IFETCE - R2019 ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-24

UNIT IV - ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Basics of energy management – Energy management program – Energy accounting, monitoring and
targeting control - Energy efficient motors and transformer - Computer based energy management system
- Simulation of energy management for a domestic consumer

4.1. BASICS OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT

▪ Energy management is the process of tracking and optimizing energy consumption to conserve
usage in a building.
▪ There are few steps for the process of energy management:
✓ Collecting and analysing continuous data.
✓ Identify optimizations in equipment schedules, set points and flow rates to improve energy
efficiency.
✓ Calculate return on investment. Units of energy saved can be metered and calculated just like
units of energy delivered.
✓ Execute energy optimization solutions.
✓ Repeat step two to continue optimizing energy efficiency.

4.1.1. Concept of Energy Management

▪ Energy management is the best solution for direct and immediate reduction of energy
consumption for businesses and households. For the last few decades we have been exploring
various alternatives to conventional sources of energy like solar, wind and biomass energy.
▪ However, due attention must also be given to best utilization of energy, improvement in energy
efficiencies and optimum management of energy resources. Infact, energy management deals with
already existing sources and actual consumption. It includes planning and operation of energy-
related production and consumption units.
▪ The main objectives of energy management are resource conservation, environment protection
and cost savings. The central task of energy management is to reduce costs for the provision of
energy in buildings and facilities without compromising work processes.
▪ The simplest way to introduce energy management is the effective use of energy to maximize
profit by minimizing costs. Energy management could save up to 70% of the energy consumption
in a typical building or plant.
▪ Get Green Energy is an excellent platform for consumers to take action immediately and move the
nation toward a net zero CO2 future without requiring government intervention, new technology
or additional infrastructure.
▪ The typical energy saving for any plant or building, using basic energy management principles,
could be 10-15% of the total consumption. This percentage may rose to 25-35% by a medium
scale energy management program (1 – 3 year). For achieving higher degree of savings, a long-
term energy management program, spread over a period of three years or more, is required which
will involve a certain capital investment. The major elements of an energy management program
are:
✓ Set your goal: how much energy reduction do you want to achieve
✓ Know your numbers: how much do you consume
✓ Define major consumption units and try to reduce consumption
✓ Continuous review and management

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Energy Saving in Industries
✓ Avoid extra-load in peak time. It is way more costly.
✓ Turn off machines during shut downs, inspections, maintenance and when not in use.
✓ Regular and efficient maintenance of machines and motors prevents extra loads and saves 15
% of extra consumption and prevents break downs as well.
✓ Attend air and steam leakages. These leakages are extra load on boilers, compressors etc.
✓ Replacement of incandescent lamps with LEDs can save significant amount of energy.
▪ Energy management can be broadly defined as the proactive, organized and systematic
management of energy use in a building or organization to satisfy both environmental and
economic requirements.
▪ Companies across all sectors are turning to energy management as a means to reduce their
operating costs. Specific requirements and practices differ by sector, but the core principles apply
to all companies. It involves the following steps:
✓ Collecting the energy data and metering your energy consumption
✓ Identifying opportunities to save energy
✓ Taking action to save energy
✓ Tracking the progress and ongoing improvement
✓ Whether, associate energy management with energy-saving efforts that focus on making
better use of existing buildings or equipment, or with energy awareness, it doesn’t matter.
▪ Energy management is a process that does not limit to large buildings and offices. It can be applied
the same principles for your home and therefore continue the positive loop explained in the four
steps above (collect, identify, act, track).

4.1.2. Why Manage Your Energy?

▪ Energy management is the foundation for saving energy at your organization level.
▪ A recent study by the U.S. Energy Information Administration projected that world energy
consumption will grow by 48% between 2012 and 2040.
▪ With growing demand and shrinking supply of non-renewable natural resources like coal, energy
costs are set to rise.
▪ In addition, regulators worldwide are pushing for more stringent sustainability standards.
Singapore will introduce a carbon tax on greenhouse gases from 2019. In 2011, FTSE launched
the FTSE4Good ESG Ratings to measure and rank companies’ environmental, social and
governance (ESG) risk and performance.
▪ Following its counterpart in Hong Kong, the Singapore Exchange (SGX) also mandated
sustainability reporting for listed companies in June 2016. This mandates businesses to
objectively review and report their environmental and social impact in operations and corporate
governance.
▪ Energy is to be saved in general for our planet to reduce the damage we’re doing and reduce our
dependence on the fossil fuels that are becoming rare.
▪ Energy management for your business enables you to:
✓ Reduce costs
✓ Reduce carbon emissions and the global damage they cause
✓ Reduce risk: the more dependent and consumer of energy you are, the higher the risk on your
profitability is.

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▪ In such a world, saving energy makes good business sense. Of course, anything worth doing is
worth doing well. Having a structured approach to energy management can maximize benefits
and reduce risks.

4.1.3. Is Energy Management Complicated?

▪ Many people confuse energy management with building management, equipment retrofits, or
energy audits. This is a common misconception.
▪ Energy management doesn’t always involve complicated analysis or big capital investment. You
can start by consolidating and analysing your energy spending profile over time. If you have the
budget, you can even have a dedicated Energy Manager to monitor the energy data.
▪ Whatever the situation, energy management is about building a basis of information for good
decision-making, and then acting on that information to reduce energy use.
▪ This can be done with expertise and manual data collection and analysis, but there are more cost-
effective ways. The right energy management system can automate the process from data
collection to analysis to reporting.
▪ This results in greater accuracy, higher productivity, and better decisions.

4.1.4. How Energy Management Works

▪ As explained above, there are four steps to the energy management process, and we will cover
them one by one.

Step 1: Data Collection

✓ There is no secret here. The more data you can get, and the more detailed it is, the better.
✓ Energy data can come from your monthly utility bills, from manual meter checks (old school
approach once a week, or once a month), or from automatic uploads from smart meters.
Monthly bills might be an easy starting point, but you’ll see the limits of that approach very
quickly.
✓ The lack of detail in terms of time, area, and type of energy use makes it difficult to find useful
insights. Manual meter checks can give you a day-by-day curve, but this process is time-
consuming and error-prone.
✓ Smart meters that record, store, and transmit data, where it can be viewed and processed using
a dedicated software platform, are ideal. However, you choose to get your data, it is a necessary
first step.

Step 2: Identify Opportunities

✓ When you begin to investigate and analyse your data, you’ll begin to find interesting bits of
information. It may be an increase in your monthly bill after adding new air conditioning units,
or an increase of lighting use during overtime hours.
✓ Whatever the situation, you need proper visualizations (graphs) and analytics to find out what
is happening behind the raw data. This can be difficult to achieve by spreadsheet, but simple
year-on-year comparisons can be a good starting point.
✓ There are also energy management software solutions that can help you visualize trends,
break data into robust metrics, and assess performance against various benchmarks. These
are especially useful when dealing with huge amounts of real-time data and exploring energy
saving opportunities.

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Step 3: Action
✓ Achieving savings requires action. When you identify opportunities for saving, the natural next
step is to act on them. Some solutions may be one-off fixes, while others may need more
internal cooperation and persuasion.
✓ Building support for action can be more challenging than the action itself. It helps to provide
clear evidence of the savings opportunity. When everyone agrees and understands that there
is a problem, you can build momentum to take action and solve it.
✓ You can create graphs and presentations yourself or share the findings through cloud
software.

Step 4: Track Progress & Ongoing Improvement

✓ Now that you are taking the right actions to save energy, it’s time to track the process and
implement an ongoing improvement schedule. New problems will arise over time, and old
ones may reoccur.
✓ To ensure your energy optimization initiatives succeed in the long run, you need to monitor
your progress, verify savings, and respond quickly to abnormalities.
✓ Make sure your energy management system can provide you with regular performance
reports and timely alerts. This lets you address problems immediately. But even without an
advanced tool, you should still input your monthly bills into a spreadsheet and make sure
everything stays on track.

4.1.5. Energy Management Constraints

▪ Energy management in distribution systems has gained attention in recent years.
▪ Coordination of electricity generation and consumption is crucial to save energy, reduce energy
prices and achieve global emission targets.

4.2. ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

▪ The Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) works with its stakeholders to enable federal
agencies to meet energy-related goals, identify affordable solutions, facilitate public-private
partnerships, and provide energy leadership to the country by identifying and leveraging
government best practices.
▪ Energy management offers multiple benefits to organizations which include: Cutting costs
through competitive procurement and strategically decreasing consumption. Reducing
greenhouse gas emissions for greater corporate social responsibility.

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4.2.1. Design of Energy Management Program
▪ Thousands of organizations use ENERGY STAR to help them build and improve their energy
programs. Get on the road to improved savings. Follow the steps below to build an energy
management system for continual energy savings.
Step one: Identify gaps
Put your energy program to the test. EPA developed simple assessment tools from the programs of
ENERGY STAR partners to quickly identify energy management practices that may be missing.
Decide which matrix fits you best and see how your program measures up through a simple gap
analysis.
Step two: Fill the gaps with energy management guidance
Every energy program has room to improve. The roadmap to improvement is the ENERGY STAR
Guidelines for Energy Management. Read the guidelines to find ways to fill the gaps you identified.
The guidelines also connect you with targeted ENERGY STAR tools to meet your energy management
needs.
Step three: Build an energy team
A strong energy team is the core of an effective energy program. Teaming Up to Save Energy gives
tips and guidance on forming a successful energy team. Watch the videos for more ideas on building
energy teams across the company.
Step four: Raise awareness and engage sites
People are the heart of an energy program. Employees must be involved and support an energy
program for it to have success.
One of the most effective ways to engage employees and build site energy teams is by conducting an
Energy Treasure Hunt.
Pursuing and earning recognition for improved energy performance is a great way to engage sites
and raise awareness. ENERGY STAR offers industrial facilities two forms of recognition:
✓ Achieving the ENERGY STAR Challenge for Industry
✓ Qualifying for ENERGY STAR plant certification
Step five: Advance your energy program
When the basics are in place, it is time to move energy management forward.

4.2.2. Six key steps of an energy management strategy

Step 1: Get commitment and appoint an energy manager
The first step is to make sure that senior management understands the business benefits of an energy
strategy and supports the proposed energy saving measures. Appointing an energy manager
demonstrates that the business takes its energy saving goals seriously. The energy manager's role is
to:
✓ Lead the energy team in their energy saving actions
✓ Communicate and emphasise to colleagues the importance of the energy strategy
The energy manager needs experience and training to be effective - relevant professional
qualifications are available. Depending on the size of your organisation the role might be full or part
time.
Step 2: Understand the issues
To manage energy use effectively you need to have a clear understanding of:
✓ how your business is currently using energy
✓ how your energy usage compares with other businesses
✓ attitudes within your business towards adopting energy saving measures

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Step 3: Plan and organise
Start by carrying out an energy survey to see where you can make energy savings. Use all the
information you gather to produce an energy policy and identify long, medium- and short-term
energy saving targets.
Step 4: Develop an action plan
Once you have identified your targets, draw up an action plan outlining the practical steps your
business will take to achieve your goals. Give individuals responsibility for specific tasks.
Step 5: Involve your staff
It's very important to get support for the energy strategy from:
✓ key decision makers
✓ senior management
✓ staff at all levels of the business
Carrying out training and highlighting the strategy's benefits all help to boost staff participation.
Step 6: Control, monitor and report
Monitor your performance regularly to check that you're making progress towards your energy
saving goals. Put in place procedures to make sure your systems will carry on operating efficiently
and continue to make savings in the future. Let staff know how progress towards achieving targets
is going - this helps to keep them motivated.

4.3. ENERGY ACCOUNTING, MONITORING AND TARGETING CONTROL

4.3.1. Energy Accounting
The main goal of energy accounting is,
✓ Manage energy costs
✓ Promote energy/environmental awareness
✓ Manage water and other resource costs
The main objectives of energy accounting is,
✓ Verify savings from energy retrofits
✓ Motivate staff to manage energy costs
✓ Set energy cost savings goals and monetary incentives
✓ Prioritize sites for energy retrofits
✓ Troubleshoot unusual consumption increases
✓ Find billing errors
✓ Prepare to negotiate for price and service as electricity undergoes deregulation
4.3.1.1 Seven reasons for Energy Accounting
1. Record and attribute energy consumption and costs.
Energy costs depend on the amount consumed and it’s price. In an organization with many facilities,
energy accounting makes it possible to compare energy use and cost among facilities and to monitor
how energy use changes over time.
2. Troubleshoot energy problems and billing errors.
By consistently tracking energy use, you can identify problems. A sudden unexplained increase in
consumption, for instance, means it’s time to investigate the site for the cause.
3. Provide a basis for prioritizing energy capital investments.
Find out which facilities have the highest energy costs, and consider targeting them for energy
retrofits or other energy management efforts.

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4. Evaluate energy program success and communicate results.
Did you save what you thought you would from your energy management efforts? How did the actual
dollar savings from your lighting or HVAC retrofit compare to the savings predicted by your vendor
or contractor? Without energy accounting, it’s virtually impossible to answer these questions. Once
you determine the results of energy management activities, it’s important to communicate this
information to decision makers and implementers who were responsible for the activities. Energy
accounting reports and graphs are the tools for this important feedback.
5. Create incentives for energy management.
It’s often difficult to get anyone in an organization to take the time and responsibility required for
carrying out energy management activities because there is little incentive to take on the task. A
maintenance director or site manager may not see much benefit in reducing energy costs if all of the
savings revert to the general fund, or if lower energy bills only result in smaller allocations for utility
costs in next year’s budget.
6. Budget more accurately.
Energy accounting gives a historical look at costs that will help you budget more realistically for the
future.

4.3.1.2. Methods of Energy Accounting

There are several ways to compare information that will affect how you choose to track energy data
for your organization. Three methods that vary in how they account for changes in weather are
explained in the following paragraphs.
1. Present-to-past comparison.
This is the simplest method of comparing energy use, requiring only monthly utility bill data. In this
method, energy usage for a given period — a month, quarter, year, or other period — is compared
with the same period of the previous year or a base year.
2. Multiple year monthly average.
This method gives a more accurate reflection of historical heating and cooling usage than the
present-to-past comparison, especially if other factors such as square footage and hours of
equipment operation have remained constant.
3. Temperature corrected method — heating degree days/cooling degree days.
Because most building energy use is affected by weather, this method will most accurately reflect
energy savings due to changes in building equipment or energy management.

4.3.1.3. Means of Energy Accounting

Energy accounting can be done manually, on computerized spreadsheets, or with dedicated
software. There is no single “right choice” of what method to use — the best method depends on the
characteristics of your organization, what you want to track, and how you plan to communicate your
energy accounting data.
1. Manual Energy Accounting.
For a small organization such as a single elementary school, a manual worksheet to record monthly
energy bills may be sufficient.
2. Energy Accounting Using A Spreadsheet.
One step up from manual energy accounting is using a computer spreadsheet program (like Excel or
Lotus) to track energy expenses. The spreadsheet can record the same information as a manual
system and automatically calculate energy use per day, energy use per square foot, or energy use per
square foot per HDD. Spreadsheets also provide graphing capabilities.

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3. Commercial Energy Accounting Software.
For large organizations with many facilities, it makes sense to consider purchasing commercial
energy accounting software.
Energy accounting software makes it easier to enter or import data, provides ready-made reports,
and calculates corrections for some factors that affect energy use. Energy accounting software
generally incorporates weather and square footage corrections, and will pro-rate energy garbage,
sewer, and recycling.
4. Energy Accounting as a Service
Some utilities and energy consultants will provide energy accounting services to your organization
for a fee.

4.3.1.4. Features of Energy Accounting Software

Because software varies in terms of complexity, user friendliness, application and cost, comparing
different programs can be challenging. A good start is examining the following basic features found
in virtually all software:
1. Organization/Site Records.
Each software program must record basic site information, including the name of the site, its address,
and associated accounts and meters.
2. Billing and Climate Records.
All of the reviewed commercial software programs record total monthly energy consumption and
cost based on monthly utility bills for each fuel. All allow at least some additional detail, such as
recording and breaking out the cost of electrical demand, different charges for different times of use,
and power factor charges from electricity bills.
3. An executive summary of the organization as a whole.
Ideally this report should be no longer than a few pages and should show at a glance the performance
of major departments and the entire organization, including dollar savings.
Reports or graphs with this information are critical in providing administrators with easy to
understand information on your energy management efforts.
4. Monthly direct side-by-side comparison of current energy use to base line or previous year’s use
for each site.
This kind of report or graph allows you to note changes in energy use patterns that result from
operational changes, equipment failures, retrofits or other factors. A 2-year comparison graph
provides an easy way to track progress in reducing costs, or to spot problems at individual sites.
5. Calculations of comparison parameters.
These can include the percentage change in fuel use, dollar cost per square foot, total BTUs per
square foot, and actual fuel use in terms of kWh per square foot. These parameters make it easier to
compare similar buildings. Depending on how you will use your data, the most appropriate
parameters may vary. Percent of change is useful because goals are often set in these terms. Cost
information is more meaningful to most people than kwh and BTUs.
6. Graphs.
Visual presentation of data usually is more effective in getting the point across. Many energy
accounting software programs now have the capability of attractively formatted color graphs.
Most energy accounting suppliers will provide you with a trial copy of the software. As you review
software for possible purchase, consider the data entry methods, and review many of the standard
reports. Try customizing reports or creating user-defined reports. Check to see if they will meet your
organization’s needs for both content and presentation format.

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7. User Friendliness.
Most of the main energy accounting software programs are Windows-based. There are a variety of
procedures for entering data, creating reports and graphs, and flagging possible errors.
8. Documentation and Support.
Documentation should, at a minimum, explain each entry screen or window and menu option, and
preferably show the screen image. A glossary or explanation of specialized terms in the text will be
helpful, as will on-line help.

4.3.2. Energy Monitoring and Targeting

Energy monitoring and targeting is primarily a management technique that uses energy
information as a basis to eliminate waste, reduce and control current level of energy use and improve
the existing operating procedures. It builds on the principle "you can't manage what you don't
measure". It essentially combines the principles of energy use and statistics.
While, monitoring is essentially aimed at establishing the existing pattern of energy
consumption, targeting is the identification of energy consumption level which is desirable as a
management goal to work towards energy conservation.
Monitoring and Targeting is a management technique in which all plant and building utilities
such as fuel, steam, refrigeration, compressed air, water, effluent, and electricity are managed as
controllable resources in the same way that raw materials, finished product inventory, building
occupancy, personnel and capital are managed. It involves a systematic, disciplined division of the
facility into Energy Cost Centers. The utilities used in each centre are closely monitored, and the
energy used is compared with production volume or any other suitable measure of operation. Once
this information is available on a regular basis, targets can be set, variances can be spotted and
interpreted, and remedial actions can be taken and implemented.
The Monitoring and Targeting programs have been so effective that they show typical reductions
in annual energy costs in various industrial sectors between 5 and 20%.
Elements of Monitoring & Targeting System
The essential elements of M&T system are:
✓ Recording -Measuring and recording energy consumption
✓ Analysing -Correlating energy consumption to a measured output, such as production quantity
✓ Comparing -Comparing energy consumption to an appropriate standard or benchmark
✓ Setting Targets -Setting targets to reduce or control energy consumption
✓ Monitoring -Comparing energy consumption to the set target on a regular basis
✓ Reporting -Reporting the results including any variances from the targets which have been set
✓ Controlling -Implementing management measures to correct any variances, which may have
occurred.
Particularly M&T system will involve the following:
✓ Checking the accuracy of energy invoices
✓ Allocating energy costs to specific departments (Energy Accounting Centres)
✓ Determining energy performance/efficiency
✓ Recording energy use, so that projects intended to improve energy efficiency can be checked
✓ Highlighting performance problems in equipment or systems
Rationale for Monitoring, Targeting and Reporting
The energy used by any business varies with production processes, volumes and input. Determining
the relationship of energy use to key performance indicators will allow you to determine:
✓ Whether your current energy is better or worse than before

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✓ Trends in energy consumption that reflects seasonal, weekly, and other operational parameters
✓ How much your future energy use is likely to vary if you change aspects of your business
✓ Specific areas of wasted energy
✓ Comparison with other business with similar characteristics - This "benchmarking" process will
provide valuable indications of effectiveness of your operations as well as energy use
✓ How much your business has reacted to changes in the past
✓ How to develop performance targets for an energy management program
Information related to energy use may be obtained from following sources:
✓ Plant level information can be derived from financial accounting systems-utilities cost centre
✓ Plant department level information can be found in comparative energy consumption data for a
group of similar facilities, service entrance meter readings etc.
✓ System level (for example, boiler plant) performance data can be determined from submetering
data
✓ Equipment level information can be obtained from nameplate data, run-time and schedule
information, sub-metered data on specific energy consuming equipment.
The important point to be made here is that all of these data are useful and can be processed to yield
information about facility performance.

4.4. ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS AND TRANSFORMERS

4.4.1. Energy Efficient Motors
An energy efficient motor (EEM) is a motor that gives you the same output strength by consuming
lesser amounts of power. EEM is manufactured using the same frame as a standard motor, but they
have some differences:
✓ Higher quality and thinner steel laminations in the stator
✓ More copper in the winding
✓ Optimized air gap between the rotor and the stator
✓ Reduced fan losses
✓ Closer machining tolerances
✓ High quality aluminium used in rotor frame

4.4.2. Standard Motor Efficiency

Standard motor efficiency is the ratio of mechanical power delivered by the motor (output) to the
electrical power supplied to the motor (input).
% Efficiency = (Mechanical power output/Electrical power input) x 100%
EEM utilizes improved motor design and high-quality materials to reduce motor losses, therefore
improving motor efficiency.

4.4.3. Need For Efficient Motors

In the future, the cost of energy will increase due to environmental problems and limited resources.
The electric motors consume a major part of the electric energy in industries. Thus, implementing
energy efficient motor could save a significant amount of electricity. It would also reduce the
production of green-house gases and push down the total environmental cost of electricity
generation. Also, these motors can reduce maintenance costs and improve operations in industry.
Efficient energy use is achieved primarily by means of a more efficient technology or process rather
than by changes in individual behaviour.

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An EEM produces the same shaft output power, but uses less input power than a standard efficiency
motor. A standard motor is a compromise between efficiency, endurance, starting torque, and initial
cost. Standard motor generally competes on price, not efficiency. On the contrary, EEM competes on
efficiency, not price. Shortly, EEM is needed
a) When there is a new installation or modification to your plant.
b) When old motors are damaged and need rewinding.
c) When existing motors are underloaded or overloaded.
d) While protecting other devices.

4.4.4. Ways of Improving Efficiency

The various ways of improving efficiency includes:
✓ Reduction of iron losses
✓ Reduction of flux density
✓ Usage of low loss magnetic material
✓ Reduction of stator and rotor copper losses
✓ Increasing the copper section i.e., the stator slot area or rotor bar section
✓ Increasing stator yoke
✓ Reducing rotor diameter
✓ Increasing the speed of starting current
✓ Reducing the starting torque
✓ Increasing core length for maintaining the starting torque
✓ Increasing the thickness of the copper wires wound around the core of the motor. This reduces
both the electrical resistance losses in the wires and the temperature at which the motor
operates.
✓ Using more and thinner high-quality steel sheets for the main fixed and rotating parts of the
motor. This also minimizes electrical losses.
✓ Narrowing the air gap between the spinning and stationary motor components, increasing the
strength of its magnetic field. This lets the motor deliver the same output using less power

4.4.5. Efficiency Evaluation Factor

Efficiency evaluations attempt to relate the results obtained from a specific programme to the
resources expended to maintain the programme. Efficiency evaluations are receiving increasingly
greater attention as programmes must compete with the limited resources.
Energy efficiency index
▪ Cooling tower
✓ Fan efficiency
✓ Cooling efficiency
✓ Water loss of cooling tower
▪ Heat exchanger
✓ Surface heat flux intensity
✓ End temperature difference
✓ Power and heat ratio
▪ Water pump
✓ Pump efficiency
✓ Water loss of pump
✓ Operating efficiency

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▪ Pipe
✓ Surplus coefficient of pipe
✓ Coefficient of heat loss
▪ Valve
✓ Surplus coefficient of valve
Advantages:
▪ EEM has a lower slip so they have a higher speed than standard motors.
▪ EEM can reduce maintenance costs and improve operations in industry due to robustness and
reliability. It is of low cost than standard motor.
▪ Increasing the productivity.
▪ Efficiencies are 3% to 7% higher compared with standard motors.
▪ Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses.

4.4.2. Energy Efficient Transformers

Amorphous core transformers or amorphous metal transformer is a type of energy efficient
transformer. Amorphous transformer is an equipment to reduce transmission and distribution
losses greatly. With improvement of electric steel (silicon steel), loss of transformer is reduced to
50% of that of trans used earlier.
▪ Amorphous core transformers or amorphous metal transformer is a type of energy efficient
transformer.
▪ Amorphous transformer is an equipment to reduce transmission and distribution losses greatly.
▪ With improvement of electric steel (silicon steel), loss of transformer is reduced to 50% of that
of trans used earlier.
▪ It is possible to achieve even higher efficiency using new better magnetic materials. Amorphous
transformer is modern example and uses amorphous metal for the core.
▪ This core can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.
▪ Core loss by this metal can be reduced to 70-80% than traditional transformer.
▪ This results into low electricity production and less CO2 emission at generating plants using coal.
▪ Energy loss due to heat or vibration from the core is reduced.
▪ Amorphous transformer uses metallic glass-alloy for the core.
▪ Reduction in energy loss over conventional transformers is about 70%.
▪ They have increased efficiencies even at low loads i.e. 98.5% efficiency at 35 % load.
▪ They are costlier than conventional iron core transformers, but the overall benefit towards
energy savings will compensate for the higher initial investment.
▪ At present they are available upto 1600 kVA rating.
Amorphous metal:
▪ Amorphous metal is an alloy rather than a pure metal. They are produced by using rapid
solidification technology, where molten metal is cast into thin solid ribbons by cooling at a high
rate.
▪ It is a magnetic material having high permeability due to no crystalline magnetic anisotropy
(states having different sizes or characteristics along different axes).
▪ The material in which such disordered structure is produced directly from the liquid state during
cooling are called glasses and hence amorphous metals are commonly referred to as metallic
glasses or glassy metals.
▪ They can be produced by other methods such as physical vapour deposition, solid state reaction,
iron irradiation, metal-spinning or mechanical alloying.

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▪ These cores allow, smaller, lighter and more efficient design in many high frequency applications
for inverters, U.P.S. (uninterrupted power system), adjustable speed drives etc.
▪ Nano-crystalline amorphous metal offers saving in size, core material and labour for various
application.
▪ They have superior magnetic qualities, such as lower core loss compared with conventional
crystalline or magnetic materials. The cores of this type offer superior design alternatives.

Advantages of amorphous transformers are:

✓ Iron losses: (a) Eddy current, (b) Hysteresis are very low.
✓ Temperature rises in working condition is very low.
✓ Magnetizing current is very small and Energy saving by about 70%.
✓ Requires less maintenance and its reliability is higher.
✓ Reduce CO, emission and fossil fuel consumption.
✓ Overload capacity is much more with Excellent short circuit capacity.
Limitations:
✓ Small thickness of core stampings.
✓ Large core size and conductors
✓ Hardness of strip than CRGO strips.
✓ Big tank and Large overall cost.

4.5. COMPUTER BASED ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The Computer Aided Home Energy Management (CAHEM) system controls residential demand in
response to the hourly market data including price, load and temperature data. A fuzzy demand
controller incorporates customer preferences in determining operational settings of residential
appliances.
The Computer Aided Home Energy Management (CAHEM) system enables the implementation of
price-responsive load management for the residential sector. As personal computers are rapidly
becoming a part of houses in the United States, the use of a personal computer for the prototype
CAHEM system is obvious. Eventually, the CAHEM system will be implemented with a dedicated
microcontroller system. Figure represents a block diagram for peak load control with the CAHEM
system.

The CAHEM system consists of a computerized load control implemented with the help of X10
appliance controllers. A computerized control is composed of the following three units:

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1. Load Models: Load models for the residential end-uses calculate hourly electricity consumption in
a housing unit. Estimation of the hourly electricity consumption helps in designing optimal load
shifting strategies. Load models also enable us to simulate an aggregate effect of peak load
management programs.
2. User Interface: A user interface is required for the user to set the operational preferences for
various end-uses under-price responsive control. The user interface conveys the current level of
appliance control to the customer. It also controls load controller hardware.
3. Load Shifting Algorithm: This unit determines load shifting and appliance scheduling based on the
price, load, and temperature data, along with customer preferences. It decides operational settings
for residential appliances, e.g. thermostat setting of a central air conditioner.
Home automation hardware enables actual control of the appliances. It consists of a programmable
controller which interfaces to a personal computer and incorporates a two way transmission of
powerline signals. A controller sends control signals over existing electric wiring to the receiver
modules dedicated to each appliance. The receiver modules control the appliances depending on the
control command received from the main controller. The user can request the status of each
appliance connected to the programmable controller with the help of the user interface.

Residential End-Uses
Average urban houses in the United States are equipped with a wide range of electricity end-use
appliances. Typical residential end-uses of electricity include air conditioning, water heater, lights,
cooking appliances, refrigerator, dishwasher, washer, and dryer. Figure 16 shows the breakdown of
energy consumption by the end-use in the average American home.

Breakdown of residential electricity consumption

Categories of End-Use Devices
End-use device ‘uses’ electricity to provide a ‘service’ to the consumer. In price responsive load
control, the demand from the residential end-use devices can be altered by modifying the device’s
usage and/or the service it provides. The residential end-use devices can be classified into three basic
categories depending on load control methodology. Figure summarizes the categories of residential
end-use devices.

Categories of residential end-use devices

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1. Reschedulable usage: This category of end-use devices makes use of a property of thermal
storage that allows rescheduling of usage. Air conditioners and space heaters fall under this
category. In the case of air conditioners, thermal storage or thermal inertia helps in modifying
times at which electricity is being consumed, maintaining reasonable comfort for the consumer.
2. Reschedulable usage and service: The residential end-use appliances in this category can be
operated at different times to get service. Common examples of reschedulable appliances are
dishwasher, clothes washer/dryer, and other cleaning appliances.
3. Non-reschedulable usage and service: This category is characterized by non-reschedulable
loads that can only reduce usage and service, like lights. The usage of such loads can be reduced,
which in turn reduces the level of service provided by these loads.
Hardware Components : CAHEM user interface is demonstrated by following hardware components:
1. X10 Controller (CM11): CM11 is a bidirectional X10 controller that connects to a serial port and
converts human readable commands into Interface Communication Protocol. It communicates
with the X10 modules to control their operation.
2. Lamp Module (LM465): The lamp module supports on/off and dim/bright control of a lamp
connected to it. It communicates with the X10 controller (CM11).
3. Appliance Module (HD243): This heavy-duty appliance module is used for controlling water
heaters, washers, and dryers.
4. Programmable Thermostat (TempLincTM): The TempLinc module allows control of the central
air conditioner. The X10 controller configures, as well as controls, the operation of the TempLinc
unit.
The customer sets preferences depending on his/her priorities – either comfort or peak load
reduction benefits. Comfort and peak load reduction benefits are two counteracting factors, meaning
the maximization of one factor is equivalent to the minimization of the other. For offering the
customer simplicity in control, three modes which characterize different priorities are defined.
1. Super-Save: As is obvious from its name, in this mode the customer chooses to offer more
allowance for load control at the cost of reduced comfort.
2. Economy: This mode tries to balance comfort and benefits for load control. It has narrower
tolerances for operational settings than the Super-Save mode.
3. Comfort: It sets a very strict tolerance on the operational settings. The controller will try to
maintain the appliances at the desired settings as best as possible.
The operational settings for each mode may differ from system to system. However, in order to
simplify aggregate-level simulations, three different sets of settings are specified.
1. Price threshold: The load reduction mechanism activates when the price exceeds the price
threshold. The higher the price threshold, the lower the incidences of load reduction operation.
The setpoints for various modes are chosen in order to keep consistency with Oh.
2. Temperature tolerance: The allowable swing in thermostat settings for air conditioners decides
the perseverance of maintaining the desired thermal comfort. This setting is independent of the
thermostat setting.
3. Minimum brightness: The lesser the value of minimum brightness, the higher the load reduction
that can be achieved.
4. Minimum water heater performance: The water heater performance is the fraction of energy
consumption for the water heater at desired settings. The effective water temperature is
proportional to the energy consumption (assuming constant efficiency).
5. Maximum delay for washer/dryer and dishwasher: The number of hours between the
scheduled operation and deferred operation is defined by the maximum delay.

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4.6. SIMULATION OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT FOR A DOMESTIC CONSUMER

▪ Nowadays, new developments are being verified in the energy management of domestic
consumers, focusing on the real-time power consumption, the available micro generation
systems, the charge and discharge of the electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, Demand
Response (DR) programs, and the interaction with the grid operator. This is possible through
the reception and sending of information between the grid and the house.
▪ The implementation of Smart Home and Smart Meter systems is increasing on the demand side
in the Smart Grid (SG) context. For the energy management of domestic consumers the Smart
Meter is important to communicate with the Smart Grid distributed system.
▪ It also considers the preferences of the domestic users to minimize the electricity costs according
to retail electricity market and the use a domestic load control system. The energy management
systems allow optimizing the power plants operation and the grid capacity use, and supporting
the use of renewable systems in real-time.
▪ DR optimization studies in a Smart Home system are performed aiming to the power
consumption management from the standpoint of household loads.
▪ The real-time simulation studies of electrical systems are important to obtain optimal models
and techniques which can support operation support tools, the management support tools,
power electronics equipment’s and control systems.
▪ Here, the RT-Lab simulation, which includes Matlab®/Simulink® skills for real-time electric
systems simulation have been recently used with recognized advantages in obtaining an
accurate system modeling and simulation.
▪ Several methodologies performed in Opal RT’s simulator allows advances in computational
simulation as in cases of electrical drive technology with computational and communication
tasks, the real-time simulation of the motor drives models, among others.
▪ In fact, several developments have been recently presented in what concerns real-time
simulations using the Opal RT simulator.
▪ Here is the study of developments and improvements in the Intelligent Energy Systems. The new
application is implemented on Opal RT-Lab Matlab®/Simulink® real-time simulation and
compared with a previous version of the SCADA House Intelligent Management (SHIM).

Energy Management with SHIM

▪ The SHIM system has been continuously developed and improved in order to model, control and
manage a typical domestic consumer, including its behavior, and it comprises several players’
resources such as the energy consumption, the generation units and the interaction with the
electricity market, within the smart grids context.
▪ This energy management system allows monitoring and controlling the installation
consumption and, at the same time, it includes optimization tools to support the consumers’
energy management to reduce the total consumption.
▪ It can accommodate deterministic and heuristic approaches for the optimal economic and
technical management solution determination.
▪ The SHIM, comprises hardware equipment to control loads and the measurement of the power
consumption in the management system. A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is used for
control; several energy analyzers are used to obtain energy measures.
▪ An industrial computer and/or a smart phone can be used to implement the interface with the
users. The SHIM is based on a SCADA system to control and monitor the energy resources, and

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it is important to support the energy consumption activity of the domestic consumer, allowing
an improved energy management.
▪ Fig. 1 shows the SHIM structure for the management of the consumption and the interaction
with the user.

RT-LAB SIMULATION FOR UPDATED SHIM

▪ Here the improvements, and respective advantages and new skills, which result from the SHIM
update that is seen. The new improvements on SHIM system result from the possibilities given
by the electric power system models compilation and simulation implementation on OPAL-RT
simulator (namely on OP5600 off-the-shelf Hardware-in-the Loop).
▪ The OP5600 chassis allows the advanced monitoring, the I/O connection, and a processor
adequate for real-time digital simulation. The load equipment and hardware components, such
as switches and electronic ballasts implemented in LASIE, can be directly connected to OPAL-RT
blocks of I/O connection (digital inputs/outputs and analog inputs/outputs).
▪ The communications with measurement equipments for data acquisition, such as energy meters
and drivers, can be provided in an updated system version by using OPAL-RT RS-485
communications.
▪ The SHIM system is actually able to obtain electric measures via RS-485 communications
through the installed PLC.
▪ Fig. shows the communications implemented on both the SCADA based SHIM system and the
Updated SHIM (RT-LAB real-time simulation).

Architecture of the Updated SHIM system.

With the integration on OPAL-RT system, the SHIM system obtains new and updated operability
characteristics.
The integration of Matlab®/Simulink® makes possible the simulation of the upstream building and
distribution network elements for a more realistic modelling and simulation of the consumption
management in the updated SHIM version. In the SCADA based SHIM version, it is necessary to use
industrial software, which comprises several limitations in the interaction with additional software.
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