psychic apparatus: the id, psychoanalyst.
ego, and superego.
❖ The id is defined as the part of the psyche that stems from the Freud's groundbreaking theories about the unconscious mind, dreams, and
pleasure principle. The id stems from instinct and irrational the concept of repression have not only influenced the field of psychology
behavior that caters to the unconscious. but have also had profound impacts on literature, art, and philosophy. His
ideas have sparked debates, influenced thinkers, and challenged our
understanding of ourselves. Freudian Principles

From exploring the depths of the human psyche to understanding the impact The Unconscious
of childhood experiences on our adult lives, Freud's theories continue to
intrigue, inspire, and invite controversy. So, let's buckle up and prepare to  Freud's theory emphasizes the unconscious mind, likened to the
dive into the captivating world of Sigmund Freud and his Freudian principles. submerged part of an iceberg. This hidden part influences our actions,
This journey promises to be as enlightening as it is thought-provoking. Let's often without our awareness, leading to a potential misunderstanding of
get started! our behaviors' real causes.
 Hawthorne’s "Young Goodman Brown" illustrates this. The protagonist,
 Freudian Psychoanalysis: Freud, a neurologist, couldn't find physical Brown, undergoes a psychological journey from the conscious to the
causes for his patients' complaints, leading him to develop unconscious mind, symbolized by moving from an orderly village to a
psychoanalysis. His patients' distress, he believed, was caused by confusing forest.
suppressed desires and fantasies buried deep in their unconscious  This journey demonstrates the power of the unconscious mind, as
("Sigmund Freud: Life, Work & Theories." Simply Psychology). Brown ends up unable to distinguish between reality and dreams, or
 Studies in Hysteria and The Interpretation of Dreams: Freud's early good from evil. This story underscores the profound and often
works introduced the fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis. He unrecognized influence of the unconscious mind on our perception of
argued that symptoms of hysteria resulted from unresolved childhood reality.
traumas and that dreams could offer insights into repressed experiences
("Freud's Psychoanalytic Theories." Psychology Today). The Tripartite Psyche
 Psychoanalytic Criticism: Freud applied his theories to literature, art,  Freud divided the human psyche into three parts: the id, the ego, and
religion, and mythology, analyzing characters and plots for unconscious the superego.
desires and conflicts. His first piece of psychoanalytic criticism was a  The id, entirely unconscious, is the source of our psychic energy and
review of a novel by William Jensen ("Freud and Literature." The British psychosexual desires, operating without regard for consequences,
Library). ethics, or morality.
 Freud and Artists: Freud believed that artists, due to their neuroses,  The ego operates according to the reality principle, regulating the id's
create works that provide therapeutic insights. He wrote about various energies by postponing or diverting them into socially acceptable
artists, including Dostoyevsky, Shakespeare, and Leonardo da Vinci, actions.
viewing them as individuals writing out of their own neuroses ("Freud's  The superego, akin to one's conscience, operates according to the
Theory of Art and Literature." The Art Story) morality principle, providing a sense of moral and ethical wrongdoing
and repressing socially unacceptable desires.
 Hamlet and the Oedipal Complex: Ernest Jones, a follower of Freud,  A healthy personality is produced by a balance between the id and the
applied Freud's theories to Hamlet, arguing that Hamlet's delay in taking superego. An overwhelming unconscious guilt or a too-strong superego
revenge was due to an Oedipal complex. This interpretation adds a new can lead to issues like a guilt complex or dissatisfaction with oneself.
layer of depth to the character and the story ("Hamlet and Oedipus." The  In "Young Goodman Brown," the protagonist's journey into the forest
Guardian). represents a conflict between his superego (his life in Salem) and his id
 Impact on Literature: Freud's work continues to influence (the passions of the forest people). His wife, Faith, represents his ego,
psychoanalytic criticism and the construction of literature. His theories but her ambiguous symbolism indicates Brown's clouded belief in
have had a significant impact on our understanding of what we read and goodness.
how writers create their works ("Freud's Impact on 20th Century
Thought." American Psychological Association). The Significance of Sexuality
 Freud recognized that childhood is a period of intense sexual (yonic) symbols, while convex or elongatedobjects like trees, towers,
experience, during which the id is formed, shaping future adult behavior. and spires are seen as male (phallic) symbols.
 Freud identified three developmental phases in childhood: the oral  In "Young Goodman Brown," many symbols are filled with sexual
phase (characterized by sucking), the anal stage (recognizing suggestion, such as the devil's staff described as a black snake (a male
elimination and another erogenous zone), and the phallic stage image), and the forest suggesting a return to a dark, womb-like unknown
(discovering genital stimulation). (a female symbol).
 If these stages are not successfully navigated, the adult may suffer  Even if Brown's experience was only a dream, it's significant as dreams
arrested development, becoming fixated on behaviors that fulfill can function as symbolic forms of wish fulfillment.
unsatisfied childhood needs.  Brown's failure to mature is linked to his inability to understand, control,
 Freud referred to Sophocles's Oedipus Rex to explain the development and use his sexual feelings. His inability to acknowledge evil in himself
of gender identity in children: boys form an erotic attachment to their and others leaves him in a state of moral uncertainty and results in
mothers (the Oedipal complex) and girls develop an attraction for their moral and social isolation.
fathers (the Electra complex).
 In "Young Goodman Brown," Hawthorne suggests that Brown's troubling Creativity
impulses are sexual and are shared by others in his society, leading to
grave offenses if left unrestrained.  Freud saw a connection between creative expression and dreams, with
 The transition to adulthood involves moving from the pleasure principle both involving the expression of fantasy, illusion, and wishes through
to the reality principle, recognizing rules, restraint, and responsibility. symbols.
Brown's inability to make this transition leaves him separate and apart  He believed that artists, driven by unsatisfied instinctual needs, turn
from his society. away from reality and invest their interest and libido into the creation of
their wishes in the realm of fantasy.
The Importance of Dreams  This process allows the artist to achieve insights and understanding that
can be represented to others.
 According to Freud, dreams are the language of the unconscious, filled  Some critics, influenced by this view, focus not on the text but on the
with unfulfilled desires that the conscious mind has suppressed. writer, seeing the work as an expression of the writer’s unconscious
 The ego censors unacceptable wishes in dreams, using symbols to mind and using it to psychoanalyze the writer. This approach, however,
make repressed material more palatable. requires access to verifiable biographical information and expertise in
 Dreams can use condensation and displacement to express desires and psychological analysis.
feelings, similar to literary techniques.
 Dreams serve as a window into the unconscious, helping LESSON 13 CARL JUNG ANG MYTHOLOGICAL CRITICISM
psychoanalysts identify unresolved conflicts in the psyche.
 In literature, dreams offer deep insights into characters, going beyond 1. Carl Jung- renowned Swiss psychiatrist and one of the
their external actions or spoken words. pioneers of psycho analysis. Former pupil of Sigmund Freud.
 Dreams, as meaningful symbolic presentations, are valuable tools for He proposed the concept of a collective unconscious, a
critics using a psychoanalytic approach. shared ancestral memory that influences our behavior and is
often expressed in myths and rituals ("Carl Jung." Simply
Symbols
Psychology).
 Freud's theories led to a new understanding of symbols in literature and 2. The Collective Unconscious and Archetypes: Jung's
life, with many being expressions of repressed sexual desires. collective unconscious comprises archetypes, universal
 Physical objects in dreams can have sexual connotations based on their images, and patterns that recur across different cultures and
shape: concave objects like lakes, tunnels, and cups are seen as female periods. These archetypes, which can be found in literature,
 dreams, and religious rituals, connect us to our unconscious - Frye's "Anatomy of Criticism" proposes that literature can be categorized
and help us formulate answers to life's unknowable questions into four mythoi: Summer (Romance), Autumn (Tragedy), Winter
("Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious." Psychology (Irony/Satire), Spring (Comedy).
Today).
- Each mythos corresponds to seasonal metaphors and represents distinct
3. Archetypes in Literature: Archetypal characters or situations
narrative structures and thematic elements.
in literature elicit powerful responses due to their connection
to our collective unconscious. Examples of such archetypes in Critique of Frye's Mythological Framework:
literature include Huckleberry Finn and the Ancient Mariner
("Archetypes in Literature." Literary Devices). - Some critics argue that Frye's approach overlooks the individual qualities of
4. The Shadow, Anima, and Persona: According to Jung, the literary works by emphasizing overarching patterns.
self is composed of three major archetypes - the shadow (our - While Frye's framework provides valuable insights into universal
darker side), the anima (the soul-image), and the persona storytelling, it risks oversimplifying the diversity of literary expression.
(the image we show to the world). To achieve psychological
health, we must accept and integrate these different aspects Application of Mythological Criticism:
of ourselves ("The Shadow, Anima, and Persona." Carl Jung
Depth Psychology). - Despite criticisms, mythological criticism offers valuable insights into the
psychological, aesthetic, and cultural dimensions of literature.
5. Application of Jungian Concepts in Literature: Jung's
concepts can be applied to literary analysis. For instance, - Understanding mythic structures can enrich literary interpretation and
in Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown," the character's provide a deeper understanding of human experience.
despondency can be seen as a result of his failure to achieve
individuation, highlighting the power of Jungian archetypes in
literature ("Young Goodman Brown: A Jungian Analysis." Jacques Lacan: An Update on Freud.
Owlcation).
A. Lacanian Psychoanalysis is a reinterpretation of Freudian theory by
JELS WRITE THE CHARACTERS NALANG French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan.
B. Influenced by structuralist and poststructuralist theories, Lacan
Lesson 14: Northrop Frye and Mythological Criticism emphasized the role of language and symbolism in the formation of the
Jacques Lacan: An Update on Freud. unconscious.
Northrop Frye and Mythological Criticism C. Lacan's work focuses on the concept of the unconscious as structured
like a language, with signifiers and signifieds playing a central role.
D. He introduced the mirror stage, symbolic order, and concepts of lack and
Definition of Mythological Criticism: desire as fundamental to understanding human psychology.

- Mythological criticism examines the presence of archetypal themes and Key Concepts in Lacanian Psychoanalysis
patterns within literature, aiming to uncover underlying mythic structures and
universal symbols. A. Mirror Stage: A developmental phase where the infant recognizes its own
reflection, leading to the formation of the ego.
Northrop Frye's Theory of Mythoi: B. Symbolic Order: The realm of language and culture that shapes individual
identity and social interactions.
C. Lack and Desire: Central concepts highlighting human longing for
wholeness and completeness, which are unattainable.
 c. Analyzes fictional characters using the language and methods of
psychology.
Comparison with Freudian Theory
A. Lacan challenged Freud's emphasis on the ego's control over the How to Write a Psychological Criticism?
unconscious, proposing that the unconscious is the core of one's being. ❖ Prewriting - is the initial stage of writing. It includes brainstorming,
B. He argued that the ego is an illusion produced by the unconscious, and outlining, researching, and taking notes.
that the unconscious is structured like a language. Prewriting in writing Psychological Criticism
C. Unlike Freud, who sought to bring hidden desires into consciousness for ➢ Pay close attention to meaningful symbols.
management, Lacan claimed that the ego can never fully possess the ➢ Examine dream sequences.
unconscious. ➢ Look closely at the character/s and write a character sketch
about him/her using the following guides:
❖ Drafting - involves expressing your ideas in writing and
Significance in Literary Criticism
supporting them with explanations.
A. Lacan's theories offer new ways of analyzing characters and narratives, ❖ Revising - is the final stage of writing process. It involves making
emphasizing fragmentation and lack in human identity. changes to the draft to align it with the writer's intentions.
B. His antirealist perspective challenges traditional notions of realism in
literature, encouraging readers to explore narrative disruptions and nonlinear Drafting and Revising in writing Psychological Criticism
structures.
C. Lacanian concepts like jouissance provide insights into the psychological
aspects of literary texts and the pursuit of pleasure and fulfillment.
The Introduction

Lesson 15: WRITING PSYCHOLOGICAL CRITICISM – Prewriting,

➢ Announce at the outset what your primary focus will be (single
Drafting and Revising
character, the relationships among characters, meaningful
symbolism, narrative patterns, author’s life, among others).
Psychological criticism - also known as Psychoanalytical Criticism ➢ Comment on similarities and differences between the work you are
- the analysis of an author's unintended message. studying and other works of the same author.
- aims to understand the author's mind and how it is reflected in characters, ➢ Discover parallels between the text you are reading and others that
themes, and other elements of the text. you have read written by some other authors.
- It draws on theories and concepts from psychology, such as The Body
psychoanalysis and behavioral psychology.
- emphasizes on exploring the motivations, desires, and conflicts of the ➢ Prove your case by using tenets of psychological or critical theory to
characters and how they relate to the structure and themes of the work. explain your point, for example:

Psychological criticism has three main approaches (Ole Miss) : ⎯ A certain character cannot keep his job because he is resistant to
authority because he has unresolved issues with his father.
a. Investigates the creative process of the artist.
b. Studies a particular artist and how their biographical circumstances affect ➢ If you have chosen a character as a principal topic, refer to your answers
their motivations and behavior. to the questions you had in the prewriting stage.
 ⎯ Understand some struggles of the character, the epiphany he or • Locate any instances in which the collective unconscious of a character is
she experiences, or the motivation behind some particular revealed, perhaps through a dream or vision.
behavior. • Identify archetypal images and situations, and explain how they work
together to create meaning.
➢ You will devote that understanding in the body of your discussion using • Examine instances in which the persona, anima/animus, and shadow of a
the following strategies: character are revealed, including instances of rejection and projection.

• Reveal what is happening in the character’s unconscious as suggested

by images, symbols, or interior monologue. To use Lacan’s ideas as the basis of your discussion, you can apply the
following analytical strategies:
• Identify the nature of the character’s conflicts; look for indications
whether he or she has the attitudes of a healthy adult male or • Identify the Real, Imaginary, and Symbolic Orders in the narrative, and
female. If not, then neurosis needs to be identified and its source explain the position of a character in relation to each.
examined. • Note instances where a character’s fragmentation or lack is evident. •
• Because any changes in the outlook or behavior of a character signal Locate those occasions on which a character recognizes that he or she is a
that some struggle has been resolved, for good or ill, assess their fragmented being yearning for wholeness, and explain the causes of those
meaning. occasions.
• Examine whether a character operates according to the pleasure • Explain how certain objects symbolize that which is lacking in a character’s
principle, the morality principle or the reality principle. life. • Note those occasions on which the unconscious controls and shapes
• Explain a character’s typical behavior by the determining whether the a character.
personality is “balanced” by the ego, or “dominated” by the id or • Pay attention to characters’ needs, demands, and desires, noting how
the superego. they indicate the characters movement towards adulthood.
• Look carefully at any dreams that are recounted or alluded to. What • Examine familial interactions of a character’s childhood and
repressed material are these dreams putting into symbolic form? adolescence in an effort to understand adult behaviors.
What are they really about? • Point out antirealistic elements of a narrative, noting what those
• Probe the meanings of symbols by thinking about them in terms of elements suggest about the inaccessibility of a whole, integrated
their male ness and femaleness. self.
• Find some particular behavior that a character is fixated on, then trace it to • Identify any mirror-stage experiences and explain how they
some need or issue from childhood that went unsatisfied or unresolved. • demonstrate Lacan’s ideas about the developing psyche.
Note any conflicts or events in the author’s life that are reflected in the
text. The conclusion

Using a mythological approach, you can explore one or several of the

➢ Prepare a summary conclusion by observing the following tips:
following topics:

• Show how characters follow (or vary from) well-established patterns of • Reiterate some major psychological terminology that you have
behavior or re-create well-known figures from literary history—for example, used. • In the end, use a general or global view looking at the
from Greek mythology. analysis as a whole. • If you focused on only one topic, such as
• Look at similarities and contrasts in the personal conscious and personal character or imagery, then a simple reiteration of the themes that
unconscious of a character to determine whether they reflect the same grew out of what you found should suffice.
desires and impulses or are in conflict.
Lesson 16: A Mythological Analysis: “Thou Hast Thy Music Too: Loss 1. The harvest: Symbolizes abundance, fulfillment, and the cycle of life
as Art in John Keats’s ‘To Autumn” by Meagan Cass and death. 2. The sun: Represents vitality, warmth, and the passage of
Mythological Criticism time.
3. The brook: Symbolizes the flow of life and the inevitable passage of time.
- is a form of comparison of various aspects or archetypes so to speak, of 4. The bees: Represent industriousness and the fleeting nature of
various works of literature to examine and explore similarities as well as prosperity. 5. The wind: Symbolizes change, transition, and the inevitability
differences about human existence or dependence on the myths. of seasonal cycles.
- It tends to identify patterns in different works of recurring characters. - It is 6. Music: Represents the beauty and artfulness of loss and the acceptance
mainly about symbolism and archetypes’ undertones or underlying of mortality.
meanings for example certain features and or phenomena such as the sun, Human life cycle - In "To Autumn," John Keats symbolizes the stages of
the moon, and constellations have been personified and portray certain the human life cycle and emphasizes the beauty and art of suffering and
qualities and meanings such as the Supreme Being, seasons, and other loss through rich imagery and thematic exploration.
meanings. - The poem reflects on the fleeting nature of happiness and the evocative
beauty of loss.
Contrast in Portrayal of Death and Loss - Keats uses the transition from summer to autumn to represent the stages
of life, moving from abundance and vitality to isolation and death.
In "To Autumn," John Keats uses specific lines and imagery to - The poem portrays autumn as a time of disorder and separation, mirroring
contrast contemporary American culture's approach to death with his the challenges and losses experienced in the later stages of life.
portrayal in the poem. Keats presents a vision that invites readers to - The imagery of the harvest and the fading vitality of nature symbolize the
ruminate on the fleeting nature of happiness and to appreciate the inevitability of aging and mortality.
evocative beauty of loss, which contrasts with the sanitized approach to - Keats also highlights the beauty in suffering and loss, portraying them as
death prevalent in contemporary American culture. Specifically, Keats uses part of the human experience and worthy of art. The poem invites
imagery such as the "mists" and "mellow fruitfulness" to symbolize the readers to appreciate the full complexity and resonance of life, including
sensual and pleasurable aspects of life, emphasizing the richness of its moments of sorrow and decline.
experience beyond just pleasure. This stands in contrast to the
contemporary cultural emphasis on quickly moving on from grief and loss to Complexity and Suffering
enjoy more pleasurable experiences and emotions.
⮚ Based on Meagan Cass’s Analysis:
Moreover, Keats introduces imagery of abundance and loss, such as
the depiction of Autumn as a figure who embodies both "mellow fruitfulness" ∙ “To Autumn” encourages contemplation of happiness’s fleeting nature
and the grim reaper archetype. This portrayal challenges the contemporary and appreciation of the beauty in loss.
cultural tendency to abandon or silence suffering quickly, emphasizing the ∙ Keats presents Autumn as embodying both abundance and decline,
art and complexity of experiences related to death and loss. The poem's prompting readers to embrace life’s complexity.
imagery of mundane art, like the songs of hedge crickets and the whistling ∙ Through archetypal imagery, the poem urges recognition of the full
of redbreasts, further contrasts with the contemporary cultural approach to spectrum of human emotions, including suffering, and finding beauty in
grief, which tends to prioritize closure and moving on. the ebb and flow of life. ∙ The portrayal of Autumn as a multifaceted
figure challenges readers to confront the inevitability of loss and
In "To Autumn" by John Keats, there are several archetypal symbols used suffering.
to convey deeper meanings. ∙ By acknowledging suffering and finding beauty in it, the poem encourages
a deeper understanding and appreciation of life’s richness and
contrasts.
 Revolution in Marxist-critical terms by arguing how ultimately
Lesson 17: A Psychological Analysis: “Power and Desire in Ernest the self-interest of moneyed classes drove the political
Gaines’s ‘The Sky Is Gray” revolution.
Psychological Analysis Definition (Mcleod, 2024)
 a theory and therapeutic method pioneered by Sigmund Freud, aims to b. Marxist criticism started with Karl Marx. Marx introduced his
delve into the unconscious psyche to reveal suppressed emotions and most fundamental principle for criticism in The Communist
decipher ingrained emotional patterns. Manifesto, namely, his principle that all history is the history of
 according to Freud, problems later in life come from conflicts during the class struggle.
Oedipal stage. These conflicts are hidden because the young ego can't
handle them yet. c. Marxist critical literary theory focuses on socio-economic
relationships. Critical literary works present relationships of
Three Type of Human Psyche economic domination in clear terms. This can be
accomplished in original works of literature with critical
1. Id- the source of our psychic energy and our psychosexual desires, gives theses, or in secondary literature on oppressive ideology
us our vitality. present in literature.
2. Ego -the ego is our conscious, rational part that balances the id's desires
with reality and societal norms. d. Marxist critics argue that even art and literature themselves
3. Superego-the superego is our moral compass, representing internalized form social institutions and have specific ideological functions,
societal standards and values. based on the background and ideology of their authors. The
English literary critic and cultural theorist Terry Eagleton
( THE SKY IS GRAY BACKGROUND ) defines Marxist criticism this way: "Marxist criticism is not
merely a 'sociology of literature', concerned with how novels
Two Themes: Power and Desire get published and whether they mention the working class. Its
aim is to explain the literary work more fully; and this means a
Power- The story explores various dimensions of power, including social
sensitive attention to its forms, styles and, meanings.
power dynamics based on race and gender. It examines how power
structures influence individuals' lives and interactions, such as the power e. Most Marxist critics who were writing in what could
dynamics between James and his mother chronologically be specified as the early period of Marxist
Desire -is another prominent theme in the story, particularly the desires for literary criticism, subscribed to what has come to be called
freedom, dignity, and self-expression.
"vulgar Marxism". In this thinking of the structure of societies,
 Emily Broussard discovers that the boy is a troubled and guilty young
literary texts are one register of the superstructure, which is
man controlled by his superego and his castrating mother, that an
Oedipal relationship exists between the two, and that the boy determined by the economic base of any given society.
unconsciously desires to be free of her. f. the principles of Marxism were not designed to serve as a
theory about how to interpret texts. Instead, they were meant
LESSON 18: MARXIST CRITICISM
to be a set of social, economic, and political ideas that would,
Marxist Criticism Definition
according to their followers, change the world.
a. Marxist criticism is the uncovering of relationships of
Historical Background of Marxist Criticism
domination and exploitation, even when they are disguised in
idealistic terms. Charles Beard has analyzed the American
Marxism has a long and complicated history. Although it is often thought of Two best known Marxist Critics
as a twentieth-century phenomenon, partly because it was the basis of the
Soviet Union’s social-governmental system, it actually reaches back to the Jameson is known for using Freudian ideas in his practice of Marxist
thinking of Karl Heinrich Marx (1818–1883), a nineteenth-century German criticism. Whereas Freud discussed the notion of the repressed unconscious
philosopher and economist. The first announcement of his nontraditional way of the individual, Jameson talks about the political unconscious, the
of seeing things appeared in The German Ideology in 1845. exploitation and oppression buried in a work The critic, according to
Jameson, seeks to uncover those buried forces and bring them to light.
In it Marx argued that the means of production controls a society’s Eagleton, a British critic, is difficult to pin down, as he continues to develop
institutions and beliefs, contended that history is progressing toward the his thinking. Of special interest to critics is his examination of the
eventual triumph of communism, and introduced the concept of dialectical interrelations between ideology and literary form. The constant in his
materialism, the theory that history develops as a struggle between criticism is that he sets himself against the dominance of the privileged class.
contradictions that are eventually synthesized. When Marx met the political Both Jameson and Eagleton have responded to the influence of
economist Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) in Paris in 1844 and they poststructuralism; In some ways, Jameson and Eagleton are typical of the
discovered that they had arrived at similar views independent of one mixture of schools in literary criticism today. For instance, it is not uncommon
another, they decided to collaborate to explain the principles of communism to find psychoanalytic ideas in the writing of a feminist critic or postcolonial
(which they later called Marxism) and to organize an international (see Chapter 10) notions influencing a Marxist. As groups that share an
movement. These ideas were expounded in the Communist Manifesto active concern for finding new ways of understanding what we read and the
(1848), in which they identified class struggle as the driving force behind lives we live, their interaction is not surprising. The borrowing back and forth
history and anticipated that it would lead to a revolution in which workers may make it difficult to define discrete schools of criticism, but in practice, it
would overturn capitalists, take control of economic production, and abolish makes the possibilities for literary analysis all the richer.
private property by turning it over to the government to be distributed fairly.
Another important figure in the evolution of Marxism is the Algerian-born Lesson 19: Materialism versus Spirituality
French philosopher Louis Althusser (1918–1990), whose views were not (Jels basahin mo itong buang ka jeballyooo)
entirely consonant with those of Lukács. Whereas Lukács saw literature as a
reflection of a society’s consciousness, Althusser asserted that the process Marx maintained that reality is material, not spiritual. Our culture, he said, is
can go the other way. In short, literature and art can affect society, even lead not based on some divine essence or the Platonic forms or on contemplation
it to revolution. Building on Antonio Gramsci’s idea that the dominant class of timeless abstractions. It is not our philosophical or religious beliefs that
controls the views of the people by many means, one of which is the arts, make us who we are, for we are not spiritual beings but socially constructed
Althusser agreed that the working class is manipulated to accept the ones. We are not products of divine design but creations of our own cultural
ideology of the dominant class, a process he called interpellation. Marxism and social circumstances. To understand ourselves, we must look to the
established itself as part of the American literary scene with the economic concrete, observable world we live in day by day. The material world will
depression of the 1930s. Writers and critics alike began to use Marxist show us reality. It will show us, for example, that people live in social groups,
interpretations and evaluations of society in their work. As new journals making all of our actions interrelated. By examining the relationships among
dedicated to pursuing this new social and literary analysis sprang up, it socioeconomic classes and by analyzing the superstructure, we can achieve
became increasingly important to ask how a given text contributed to the insight into ourselves and our society. For example, the critic who looks at
solution of social problems by the application of Marxist principles. instances of class conflict or at the institutions, entertainment, news media,
Eventually the movement grew strong enough to bring pressures to bear on legal, and other systems of a society discovers how the distribution of
writers to conform to the vision, resulting in a backlash of objection to such economic power undergirds the society. Such analyses uncover the base
absolutism from such critics as Edmund Wilson in “Marxism and Literature” (the economic system) and the social classes it has produced. Because the
in 1938. base and the superstructure are under the control of the dominant class, the
people’s worldview is likely to be false; the critic’s obligation is to expose the religion in bourgeois society, like a narcotic, dulls vital human capacities
oppression and consequent alienation that have been covered over. even as it relieves life's pain. There may be a different kind of phrase than
"spiritual capacity" for this faculty, but it would not be consistent with the
Marx’s theory of materialism was in response to the idealist theory of Hegel. meaning given by Marx. And if this is so, then Marxism has to be granted an
Hegel’s idealism held that humans are essentially self-conscious beings and intrinsically spiritual dimension along with its well-recognized philosophical,
that if we understand the self-consciousness of humans, we can understand economic, and political aspects.
what people are, what human history is, and what the ultimate end of human
civilization is. Idealism is not a theory of how humans process impressions The Marxist is rarely content simply to expose the failings of capitalism and
from the external world, nor is it a theory of how the human brain structures often goes on to argue for the fair redistribution of goods by the government.
consciousness. Rather, idealism is a theory that holds that all the ideas one It is the material world that has created Mme. Loisel, for example, and it is
can have of oneself or of the world are intrinsic to the structure of our minds. the material world that destroys her. Her desire for expensive objects and
This means, essentially, that the world as we know it is actually an idea the circles in which they are found, generated by the capitalistic system she
whose origin is our mind and not the world. Thus, a political regime, social lives in rather than by any character flaw, leads her to make a foolish request
structure, or phase of human civilization is not the product of culture or of a friend. When she loses the “diamond” necklace, she too is lost. Her
technological development. Rather, these regimes, structures, or phases are relationship with her friend, as well as any hope for a return to the glittering
the results of our mind revealing itself to itself. The act of discovery is to world of the reception, is shattered. She is destroyed not by spiritual failure
discover what we already know but have not yet realized.Marx's materialism but by an economic system that has created a superstructure that will not
can be described as being focused on the physical, organic, and temporal allow her to have a better life. She is trapped by material circumstances, and
characteristics of humans and their societies. These characteristics are used the final revelation about the false jewels will only deepen her sense of
by Marx to call into question the notion that capitalism is a social alienation and powerlessness, according to a Marxist perspective.
arrangement that is a timeless natural state of affairs for humans. For Marx
and Engels, materialism meant that the material world, perceptible to the Lesson 20 Topic: Class Conflict, Art, Literature, and Ideologies
senses, has objective reality independent of mind or spirit. They did not deny
the reality of mental or spiritual processes but affirmed that ideas could arise, Class Conflict
therefore, only as products and reflections of material conditions.
A. Is the theory that the relationships of production and exchange are the
On the other hand, the word "spirituality" evokes a considerable distaste, basis for all other relationships. More specifically, political relationships
and the idea that Marxism itself may have spiritual qualities is positively (between rulers and ruled) are ultimately rooted in class relationships
repellent. Philosophically, this reaction is conditioned by the seemingly (between workers and owners).
idealist connotations of such terms as spirit and soul, and politically, by the B. The class conflict is defined as the struggle over the means to control
manifestly rightwing tendencies of many spiritual movements. One Marxist society. Two classes in particular are important for understanding Marx's
who did not share this repulsion, however, was Karl Marx. Marx was no theory, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The proletariat is the class of
believer in the Judeo-Christian God, and he was no friend to the church, but those who sell their labor for wages.
he recognized that organized religion expressed human spiritual potential C. It is described as the living and working way and why revolutions
whose full realization would have to await communism. When the young happened to better theorize about how to get society past the undesirable
Marx pronounced his judgment on religion as the "soul of soulless conditions brought on by capitalism.
conditions" and the "heart of a heartless world," he was obviously equating D. Class conflict theory argues that conflict between the producing class and
"soul" with "heart" as desirable things that were stifled by capitalism and the owning class is bound to erupt because the interests of the two classes
which a communist society would be able to realize to a greater degree than act in opposition against each other.
organized religion can. By the same reasoning, when Marx, in the same
passage, says that religion is the "opium of the people," he implies that Art, Literature, and Ideology
 ruling class of the two basic classes of capitalist society, consisting of
Ideology capitalists, manufacturers, bankers, and other employers. The
-is a term that turns up frequently in Marxist discussions. It refers to a bourgeoisie owns the most important of the means of production,
belief system produced, according to Marxists, by the relations through which it exploits the working class.
between the different classes in a society, classes that have come  Ideology refers to resulted in the emergence belief system that is
about because of the society’s modes of production. generated, in the perception of Marxists, by the relationships between
the different the social classes—classes that have of the modes of
- An ideology dictated by the dominant class functions to secure its production within that society.
power. When such cultural conditioning leads the people to accept a  The dominant class's ideology maintains its power, leading to individuals
system that is un- favourable for them without protest or questioning developing a false consciousness by accepting unfavorable systems
—that is, to accept it as the logical way for things to be—they have without questioning or protesting, viewing them as rational
developed a false consciousness.
Lesson 21: WRITING A MARXIST ANALYSIS (Prewriting, Drafting, and
-The Marxism ideology is a theory about the primacy of economic Revising)
distinctions and class struggle in the course of human events. Thus,
one of the primary principles of Marxism is that the modes of Marxist Analysis- also known as Marxism - a socio-political theory and
production and the relationships of exchange form the base of method of analysis developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th
society, i.e., its primary features. The base of society heavily century. - is an economic and political theory that examines the flaws
influences its superstructure, which includes religions, institutions, inherent in capitalism.- it emerged as a response to the social and economic
cultures, and governments (which have a limited influence on the conditions of the time, particularly the rise of industrial capitalism and the
base). exploitation of the working class.- it is rooted in the belief that society is
shaped by the material conditions of production, particularly the ownership
-The Marxist view of literature and art established on the basis of and control of the means of production - emphasizes the importance of class
Marxist materialism naturally does not insist that literature and art struggle and the inherent contradictions within capitalist societies. - in the
depict the face of the natural world in a completely objective and early 20th century, Marxist analysis gained popularity among socialist and
calm way, and cannot require literary and art creators to restore the communist movements around the world.- it has been applied to various
reality of the world with zero emotion, but pursues a “typical reality” fields of study, including economics, sociology, history, and literature. It has
under the care of the Marxist world view. This is the expectation of provided insights into issues such as inequality, imperialism, colonialism,
these works: by describing the people’s suffering at the bottom, the and cultural hegemony.
work becomes a weapon to criticize capitalist exploitation and the
people’s oppression. In fact, the Marxist theory of literature and art The Basic Principles of Marxist Analysis are the following:
believes that literature and art should not only reflect the real-life
world, but also become an ideological weapon to change the A. dialectical materialism
objective world. B. historical materialism
C. the theory of surplus value
Importance: D. class struggle
 Class conflict is the conflict between different classes in a society E. Revolution
resulting from different social or economic positions and reflecting F. dictatorship of the proletariat and communism
opposed interests.
 The class conflict is divided into two classes which are the proletariat- Pre-writing- the formulation and organization of ideas preparatory to writing
the class of those who sell their labor for wages and bourgeoisie- the
Drafting- during this stage, the writer puts his ideas into complete thoughts,  If you find this approach to be too dry, boring, and didactic, you might
such as sentences and paragraphs begin with a summary of an incident in the work that illustrates the social
Revising-the stage of the writing process after the first draft where you relationships of the characters or some other socioeconomic aspect of
improve what you wrote with additions, removals, corrections, and society as preparation for your statement of the work’s overall worldview
rephrasing. The Body -The central part of your essay will demonstrate the acceptance
Steps in Writing Marxist Analysis or rejection of Marxist principles in the text you are analyzing. It is in this part
Prewriting that the organizational principles will be of your own design. That is, you may
 Determine the subject or issue you want to analyze from a Marxist choose to discuss each major character, assess the nature of the social
perspective. institutions depicted, or point out the struggles between groups of people
 Gather information, generate your strongest opinions, and use them as - For example, an analysis of “The Diamond Necklace” could be built
the basis of a free-write. Your thinking will begin to develop along some around the decline of the power and place of M. and Mme. Loisel as they are
identifiable lines. It may be that you only need to see where the forced to repay the cost of the necklace, or it could illustrate the unjust
responses you made to some of the questions are evident in the text. treatment they receive from those in the powerful, controlling classes of
society.
Regardless of which topics you ultimately decide to develop, the four - There is no particular form to follow in writing a Marxist analysis, you may
most important goals of your prewriting are: fall back on some of the techniques discussed in Chapter 2, “Familiar
Approaches.” It might be helpful to think about the usefulness of
(1) to clarify your understanding of the ideology of the work; explication, comparison and contrast, and analysis.
(2) to identify the elements of the text that present the ideology;
(3) to determine how those elements promote it—that is, convince =During revision, you will want to be sure that each of your points is equally
the reader to accept it; and developed and that they are all linked together in a logical sequence.
(4) to assess how sympathetic or opposed it is to Marxist principles. =Making an outline (after drafting) to check whether you have managed to
provide adequate coverage and coherence is helpful because it can give you
 It is important to remember that a text does not have to be Marxist in its an overview of what you have done. If the parts are not balanced in length,
orientation to yield itself to an interesting reading from this perspective. depth, or content, you will need to make adjustments. The Conclusion
 It is also reassuring to recognize that Marxist critics do not always agree
with each other’s reading of a given text. If your interpretation differs The conclusion of a Marxist analysis often takes either the form of an
from that of others, it is not necessarily wrong, because no single endorsement of classless societies in which everyone has equal access to
Marxist reading of a work result even when the same principles are power and goods or of criticism of repressive societies when that is not the
applied. case.
 Marxism lends itself to combination with other schools of criticism, giving  The conclusion may once again make a case for social reform, pointing
it even more possibilities for variation. out where the literary work under consideration has either supported or
rejected social change. In either case, to write the conclusion you will
Drafting and Revising need to consider how the ideology in the text affirms or conflicts with
The Introduction your own.
 In a Marxist analysis, it can be effective to announce the ideology of  Explaining your realization can provide a powerful ending to your
the text and its relationship to Marxist views at the outset. Because the analysis.
rest of your essay will be concerned with where and how the ideology is
worked out, it is important that your reader share their understanding of Lesson 22: Model Student Analysis: “Silence, Violence, and Southern
the stance taken by the text.I Agrarian Class Conflict in William Faulkner’s ‘Barn Burning’ by Liberty
Kohn
 Lesson 23: Feminist Criticism
"Barn Burning" by William Faulkner
Feminist Criticism Definition
 It is a short story that demonstrates the political and economic power
disparities between the bourgeoisie, represented by the justice system A. Feminist criticism began as a kind of revolution against the traditional
and aristocratic landowners, and the proletariat, represented by the literary criticism which was male-centered that considered women’s writing
Snopes family. as inferior.
 Taking place within living memory of the Civil War, the story is a critique B. Feminist criticism aims at reviewing and revising the concepts which
of the southern sharecropping system and captures the immorality, were earlier considered universal but Which actually originate in particular
greed, and lack of caring by the South's affluent classes. cultures and serve particular goals.
C. Feminist Criticism wishes to redefine our concept of human nature and
"Barn-burning" nihilism is not the answer to class conflict. As young reality and thereby challenge the traditional concerns of literary criticism
Sarty's flight suggests at story's end, for a true Marxist revolution, false including established cannons and ways of reading.
consciousness, violence, and self-interest must be erased from people's D. According to (Tyson 78) Feminist Criticism examines the ways in which
actions. literature (or artifacts, cultural productions) reinforces or undermines the
economic, political social and psychological oppression of women.
( jels write the characters ) E. Feminist Criticism looks at literature assuming its production from a
male-dominated perspective. It re-examines canonical works to show how
“Barn Burning” presents an economic and political system that perpetuates gender stereotypes are involved in their functioning.
class conflict, robs the working class of power and equality, and creates a
false consciousness that destroys the proletariat’s ability to imagine a
different system based upon economic and political equality. Faulkner Feminist Criticism in Culture, Literature, and History
illustrates the interpellation throughout the entire Snopes family. While Abner
Snopes is caught in material and social circumstances that allow him only Culture: By examining the ways that a text describes women and the role of
nihilistic protest through barn burning, Sarty represents the true Marxist mind women, implicitly or explicitly, a feminist literary critique can offer insights
that realizes that an alternative system is needed, one where the bourgeoisie into how a particular writer and/or the culture the story comes from have
do not control the means of production and the proletariat are not in eternal understood women and femininity. For example, Western cultures have
insurgency. Although Sarty himself may be too young to think in such often associated women with nature and men with culture. This association
precise Marxist terms, the story “Barn Burning” itself suggests that is maintained despite the shifts in perspective regarding nature - as
successful economic and political systems must redistribute the means of something that escapes our understanding or something mankind has
production and allow society to recognize the equality and humanity of all mastery over, a representation of uncontrolled passion or something under
people. the control of people.

"Barn Burning" is a story about a young boy named Sarty and his family, Literature: Feminist literary scholars who focus on literature in general, like
who are poor tenant farmers in the South. Sarty's father, Abner Snopes, those who study culture within literary works, expose the relationship
often gets into trouble with wealthy landowners because he believes they between literature and ideology. Some scholars will seek out forgotten or
treat him unfairly. Abner takes out his anger by burning their barns. Sarty under-read women writers, writing these women authors back into the
feels torn between his loyalty to his family and his sense of right and wrong. academic discussion. One author, Zora Neale Hurston, was well-known in
Eventually, he decides to break free from his father's cycle of violence and her own time of the Harlem Renaissance and is now more widely read once
runs away from home, hoping to start a new life on his own. Through Sarty's again thanks to the work of Alice Walker (a fellow Black novelist, best known
struggles, the story explores themes of family loyalty, justice, and the impact for The Color Purple). Walker's reintroduction of Hurston's work allows for a
of poverty on individuals' choices. new understanding of the Harlem Renaissance, challenging any conception
of the period as solely male. This work provides yet another lens into the
culture, ideology, and history that surrounded women writers of many literary Lesson 24: Reading as a Feminist: Studies of Difference, Studies of
periods. Power, Studies of the Female Experience
History: Other feminist scholars have taken on women's history through the Feminist criticism involves rediscovering forgotten texts by women,
overlap of literary and historical studies. Many feminist literary scholars and reevaluating other texts, examining cultural contexts, analyzing power
historians will consider literature in a broader sense, including the more structures, rejecting limiting stereotypes, exposing patriarchal premises, and
mundane writings of everyday women, alongside more established literary challenging traditional ways of seeing gender and identity. They hope to
works. Through the analysis of historical circumstances, paired with the texts change the world by changing literature and the ways people read it. Three
used, feminist literary historians can fill in the gaps of history, better major groups of feminist critics are those who; study differences, power
understanding the role of women in a given time period. This is not done with relationships, and the female experience.
the intention of refocusing history onto women rather than men, but to
provide a fuller picture of historical circumstances with consideration of 1. STUDY DIFFERENCES - Feminist critics examine male and female
people of all sexes and genders. writing through the lens that gender determines everything, including value
systems and language. Not all feminist critics agree with this approach,
recognizing that it has historically led to an assumption of female inferiority.
Individuals like Wollstonecraft and Woolf stand out as eloquent
spokespersons for women. Along with them are many others whose names
are less well known but whose efforts have been important to the 1.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ABIGAIL AND JOHN’S LETTER
development of women’s history, both social and literary. Some of that
history has been traced by Elaine Showalter, who divided it into three a. Abigail expresses her desire for more communication from John,
phases: the feminine phase (1840–80), the feminist phase (1880–1920), and criticizing his infrequent and brief letters. However, John explains that
the female phase (1920–present). the urgency of current affairs limits the length of his writing.
b. Abigail inquires about John's work and the state of the revolution before
Feminine Phase (1840-80) - female writers imitated the literary tradition discussing domestic matters. She concludes with a feminist
established by men, taking additional care to avoid offensive language or statement, calling for women's rights in the new government. In
subject matter. Novelists such as Charlotte Bronte and Mary Ann Evans contrast, John focuses on the progress of the revolt and its impact on
wrote in the forms and styles of recognized writers, all of whom were male. the colonies.
Sometimes female writers even used men’s names (Currer Bell for Brontë c. In comparing the style of the two letters, Abigail's letter is more
and George Eliot for Evans, for example) to hide their female authorship. personal, using the pronoun "I" frequently. On the other hand, John's
Feminist Phase (1880-1920) - in the second phase, according to Showalter, letter lacks personal references and mainly narrates in the third
women protested their lack of rights and worked to secure them. In the person.
political realm, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and others d. Abigail openly expresses her emotions, while John doesn't focus on his
pushed to secure equality under the law, and some of the more radical feelings. John mentions pitying the children of the solicitor general but
feminists envisioned separate female utopias. In the literary world, they uses it to comment on morality. He admires Abigail's gaiety but finds
decried the unjust depictions of women by male writers. amusement in her request for equality.
Their different perspectives are evident in their choice of topics and
Female Phase (1920-present) – The third phase, at its beginnings, approaches: personal vs. impersonal, subjective vs. objective, explicit
concentrated on exploring the female experience in art and literature. For vs. implicit. The final mood can be inferred from John's ironic
female writers, this meant turning to their own lives for subjects. It also treatment of Abigail's concerns.
meant that the delicacy of expression that had typified women’s writing
began to crumble as a new frankness regarding sexuality emerged.
2. STUDIES OF POWER
a. Modern feminists emphasize the power imbalance between genders Lesson 25: Writing Feminist Criticism (Prewriting, Drafting and
and attribute it to the economic system. They argue that women are Revising)
oppressed by a group that intentionally keeps them down through its
ideology. Michèle Barrett, taking a Marxist perspective, suggests that Feminist Criticism Definition ● Feminist criticism is a critical approach to
the organization of households and families, as well as the division of literature that seeks to understand how gender and sexuality shape the
labor and education systems, are connected to gender roles and meaning and representation of literary texts.
stereotypes. This supports Virginia Woolf's belief that the conditions ● According to Marlene Garcia, Feminist criticism examines how literature
under which men and women produce literature influence their writing perpetuates or challenges the oppression of women, spotlighting gender
and subject matter. inequality and advocating for societal change.
b. Whereas feminist critics in general have sometimes been criticized for ● It's a lens revealing how texts reflect or resist patriarchal norms.
having too little to say about the quality of literary texts, those ● Linda Napikoski states that, "Feminist Criticism is the literary analysis that
concerned with issues of power and economics have been especially arises from the viewpoint of feminism, feminist theory, and/or feminist
chided for their lack of attention to questions politics."
of aesthetic value. More interested in the sociological aspects of
texts than in making a close reading of them, these readers have Steps in Writing Feminist Criticism
an especially political intent. Many of the English feminist critics
who work from a Marxist perspective would belong to this group. 1. Pre-writing
● If you have the opportunity to choose the text you will examine for
3. STUDIES OF THE FEMALE EXPERIENCE your femi-nist critique, you may want to select something by a
female writer, especially if the work has not already received a
a. French feminists have explored the idea of a specifically female good bit of notice from feminist critics.
tradition of literature, influenced by Lacan's extensions of Freudian ● An alternative, especially if you are reading from the perspective of
theory. They reject the concept of a stable "masculine" authority and queer theory, is to choose a text in which identity is not assumed
call for a recognition of women's abilities beyond traditional binary to be fixed.
oppositions. They examine female images in literature and elements ● Regardless of the selection you are working on, you will initially
of l'écriture féminine, such as blanks, unfinished sentences, silences, find it helpful to focus on the characters in the text, as they are an
and exclamations. Female images and goddesses symbolize easily accessible indication of the author’s attitudes and ideology.
women's power to resist male oppression, while motherhood is seen 2. Drafting and Revising
as involving power and creation. However, this approach risks ● Once you have determined which of the three approaches you
creating female chauvinists and a separate, weakened women's want to follow, or how they work together to form the text, you
writing tradition. can begin drafting your analysis.
b. Feminists have had negative reactions to some of Freud's ideas about
women, particularly his notion of penis envy. However, some 1. The Introduction
feminists have embraced the symbolic concept of the "phallus" ● One interesting way to open your discussion is to point out why a feminist
introduced by Lacan, viewing it as a symbol used in ancient fertility or queer theory critique is particularly appropriate for the text you are
cults. These feminists argue that both men and women lack a sense analyzing.
of complete sexual fulfillment, leading to an eternal longing that cannot ● An alternative beginning is to connect the characters or events of the
be satisfied. situation with a similar situation that has actually occurred. Because
many critics see literature as a way to understand and reform society,
making such a connection can be powerful.
2. The Body ● Because feminist studies serve so many different interests, into a two-hour long biopic in 2002. The film starred Katherine Slattery as
your discussion can take a variety of approaches. To simplify your decision Jill and Juliet Stevenson as her mother.
making, you can try working within one of the three categories discussed
earlier: studies of difference, studies of power, or studies of the female In 1930 Jill Ker Conway’s newly married parents bought the remote
experience. sheep station of Coorain. There Jill and her two elder brothers enjoyed an
3. The Conclusion idyllic childhood on the prosperous and beautiful estate. But when Jill
● Conclusion should pull all of your references to the text into a single reached the age of eight, Coorain was struck by a devastating drought in
statement about what is particularly female (or male) about the way the which most of the Kers’ sheep were lost. Jill’s father died, and the grief-
work was written, about the power relationships depicted in it, or about stricken family, overwhelmed by the series of disasters, left their beloved
its presentation of the nature of the female experience. home and moved to the city of Sydney. There Jill attended a private girls’
school and subsequently the University of Sydney, where she began what
Lesson 26: Model Student Analysis – “The Road from Mother: A was to become a distinguished career as a historian.
Daughter’s Struggle”
As Jill grows up and discovers her own strengths, her mother, who
on Coorain had seemed a tower of strength, begins a steady disintegration.
Who is Jill Ker Conway?
As a widow, confounded by the complexities of life in urban Australia, Mrs.
• Born October 9, 1934, Hillston, New South Wales, Australia – died June Ker becomes an emotional tyrant who bitterly clings to her children.
1, 2018, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.) Jill Ker Conway entwines her coming-of-age story with that of her
• Australian – born American scholar, the first woman president of Smith country: the British Empire is disintegrating, and as England retreats to a
College (1975 – 85), whose research as a historian focused on the role of local rather than an international role in world affairs, Australia must set out
feminism in American history to claim its own identity not as an extension of England but as a Pacific
- Conway’s work on feminism and history yielded such books as: o The nation with a distinctive culture and history. Conway’s search for her own
Female Experience in 18th- and 19th-Century America (1982); and o identity, as a woman and as an Australian, makes for a rich and rewarding
Women Reformers and American Culture (1987). story.
• After editing two anthologies (1992, 1996) of autobiographical writing by
women, she explored the memoir as a literary form in When
Memory Speaks: Reflections on Autobiography (1998).
• Conway wrote her own life story in The Road from Coorain (1989), which Theme of Autobiography
was adapted for television (2001); True North (1994); and A Woman’s
Education (2001). • The autobiography focuses on Jill Ker Conway's attempt to detach
• She was also the author of Felipe the Flamingo (2006), a children’s book. herself from her mother, deviating from traditional autobiography
styles.
• Conway received the National Humanities Medal in 2013.
• It contributes to a unique female mode of self – writing, intertwining the
Synopsis of The Road from Coorain daughter's story with her mother's biography.

The Road from Coorain is a 1989 autobiographical novel by Jill Mother – Daughter Relationship:
Ker Conway. Ker Conway is perhaps best known as the first female
president of Smith College, the largest of the Seven Sisters colleges. The • Conway's narrative explores the tension between individuation and
book details Jill's upbringing in Australia, up through her early adulthood interrelation with her mother.
and acceptance to Radcliffe College. The Road from Coorain was adapted
• The text reflects on feminist theories, such as Chodorow's idea of
incomplete individuation for daughters.
• Conway's portrayal showcases the complexity of the mother-daughter
bond, highlighting struggles for identity and independence.

Feminist Perspective:

• Conway's autobiography aligns with second-wave feminist goals of telling

women's stories authentically.
• It challenges traditional gender roles and patriarchal norms through the
lens of personal narrative.
• The text exemplifies a shift in women's self-writing, offering new
prototypes for feminine identity.

Critical Analysis:

• Scholars like Malin and Heilbrun provide insights into the significance of
mother-daughter relationships in women's autobiographies.
• Conway's narrative technique incorporates both autobiography and
biography, resisting monologic storytelling.
• The autobiography reflects societal expectations and challenges faced by
women, particularly in the mid-20th century.