Current Waste Management Strategies (Rakesh, 2023)

The long-recognized hierarchy of management of wastes, in order of preference consists of

prevention, minimization, recycling and reuse, biological treatment, incineration, and landfill

disposal.

Figure 2: Hierarchy of Waste Management Figure shows the hierarchy of management of

wastes in order or preference, starting with prevention as the most favourable to disposal as
the least favourable option. Source: Drstuey via Wikimedia Commons

Waste Prevention

The ideal waste management alternative is to prevent waste generation in the first place.

Hence, waste prevention is a basic goal of all the waste management strategies. Numerous

technologies can be employed throughout the manufacturing, use, or post-use portions of

product life cycles to eliminate waste and, in turn, reduce or prevent pollution. Some

representative strategies include environmentally conscious manufacturing methods that

incorporate less hazardous or harmful materials, the use of modern leakage detection systems

for material storage, innovative chemical neutralization techniques to reduce reactivity, or

water saving technologies that reduce the need for fresh water inputs.
Waste Minimization

In many cases, wastes cannot be outright eliminated from a variety of processes. However,

numerous strategies can be implemented to reduce or minimize waste generation. Waste

minimization, or source reduction, refers to the collective strategies of design and fabrication

of products or services that minimize the amount of generated waste and/or reduce the

toxicity of the resultant waste. Often these efforts come about from identified trends or

specific products that may be causing problems in the waste stream and the subsequent steps

taken to halt these problems. In industry, waste can be reduced by reusing materials, using

less hazardous substitute materials, or by modifying components of design and processing.

Many benefits can be realized by waste minimization or source reduction, including reduced

use of natural resources and the reduction of toxicity of wastes.

Waste minimization strategies are extremely common in manufacturing applications; the

savings of material use preserves resources but also saves significant manufacturing related

costs. Advancements in streamlined packaging reduces material use, increased distribution

efficiency reduces fuel consumption and resulting air emissions. Further, engineered building

materials can often be designed with specific favorable properties that, when accounted for in

overall structural design, can greatly reduce the overall mass and weight of material needed

for a given structure. This reduces the need for excess material and reduces the waste

associated with component fabrication.

The dry cleaning industry provides an excellent example of product substitution to reduce

toxic waste generation. For decades, dry cleaners used tetrachloroethylene, or “perc” as a dry

cleaning solvent. Although effective, tetrachloroethylene is a relatively toxic compound.

Additionally, it is easily introduced into the environment, where it is highly recalcitrant due
to its physical properties. Further, when its degradation occurs, the intermediate daughter

products generated are more toxic to human health and the environment.

Because of its toxicity and impact on the environment, the dry cleaning industry has adopted

new practices and increasingly utilizes less toxic replacement products, including petroleum-

based compounds. Further, new emerging technologies are incorporating carbon dioxide and

other relatively harmless compounds. While these substitute products have in many cases

been mandated by government regulation, they have also been adopted in response to

consumer demands and other market-based forces.

Recycling and Reuse

Recycling refers to recovery of useful materials such as glass, paper, plastics, wood, and

metals from the waste stream so they may be incorporated into the fabrication of new

products. With greater incorporation of recycled materials, the required use of raw materials

for identical applications is reduced. Recycling reduces the need of natural resource

exploitation for raw materials, but it also allows waste materials to be recovered and utilized

as valuable resource materials. Recycling of wastes directly conserves natural resources,

reduces energy consumption and emissions generated by extraction of virgin materials and

their subsequent manufacture into finished products, reduces overall energy consumption and

greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to the global climate change, and reduces the

incineration or landfilling of the materials that have been recycled. Moreover, recycling

creates several economic benefits, including the potential to create job markets and drive

growth.

Common recycled materials include paper, plastics, glass, aluminum, steel, and wood.

Additionally, many construction materials can be reused, including concrete, asphalt

materials, masonry, and reinforcing steel. “Green” plant-based wastes are often recovered and

immediately reused for mulch or fertilizer applications. Many industries also recover various

by-products and/or refine and “re-generate” solvents for reuse. Examples include copper and

nickel recovery from metal finishing processes; the recovery of oils, fats, and plasticizers by

solvent extraction from filter media such as activated carbon and clays; and acid recovery by

spray roasting, ion exchange, or crystallization. Further, a range of used food-based oils are

being recovered and utilized in “biodiesel” applications.

Numerous examples of successful recycling and reuse efforts are encountered every day. In

some cases, the recycled materials are used as input materials and are heavily processed into

end products. Common examples include the use of scrap paper for new paper

manufacturing, or the processing of old aluminum cans into new aluminum products. In other

cases, reclaimed materials undergo little or no processing prior to their re-use.

Some common examples include the use of tree waste as wood chips, or the use of brick and

other fixtures into new structural construction. In any case, the success of recycling depends

on effective collection and processing of recyclables, markets for reuse (e.g. manufacturing

and/or applications that utilize recycled materials), and public acceptance and promotion of

recycled products and applications utilizing recycled materials.

Biological Treatment

Landfill disposal of wastes containing significant organic fractions is increasingly

discouraged in many countries, including the United States. Such disposal practices are even

prohibited in several European countries. Since landfilling does not provide an attractive

management option, other techniques have been identified. One option is to treat waste so
that biodegradable materials are degraded and the remaining inorganic waste fraction (known

as residuals) can be subsequently disposed or used for a beneficial purpose.

Biodegradation of wastes can be accomplished by

using aerobic composting, anaerobic digestion, or mechanical biological treatment (MBT)

methods. If the organic fraction can be separated from inorganic material, aerobic composting

or anaerobic digestion can be used to degrade the waste and convert it into usable compost.

For example, organic wastes such as food waste, yard waste, and animal manure that consist

of naturally degrading bacteria can be converted under controlled conditions into compost,

which can then be utilized as natural fertilizer. Aerobic composting is accomplished by

placing selected proportions of organic waste into piles, rows or vessels, either in open

conditions or within closed buildings fitted with gas collection and treatment systems. During

the process, bulking agents such as wood chips are added to the waste material to enhance the

aerobic degradation of organic materials. Finally, the material is allowed to stabilize and

mature during a curing process where pathogens are concurrently destroyed. The end-

products of the composting process include carbon dioxide, water, and the usable compost

material.

Compost material may be used in a variety of applications. In addition to its use as a soil

amendment for plant cultivation, compost can be used remediate soils, groundwater, and

stormwater. Composting can be labor-intensive, and the quality of the compost is heavily

dependent on proper control of the composting process. Inadequate control of the operating

conditions can result in compost that is unsuitable for beneficial applications. Nevertheless,

composting is becoming increasingly popular; composting diverted 82 million tons of waste

material away the landfill waste stream in 2009, increased from 15 million tons in 1980. This

diversion also prevented the release of approximately 178 million metric tons of carbon
dioxide in 2009 – an amount equivalent to the yearly carbon dioxide emissions of 33 million

automobiles.

In some cases, aerobic processes are not feasible. As an alternative, anaerobic processes may

be utilized. Anaerobic digestion consists of degrading mixed or sorted organic wastes in

vessels under anaerobic conditions. The anaerobic degradation process produces a

combination of methane and carbon dioxide (biogas) and residuals (biosolids). Biogas can be

used for heating and electricity production, while residuals can be used as fertilizers and soil

amendments. Anaerobic digestion is a preferred degradation for wet wastes as compared to

the preference of composting for dry wastes. The advantage of anaerobic digestion is biogas

collection; this collection and subsequent beneficial utilization makes it a preferred

alternative to landfill disposal of wastes. Also, waste is degraded faster through anaerobic

digestion as compared to landfill disposal.

Another waste treatment alternative, mechanical biological treatment (MBT), is not common

in the United States. However, this alternative is widely used in Europe. During

implementation of this method, waste material is subjected to a combination of mechanical

and biological operations that reduce volume through the degradation of organic fractions in

the waste. Mechanical operations such as sorting, shredding, and crushing prepare the waste

for subsequent biological treatment, consisting of either aerobic composting or anaerobic

digestion. Following the biological processes, the reduced waste mass may be subjected to

incineration.

Incineration

Waste degradation not only produces useful solid end-products (such as compost),

degradation by-products can also be used as a beneficial energy source. As discussed above,
anaerobic digestion of waste can generate biogas, which can be captured and incorporated

into electricity generation. Alternatively, waste can be directly incinerated to produce energy.

Incineration consists of waste combustion at very high temperatures to produce electrical

energy. The byproduct of incineration is ash, which requires proper characterization prior to

disposal, or in some cases, beneficial re-use. It is widely used in developed countries due to

landfill space limitations. It is estimated that about 130 million tons of waste are annually

combusted in more than 600 plants in 35 countries. Further, incineration is often used to

effectively mitigate hazardous wastes such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, oils, solvents,

medical wastes, and pesticides.

Table 1: Pros and Cons of Incinerator

Pros of Incinerators Cons of Incinerators

The fly ash (airborne particles) has high

The incinerated waste is turned into
levels of toxic chemicals, including dioxin,
energy.
cadmium and lead.

The volume of waste is reduced. The initial construction costs are high.

Despite the advantages, incineration is often viewed negatively because of high initial

construction costs, and emissions of ash, which is toxic (see Table above). Currently, many

‘next generation” systems are being researched and developed, and the USEPA is developing

new regulations to carefully monitor incinerator air emissions under the Clean Air Act.

Landfill Disposal

Despite advances in reuse and recycling, landfill disposal remains the primary waste disposal

method in the United States. As previously mentioned, the rate of MSW generation continues
to increase, but overall landfill capacity is decreasing. New regulations concerning proper

waste disposal and the use of innovative liner systems to minimize the potential of

groundwater contamination from leachate infiltration and migration have resulted in a

substantial increase in the costs of landfill disposal. Also, public opposition to landfills

continues to grow, partially inspired by memories of historic uncontrolled dumping practices

the resulting undesirable side effects of uncontrolled vectors, contaminated groundwater,

unmitigated odors, and subsequent diminished property values.

Landfills can be designed and permitted to accept hazardous wastes in accordance with

RCRA Subtitle C regulations, or they may be designed and permitted to accept municipal

solid waste in accordance with RCRA Subtitle D regulations. Regardless of their waste

designation, landfills are engineered structures consisting of bottom and side liner systems,

leachate collection and removal systems, final cover systems, gas collection and removal

systems, and groundwater monitoring systems. An extensive permitting process is required

for siting, designing and operating landfills. Post-closure monitoring of landfills is also

typically required for at least 30 years. Because of their design, wastes within landfills are

degraded anaerobically. During degradation, biogas is produced and collected. The collection

systems prevent uncontrolled subsurface gas migration and reduce the potential for an

explosive condition. The captured gas is often used in cogeneration facilities for heating or

electricity generation. Further, upon closure, many landfills undergo “land recycling” and

redeveloped as golf courses, recreational parks, and other beneficial uses.

Wastes commonly exist in a dry condition within landfills, and as a result, the rate of waste

degradation is commonly very slow. These slow degradation rates are coupled with slow

rates of degradation-induced settlement, which can in turn complicate or reduce the potential

for beneficial land re-use at the surface. Recently, the concept of bioreactor landfills has
emerged, which involves recirculation of leachate and/or injection of selected liquids to

increase the moisture in the waste, which in turn induces rapid degradation. The increased

rates of degradation increase the rate of biogas production, which increases the potential of

beneficial energy production from biogas capture and utilization.

Factors Affecting the Effective Solid Waste Management (Abir, Datta, and Saha, 2023)

3.1.1 Socio-Economic Factors Affecting the Effective MSW Management

The generation of waste is influenced by family size, education level, and monthly income,

residential location, and community status that is also included in the socioeconomic factors

where households have a significant role. The social side of waste management cannot be

separated from the whole waste management system. Public knowledge, participation, and

cooperation are important steps in the proper implementation of the solid waste management

system, which is part of the social elements. While it is obvious that a family with more

people and high monthly income produces more waste and few members and a low-income

family produce little waste, some researchers have identified the phenomenon of “group

living” and “common consumption” of the family, in which the household functions as a unit

and most food products are shared. The more a family is educated and aware of the negative

consequences of poor solid waste management, the more they value excellent management.

Due to financial constraints, municipalities have been unable to manage solid waste. The

significant financial outlay required to deliver the service. The supply of proper waste

management services has been delayed by a lack of financial support, insufficient resources,

the unwillingness of consumers to pay for the service and the improper use of economic

mechanisms.

3.1.2. Cultural Factors Affecting the Effective Solid Waste Management

Human activities generate trash, and the way these pollutants are kept, handled, collected,

moved, transported, and disposed of poses grave health and environmental dangers. Family

attitudes about waste separation are influenced by the real estate company’s active investment

and assistance, neighborhood residential committees’ involvement in public participation,

and the cost of collection service based on waste volume or weight. One element affecting

trash treatment is authorities’ lack of awareness of treatment systems. Waste management is

typically thought to be solely the responsibility of local governments, with no expectation of

citizen participation. It is generally regarded that waste management is the sole duty and

responsibility of local authorities and that the public is not expected to contribute. People

participating in decision-making, community awareness, and social indifference to

contributing to solutions are cultural elements cited by various experts. Residents’ negative

attitudes and conduct can be considered cultural barriers, and residents, students, and

entrepreneurs’ insufficient trash separation is a barrier to effective waste management. People

believe that recyclable waste has a poor value, so there is little incentive to sort it. The value

of waste was viewed differently by businesspeople. While garbage may have value, some

argue that it is not worth the effort to collect and repurpose waste. They usually delegate the

collection of recyclables to housekeepers. Those who collect and/or sell the waste

subsequently gain monetary value from it. Most individuals, on the other hand, believe that

this is the most convenient and quick way to dispose of their trash.

3.1.3. Physical and Technical Factors Affecting the Effective Solid Waste (SW)

Management

Developing or upgrading a waste management system begins with planning. Physical

components and management challenges, such as strategic planning, public engagement, and

financial management, are all part of SW management. Government must collect waste
properly. One of the main functions of urban services is the waste collection, which is one of

the key components of an integrated sustainable waste management system. According to the

literature, technical factors influencing the system include a lack of technical skills among

municipal and government personnel, deficient infrastructure, poor roads and vehicles,

insufficient technologies, and dependable data. Municipalities in poor countries are said to

have difficulty managing solid waste because they continue to utilize the “collect, transport,

and dump away” method. Traditional trash management systems have been chastised for

their “one-size-fits-all” approach, which ignores the fact that each town or city, as well as its

neighborhoods, has distinct waste management requirements.

3.1.4. Institutional Factors Affecting the Effective Solid Waste Management

Institutional factors relate to organizational structures, procedures, methodologies,

institutional capacities, and private sector involvement and affect the distribution of roles and

responsibilities. An adequate division of responsibility, authority, and revenues between

national, provincial, and municipal governments is essential for effective MSWM. Inter-

municipal cooperation is critical in metropolitan areas where MSWM activities span multiple

local government units. Municipalities frequently exhibit management shortcomings. Local

waste management authorities lack organizational capacities (leadership) and professional

knowledge, according to certain researchers who studied the institutional variables that affect

the system. Furthermore, they concluded that the public domain information is extremely

limited. It is extremely difficult to get an understanding of the complicated subject of

municipal solid waste management due to the relatively limited information available, which

is either incomplete or dispersed among numerous entities involved.

3.1.5. Environmental Factors Affecting the Effective Solid Waste Management

The risks to public health posed by inappropriate garbage disposal prompt environmental

considerations. Surface water pollution, groundwater penetration and contamination, and air

pollution are all major concerns that are difficult to address and costly to remedy. Noise, dust,

traffic, and trash, for example, can all have major annoyance effects on an operational level.

The lack of environmental control mechanisms and appraisal of true consequences are the

variables affecting the environmental side of solid waste management in developing nations.

Better systems require the participation of the general public in active environmental

organizations.

Components of the waste management policy and regulations (Hussain, Singh, &

Goswami, 2021).

The waste management policy and guidelines comprise the following components: sector-

specific norms, standards, and procedures; compliance and enforcement (compulsory

recycling); environmental liability by self-responsiveness; green public procurement; taxes

and levies (differentiated VAT); fees and user charges (weight-based waste fee);

subsidies/incentives (subsidies in some services); awareness campaigns (mandatory labeling

on hazardous chemicals); information; and monitoring and feedback system.

Governments and policymakers should select the appropriate policy by relevance and proper

assessment of the focus area where it is needed most. For instance, geography, climate,

demography, urbanization, diversity of culture and consumption pattern, infrastructure, and

technological capacity play an important role in dealing with the wider context of waste

generation and the intervention required. Waste management policy is like any other areas of

policy, in which a policy instrument that seems striking for waste management might be the

root of problems or yield willful results in other areas. The policy should be designed

carefully, so that it does not impact the policy of another public domain. The waste
management policy may influence the policy in other areas such as public health, transport,

environment, etc. A careful assessment should be made on a priority basis to avoid policy

collision.

The population density of a town and urban and suburban areas is also closely related to land

use planning. For example, waste disposal, collection, storage, and waste transportation

modes and routes need to be considered while planning street layouts. The biggest challenge

of this contemporary world is preserving and restoring natural resources, such as water,

energy, and food. Therefore, there is a need to recognize the new area of challenges coming

to the fore over time, and continuous evaluations of policy framework and regulations should

be in practice to meet the time-based prerequisites.

References

Tamba Komba, (2021). “Residents’ Perceptions and Attitudes towards Municipal Solid

Waste Management Practices in Freetown Central Zone, Sierra Leone..", International

Journal of Research in Environmental Science (IJRES), vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 12-27, 2021.

Available: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.20431/2454-9444.0702002

Rakesh Patel (2023). Waste Management Best Practices: A Roadmap to a Sustainable Future.
https://www.upperinc.com/blog/waste-management-best-practices/

Abir, T. , Datta, M. and Saha, S. (2023). Assessing the Factors Influencing Effective

Municipal Solid Waste Management System in Barishal Metropolitan Areas. Journal of

Geoscience and Environment Protection, 11, 49-66. doi: 10.4236/gep.2023.111004.

Hussain, C. M., Singh, S., & Goswami, L. (Eds.). (2021). Emerging Trends to Approaching

Zero Waste: Environmental and Social Perspectives. Elsevier.