CHAPTER V

JAINA ART IN ODISHA

 CHAPTER-V

JAINA ART IN ODISHA

Indian art epitomizes unity in diversity and that arises from the different
periods of history, different religious and aesthetic traditions and geographical
locations. Jainism summons the world to a culture of peace, tolerance and
understanding. Jaina art is an integral part of Indian art and offers beauty and truth in
its expedition of universal well-being through ahimsa.

There is a continuity of art in Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina architecture and

sculpture. The artists and craftsmen producing most of the Jaina art were probably not
themselves Jaina, but from local workshops patronized by all religions. Therefore, so
many of their themes, episodes and ideas manifested in Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina art
are same. They had good knowledge of iconography and icon making art and could
make the Jina icons of different sizes, materials and postures. Thus, Jaina art is
essentially an Indian art consecrated to the Tirthankaras and commissioned by donors
who may be the rulers, high officials or a layman.

Jaina art and architecture belonging to different periods in almost all parts of
India testifies the widespread prevalence of the Jaina tradition throughout the country.
The pilgrimage centers associated with the Tirthankaras are great repositories of the
glory of Jaina art. The contribution of the Jainas has enriched the Indian art and
architecture and provided splendid artistic creations, particularly in the forms of
images, temples and paintings. They spread all over the country and covering a time
span in continuity from the earliest to the modern times.

Some of the seals from Mohenjo-daro and also a male torso from Harappa
remind us of the Jina image on account of their nudity and posture, similar
to kayotsargamudra, which is exhibited more emphatically in Lohanipur torso, the
earliest-known Jina image now preserved in the Patna Museum, Bihar datable to the
circa 3rd century BCE1. The nudity and the kayotsargamudra suggested rigorous
austerity of the image were confined only to the Jinas. The two bronze images of
Parsvanatha (circa 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE) are in the collections of the
Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai and Patna Museum2. These figures provided
respectively with the five and seven-hooded snake canopy are rendered as sky-clad

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and standing in the kayotsargamudra. A Parsvanatha image seated in dhyanamudra
datable to the 1st century BCE is found in the collection of the State Museum,
Lucknow. The representation of the Jinas in dhyanamudra and srivatsa, the
auspicious symbol in the on their chest appear for the first time in the Sunga-Kushana
sculptures of Mathura.3

In the Gupta period the Jaina cult images were evolved three dimensionally to
make more sophisticated and light in modeling. Symbols of asta-pratiharyas are
started depicted in the Jaina images, the distinguishing cognizance i.e. lanchanas and
the Yaksha and Yakshi figures were introduced during this period. But the
cognizances were finalized in the 8th-9th centuries CE and the Jaina image reached in
the final stage of iconographic development in the 9th-10th centuries CE.4

The Jaina art thrived most vigorously between the 10th-15th centuries CE. This
period witnesses building activities of a large number of Jaina temples with exquisite
sculptural carvings. New forms and iconographic features (excepting that of the Jinas)
of various deities were formulated and gradually the number of arms and the
attributes were multiplied. The parikara (surrounding) of Jina images also developed
with the figural depictions of navagrahas, Sarasvati, Lakshmi and diminutive Jina
figures etc.

The temple making art is superb in Jaina architecture. One can noticed their
architectural marvels by witnessing the grand and decorative temples at Khajuraho,
Deogarh, Mt. Abu, Ranakpur etc. and rock cut caves and cave temples in Odisha,
Bihar, Andhra Pardesh, Karnatak and Tamilnadu. The temples were made at distinct
places some of which had developed as temple cities like Palitana, Kundalpur, Rajgir,
etc. and the temple art is still continuing gracefully.

Jaina art in Odisha starts with the representation of symbols and narrative
panels along with cave architecture in Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills. In course of
time with the progress of Jainism, the symbol worship transformed to iconic
representation. Regarding the origin of icon worship in the Jaina pantheon of Odisha
still shrouded with mystery. Because, some scholars opine that the Kalinga Jina
brought back by Kharavela was an image of Risabhanatha, the first Tirthankara and
others strongly rejecting the theory advocated that it was a symbol of sacred throne.
The images were hewn out in the natural stone boulder or in a single dressed stone in

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a later date. With the advent of metal technology sculptures were also molded in
metal. However, Jaina images in different modes and mediums have been reported
throughout the length and breadth of the state. The earliest material specimen in form
of art and architecture of the Jainas in Odisha are noticed at Udayagiri and Khandagiri
hills which can be classified into following heads.

1. Symbols
2. Narrative panels
3. Secular and Religious figurines and motifs

5.1 SYMBOLS

The symbols are significant for the study of Jaina religion and art when the
image worship was not in vogue. Religious symbols were very much popular among
all creeds in the early Indian history. Worship of symbols like dharmachakra,
manastamba, indradvaja, chaitya tree, ayagapatas and stupas are highly venerated by
the follower of Jainas. The symbols pertaining to Jaina creed represented at the caves
of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hill are srivatsa, svastika, nandipada, vadhha-mangala,
triangle headed one and tree within railing etc. The Hathi-Gumpha inscription of
Kharavela is accompanied with symbols like vaddha mangala, svastika, a triangle
headed symbol etc.5 On the back wall of Ananta-Gumpha at Khandagiri, a nandipada
appears on a pedestal flanked on either side by a set of three symbols, a triangle
headed one, srivatsa and svastika. Besides, these symbols are also noticed at the arch
bands of Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha, Ananta-Gumpha and Bagha-Gumpha. In
Ananta-Gumpha and Hati-Gumpha the symbols are used as purely religious motif
where as in Rani-Gumpha they are found at the top of the arch may be as a decorative
motif. Worship of tree an important aspect of religious cult both in Buddhism and
Jainism. Tree surrounded with railing has been vividly depicted in the third
tympanum of Ananta-Gumpha and in the back wall of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha. The tree
within railing is depicted as sacred symbol, honoured by devotees with floral
offerings in their hands and garlands carried by flying vidyadharas.

5.2 NARRATIVE PANELS

The facade of good number of caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri are

decorated with sculptural panels in relief. These sculptural representations are broadly

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divided into three categories6 viz., (a) the narrative panels on the facades of caves by
illustrating various aspects of religious observances, dancing performances, military
conquests and historical legends etc., (b) individual figurines in relief such as
Tirthankaras, Sasanadevis, guards, bracket figures, vidyadharas and crowning animals
etc., and (c) a series of decorative motifs of both floral and linear within the arch-
bands, pilasters, brackets and railings etc.

The facades of lower main wing of Rani-Gumpha are carved with nine
narrative panels7. The first frieze at the lower wing of Rani-Gumpha depicts a tree and
a double storied building with barrel-vaulted roof crowned by a row of finials, is the
earliest illustrated reference to the building architecture of Odisha. The lower storey
has two doors while upper storey has one and each with a straight hyperthyroid
having an arched moulding over it. Female figures are represented from each doors
and balcony. The second panel narrates a procession either may be of a royal
conquests or military but is badly disfigured. But, from the third freeze onwards up to
the 8th freeze all are defaced with the vagaries of nature.

Followers holding umbrella, royal insignia and in folded hands along with a
royal personage are artistically depicted on the eighth frieze. Two women, one
carrying a tray and the other in the posture of offering flower from her raised hands
and two kneeling figures one of which with flowing fillets round the head are noticed.
Kneeling figures are seem to have arrived from the caparisoned horse standing on the
extreme right and three more figures with folded hands. The last frieze depicts the
ceremonial greeting to the triumphant king at the very return to the capital. Men and
women are depicted with outstretched welcoming hands and few women carry
pitchers on their heads. The artists here try to narrate a story by his wonderful creation
of art. He is very cautiously provided the entire essential feature for each person in the
narrative panel. Umbrella, royal insignia and caparisoned horse are represented as the
symbol of royalty or superiority of the king.

The facade of the lower right wing depicts four scenes8. The first half spandril
from the left is carved with a dwarfish figure standing under tree and lady in
outstretched undergarment, third lady in folded hands with dhoti tied on the waist and
having earrings and a light turban. The fourth female figure is carrying offerings, a
tray in the left hand and a casket like object on the right hand. The second panel has

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three figures, one male and two females with folded hands seated on a bench or
cushion. They flanked on either side by lady figure holding a tray on the right and a
vase like object on the left. The third panel depicts a girl dancing gracefully under a
pillared pavilion and four seated female companions forming the orchestra, playing
with mridanga, dhakka, harp and flute. The fourth scene exhibits a turban man with
folded hands and a woman carrying a tray and a vase like object before a female
holding a tray. In the right wing of Rani-Gumpha the artist tried to represent all the
physical feature, dress, ornaments, the contemporary dance and music in an illustrated
manner which is quite amazing in Odishan Jaina art.

The facade of upper storey of Rani-Gumpha have seven full and two half
spandrils represents a narrative story and it appears that they may represent some
episodes from Jaina mythology9. The beginning and end of the entire frieze
represented with the figures of flying vidyadharas with trays of offerings and lotus
stalks.

The first full spandril is embodied with a combat between a herd of elephants
and a man and ten women in a forest as suggested by a flowering tree and by the side
of a hill with natural cave contains a lion. The panel depicts three elephants were
sporting in the lotus pond. A group of men and women had arrived at the spot and
they were disturbed and apprehending counter attack by the herd of elephants the
group became panic and made efforts to dislodge the elephants from the pond with
whatever objects they could procure readily. Two rings like objects (anklets) are seen
already sticking on the body of the front elephant. Courage and bravery as well as
helplessness and creating great chaos in fear and helping nature, all the qualities of a
woman is well represented here through sculptural art.

The second full spandril represents a woman seated cross-legged and a man
resting his head on her thigh. Then a warrior armed with sword and shield is seen
leading towards them. The centre of the panel shows the woman armed with shield
and sword bravely fighting with the warrior and evidently defeated in this combat as
she is being carried away forcibly by the victorious warrior in his arms. The
representation of monkeys, snake, tree, a frightened animal and lion cubs indicates all
things are happened within in a forest.

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 The third-full-spandril is also laid in forest and represents three male
attendants, one holding an umbrella and chauri, the second a staff like object (or
sword), and the third, a water-pot suspended from a stick carried over his shoulder.
The richly caparisoned horse has a thick pad, many strapped bridle and a richly-
plumed crest and a boy stands in front of it. The royal person has a sword in scabbard
hanging by his left and aiming arrow at an antelope and two fawns. The scene ends
with his bow at rest on the left shoulder and right hand in abhayamudra in front of a
woman, seated on a tree. The lady points through her finger the wounded antelope.
The lady seated on the tree appears naked and as her private organs are prominently
displayed.

V.S. Agrawala10 identified the story with that of the story of Dushyanta
visiting the hermitage of sage Kanva and falling in love at first sight with Sakuntala.

On the basis of Parsvanatha-Charita written by Bhavadeva Suri of the circa 13th

century CE, M.M. Chakravarty11 connects these representations with the life story of
Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon. He relates the
elephant scene with Parsvanatha’s future wife, her relatives and attendants and the
next scene shows she is abducted by the Kalinga king and rescued by Parsvanatha in a
forest while hunting. The following scene depicts the wedding feast and
consummation of marriage and march with elephants. The scene in the next panel is
much mutilated and appears to the performance of a dance by troupe of an orchestra
before two important personalities.

In the whole panel the artist gracefully depicts the story in such a manner that
it can touch the heart of everyone. All the characteristic feature of a woman is
beautifully depicted such as nature of weakness as well as bravery, scariness and
forgiveness.

The facade of Chhota-Hathi-Gumpha depicts six vigorous elephants including

cubs, tusker and she elephants on either side of the arch over the door-way12. They
have been represented as they are depositing the bunch of flowers and leaves held in
their trunks near the crest of the arch.

The facade of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha represents a sacred tree within railing

which is worshipped by a couple. The religious sanctity of the tree is shown by
placing an umbrella over it. The male figures are standing with folded hands and their

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consorts with carrying trays of flowers and garlands. Flying vidyadharas holding a
tray of flowers and lotus buds are noticed on either side. Similar depiction also
noticed at the Ananta-Gumpha of Khandagiri hill. So, railings, parasol, flowers and
kneeling devotees are the essential features which are depicted with the surrounding
of the tree to make it venerated by the artist.

The reinstatement of the Kalilga Jina by Kharavela accompanied by his family

members is represented on the space between the second and third doorways of the
main wing of Manchapuri-Gumpha13. An object of worship, fully obliterated one
beyond recognition is flanked by a kneeling figure on either side are shown on the
center of the panel. A majestic elephant and four devotees with folded hands carved
on the right side of the pedestal. The symbol of Sun, two flying gandharvas with
celestial musical instruments and flying vidyadharas in the extreme right corner are
also seen. The second figure from the left wears a turreted crown resembling a tiara
and an uttariya passing across his left shoulder make him distinct from others. The
representation of the king is more prominently carved and his elegance presence is
enhanced by the crown and beating of the drum just above his head symbolizing
royalty. The frieze is so lively carved on the stone surface, it makes bound the scholar
to correlate it with the Kalinga Jina as described in the Hati-Gumha inscription.

The left panel of the facade at Ganesa-Gumpha is precisely a replication of the

so called Dusmanta-Shankutala or Parsvanatha’s life noticed in Rani-Gumpha with
minor changes in the representation of the ornaments and costumes of the lady and the
environmental set-up depicted. It appears to be more elaborate in depiction and
enthusiastic in action than Rani-Gumpha.

The last frieze of Ganesa-Gumpha in the space between the third and fourth
arches over door-ways depicts a story of Udayana-Vasavadatta as described by V.S.
Agrawala on the basis of terracotta plaques recovered from the ancient site of
Kausambi, the capital of Vatsaraja Udayana14. The frieze depicts three kilted soldiers
armed with swords and shields are chasing an elephant mounted by three person. The
woman sitting at the front act as a mahunta is driving the elephant with the goad and
holds a harp. The person who is seated at the middle is shooting arrows at the persons
those who are chasing them. The person seated at the back is partially leaning and
distributing coins from a bag held in one of his hands. One of the soldiers is seen

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collecting the coins fallen on the ground. The second episode depicts the dismounting
of the three persons from the kneeling elephant near a tree indicates the woods where
the scene took place. Next to it the elephant is kneeling and the persons on its back in
the earlier part shown standing around it after being dismounted. Next the archer no
longer in kilt, leads the other two, the woman carrying a bunch of mangoes in her
right hand and with her left hand resting on the shoulders of the archer and the
attendant with the money bag placed on his right shoulder. The last scene represents
the woman in reclining posture on a bed in pensive mood. The man standing to her
side is attempting to console her. The attendant holds the bow of her master and the
money bag. In the whole story, the artist beautifully narrates the episode with a
common man’s tendency and clever man’s victory. The presence of mind of
disbursing coin to avoid the soldiers for chasing them shows the extraordinary
mindset/concept of the artist and reflect that grid for acquiring money is a common
tendency in the past also. The story of Udayana as available in Buddhist, Jaina and
Brahmanical literature is essentially a love romance, and there are no differences
based on religion in the main outline of the story.

Relief sculptures often having narrative characters are also noticed at Ananta-
Gumpha. The first tympanum from left represent a four-tusked huge elephant which is
flanked by elephants holding lotus flower with long stalk in their trunk on either side.
A similar panel with minor variations is also depicted in one of the pillar tops of the
verandah of Alakapuri-Gumpha viz., the four-tusked elephant at the centre is flanked
by the two she-elephants with fly whisk and parasol contrary to the lotus stalks.
Alexander E. Caddy15 is connected this episode with Chadanta Jataka while N.K.
Sahu16 with that of the white elephant of Vesantara Jataka who averted drought and
famine in Kalinga.

The second narrative panel in facade of the cave depicts a turbaned personage
wearing heavy kundalas, necklace and bangles with an umbrella overhead. He is
flanked by female figures holding a fly-whisk on either side and driving a chariot
drawn by four spirited horses. The moon surrounded by stars and sun are also
represented above the person. The potbellied dwarf stands near the wheel of the
chariot holds a spouted water vase in his left hand and a banner in his right hand.

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 N.K. Sahu17 relates this depiction to a royal figure as similar type of depiction
is available in the right top panel of the South gate of Bharhut where king Prasenjit,
being accompanied by female attendants is found riding a chariot drawn by four
horses. But, scholars like Alexander E. Caddy, S. Srivastava and D. Mitra18 identify
this relief panel with the Sun God Surya driving his chariot. However, the differences
is present because four horses are represented instead of the conventional seven,
ladies on either side holding flywhisks instead of shooting arrows and symbolical
representation of both sun and moon in the symphony.

Goddess Lakshmi represents in the third tympanum of the cave. She is

standing with holding two full blown lotus flowers in her two hands which rests on
her loins. She is flanked by two elephants by her sides which are pouring water over
her head for her ceremonial bath from pitchers held in their uplifted trunks. A tree
within railing is worshipped by a couple and two others fellow is also depicted here in
the third tympanum.

Besides, individual figures, important events of his life i.e. Kamatha’s alias
Samvara’s attack scene are also found in Odisha. The depictions of such scenes in the
Parsvanatha images are reported from Ada, Ayodhya, Shergarh of Balasore district
and Tentulidiha of Jajpur district. The depiction of Kamatha’s attack is just like the
Buddhist episode of Mara’s army attacking the Buddha.

According to one account Samvara was Kamatha in an earlier birth and was
the brother of Parsva, who was known as Marubhuti. Kamatha as an esoteric
mendicant was practicing the “ordeal of five fires”. Parsva (as Marabhuti) saved a pair
of serpents from being burnt in the fire, and they eventually became his yakasha and
Yakshi, as Dharanendra and Padmavati. Later, when Parsva was in deep meditation,
Samvara attacked him with his retinue of serpents, genii, and the like for seven days.
He also caused such a downpour that the water level came up to the Jina’s nose. It
was then that Dharanendra protected Parsva with his hoods. Parsva, oblivious of the
happenings around him, continued to mediate. Eventually accepting the defeat,
Samvara bowed before Parsva and left with his retinue.

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5.3 SECULAR AND RELIGIOUS FIGURINES AND MOTIFS

Guard Figures

Guards are generally represented in front of important residential complex,

but the reason behind the depiction of guards in front of cave dwellings meant for
Jaina recluses is quite interesting. However, guard figures are noticed standing or
mounted on animals in Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha, Dhanaghara-Gumpha,
Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha, Manchapuri-Gumpha of Udayagiri hill and Tatowa-Gumpha
No.1 of Khandagiri hill19. In Rani-Gumpha, the Guards are depicted mounting on
animals on either corners of the upper main wing. The guard mounted on lion on
the right side is carved as pot-bellied and wears a dhoti, bangles, and necklace. On
the other hand the animal act as mount on the left resembles like a bull. The guard
carved as like a kilted foreigner in boots, covering the leg up to the middle of the
calf and fillet on the forehead. A sheathed sword hangs by the left-side of the
guard and his right hand rests on the thigh. The right pilaster of Jaya-Vijaya-
Gumpha is carved with a tall, slender and meagrely draped female figure wearing
heavy square ear ornaments, bangles, a garland and a beaded hara in the forehead.
Her coiffure decorated with a flower and a leaf. She fondles a parrot perched on
her fingers in the right hand. In case of Ganesa-Gumpha only one guard figure on
the extreme right pilasters is carved. He holds a long spear in his right hand and
the attributes in his left hand could not be ascertained due to badly damage of the
image. In Dhanaghara-Gumpha, the guard figure stand in samabhanga posture
holding a long spear in two hands against the chest. A sword is hanged on the left
side of the waist. He is dressed with dhoti with central plate as lower garment and
has a high bun with beaded boarder of the forehead depicts purely Indian art. The
guard figures represented in front of guard chamber of Rani-Gumpha and
Manchapuri-Gumpha are badly damaged. They seem to be the similar
representation as like Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha. The representation of foreign
elements like long boot, short skirt etc. in the guard figure represents the link with
Hellenistic art.

Bracket Figures

The pillars and pilasters provided with brackets both at the outer and inner
side of the verandah are carved with decorative motifs, floral motifs, human figures,

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animals, winged and enigmatic figures, dwarf gana figures, cavaliers, scenes of lion
hunt, elephant catching, etc. In some cases the tiny gana figures are depicted as if they
are bearing the whole load of the superstructure. Lotus and honey-suckles motifs are
adorned the inner and outer faces of the brackets. The elephant worship scene, the
performance of a dance with the tune of musical instrument under a tree, ladies
holding trays filled with garlands, flowers and other offerings, boys playing before
birds, hunting of lion through a long spear, winged and enigmatic figures sitting back
to back, vidyadharas displaying floral buds and spouted vessels, women with folded
hands are very remarkably carved on both faces of these brackets. The animals and
human figurines on them are blended accordingly the curved fashion of the brackets.

Addorsed makaras, winged animals often with heads of birds and animal
figures seated back to back, fighting with lions and subduing elephants etc., are also
found depicted in the bracket figures which throw light on the masterly execution of
the artists.

Arch Bands

On the flattened surfaces of the arch bands over the door-ways scrolls, single
flowers, fruits, creepers animals, birds and stout human beings are carved. One
usually noticed the figures of elephants, lions, deer, and makaras from the mouths of
which issue the scroll work, etc. at the beginning of the arch. The outer edges of
arches are surmounted by symbols like svastika, vadhamangala or by a triangular pointed
crest, or finial enclosing a floral ornament or a figure. Honey-suckles, lotus, lotus-
buds and other floral medallions occupy a major portion of the arch-bands with
occasional display of animals chased by boys and birds carrying lotus buds in their
beaks. These motifs are carved in low relief within limited space but show variety of
animism and floral kingdom in living stone.

Vidyadharas

The semi-divine figures vidyadharas are generally found depicted as hovering

in the sky with offerings in hands. They are noticed on either ends of the facade of
Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha, Rani-Gumpha, over the sculptured panel in Manchapuri-
Gumpha and in close compartments of Ananta-Gumpha20. They are found at the
beginning and end of a sculptured frieze or over some object or panel having religious
affinity. The frieze of the upper main wing of Rani-Gumpha commences with a flying

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vidyadhara. He is decked with an elaborate head dress, a dhoti with plaits dangling in
front, a floating scarf (chadar), kundalas, a necklace and bangles. He also holds a tray
of flowers and a roll of garland in his outstretched left hand and in the right stalks of a
lotus and three buds interlaced with each other intended for offering. The flying
figures on either ends of the facade of Jaya-Vijaya Gumpha have not attained so much
perfection as that of Rani-Gumpha. The vidyadhara of Manchapuri-Gumpha hastens
towards the object of worship in the attitude of scattering flowers from a tray held in
his left hand. The figures of vidyadharas in the Ananta-Gumpha represented with
garlands and trays of flowers towards arches containing objects of worship. The one
on the extreme left has picking a garland from the tray borne on the head of a fierce
looking dwarfish gana with long ears. They too are dressed in dhoti and chadar, the
ends of which are fluttering in the air. They have heavy turbans on their heads,
bangles on the wrists and massive rings as pendent in their ears are stylistically
represented.

Linear design

The linear design found in the cave art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri are
mostly the bead, bead and reel, vertical and horizontal lines within sections, curved
lines enclosing half medallions or enclosing arch-bands and floral devices within
them and circles within circles bordering the bracket figures. The shafts of Ananta-
Gumpha door pilasters are decorated with vertical rows of the bead and reel, diamond
shaped jali, spiral flutings, alternate with vertical line of bead and reel and flowers
between compartments. The brackets of Tentuli-Gumpha are bordered by horizontal
and vertical lines in several sections. The arch-bands of Svargapuri and Manchapuri-
Gumphas in several cases are provided with floral devices within interlaced and
continuous circles and curved bands.

Trees

Trees are symbolically represented as forest or as an object of worship on the

facades of the caves viz., Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha, Chota-Hati-Gumpha and
Tentuli-Gumpha. The sacred representations of these trees are shown with railings
surrounded by it or parasol over the tree. The portrayed of tree as forest can be
noticed in the narrative panel of Rani-Gumpha and Chaota-Hati-Gumpha. The trees

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laden with fruits are also noticed on the wall of Guard chamber of Rani-Gumpha and
in some independent figures of Ambika found in the Khandagiri hill.

Creepers

As a decorative motif the creepers represented on the flattened surface of the

arch-bands over some of the door heads are often laden with fruits, buds and flowers.

Flowers

Flowers of numerous varieties in the form of decorative elements within arch-

bands, space fillers in single patches, garlands in the hands of devotees and within
trays, buds attached to stalks and held by bracket figures and birds, container of lotus
lakes, adorning hair-dos of human and semi divine figures, trunks of elephants, fixed
to the creepers and decorating the outer framework of the ghata bases, etc. are noticed
at this place. Of the entire series, lotus attained the predominant position.

Animals

A large variety of animals, birds, reptiles, and winged animals are carved in
some of the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri which indicate the knowledge of the
artist about the physiognomy of these species of the contemporary period. But the
fabulous and enigmatic creatures depicted in the cave art may reflect the then human
intellectual pursuit and his believe in super natural things, which are unique in
character and are above the human being both in power and spirit.

In the cave art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri various animal motifs are
delicately carved on the stone surface. These motifs are included mainly of elephant,
bull, lion, horse, antelope, fox, monkey, snakes, lizards and mythical animals etc. are
represented in divergent manner viz.,-

a) Associated with Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis

b) Narrative friezes
c) Religious motifs
d) Wild scenes
e) Decorative elements
f) Capital figures of pillar and pilasters
g) Associated with other deities
h) Form the shape of cave

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 Some of the important animal motifs depicted in the sculptural art of
Udayagiri and Khandagiri are discussed below.

Elephant: Odisha had been noted from time immemorial for elephants and in
Odishan art they also found abundantly represented in relief panels, brackets and as
free standing figures. Elephant is a symbol of strength, virility, wisdom, fertility,
prosperity and royalty. The tusker, she elephants and their cubs are depicted in form
of crouching, standing with uplifted trunks, carrying lotuses, vessels, chauris,
branches of trees, umbrellas or surmounting the capitals of door pillar and pilasters in
the cave art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hill. Two monolithic elephants carved out of
single stones are placed in front of the Ganesa-Gumpha guarding the entrance. They
are holding bunches of leaves with a full blown flowers in their trunks. The facade of
the same cave depicted elephants with riders and followed by soldiers. Elephants
including she elephants and the cubs on either side of the arch of Chhota-Hati-
Gumpha are majestically represented. Elephants pouring sacred water over the head
of Lakshmi from pitcher held in their trunks deserve special notice in the third
tympanum of the Ananta-Gumpha. In the opening tympanum from the left of the
same cave depicts two elephants engaged in worshipping the four-tusked elephant
with lotuses, the stalks of which are held in their trunks. A similar elephant worship
panel with slight difference in detail is also depicted in Alakapuri-Gumpha. Elephant
along with royal figures is depicted to pay homage to a scared relic in front.
Crouching elephants in the caves of a hill and bathing in the pool are depicted at the
front face of the two guard rooms of the lower main wing and the elephant herd
attacking to a group of people in the upper wing of Rani-Gumpha.

Bull: Muscular and aggressive, the bull has long been an important symbol in many
cultures. The importance of the bull is reflected in its appearance in the zodiac as
Taurus, and its numerous appearances in mythology, where it is often associated with
fertility. In the Jaina art bull is the symbol of Jaina Tirthankara Risabhanatha. The
white bull appears in the fourteen auspicious dreams of Devananda and queen Trisala
before the conception of Mahavira. Its remarkable vitality and intimate association
with man in agricultural operations made it a symbol of masculinity and fertility. In
the Mauryan art, bull appeared as the crowning animal at the capital of the pillar. We
are also getting evidences of humped bull in Indus valley seals and terracotta art. All
the above facts suggest the significance of bull in the domain of ancient Indian art21.

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Bull has been represented as crowning animal in the door pilasters of Ananta-
Gumpha, Tatowa-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha and the verandah pillar of the lower right
wing of Rani-Gumpha as well as within the arch band of Ananta-Gumpha, chased by
boys. In Ananta-Gumpha it has been shown vigorously chased by corpulent wrestlers.

Lion: In the Jaina iconography lion has been associated with Mahavira, the twenty
fourth Tirthankaras. The symbol of lion is the most befitting mark of his spiritual
heroism. His forbearance, his austerities, his strenuous work in the path of destroying
work is all unmistakable proof of his lion like personality22. Lions have been depicted
variously as (a) capitals member over the door pilasters in Ganesa-Gumpha, Tentuli-
Gumpha, Tatowa-Gumpha No.2; (b) one of the verandah pillars of right wing of
Rani-Gumpha; (c) within arch bands chased by boys at Anata-Gumpha;(d) as stray
figures near the pinnacle of one of the arch bands of the upper storey of Rani-Gumpha
and (e) holding a prey in mouth in one of capitals of the verandah pillars of
Alakapuri-Gumpha. In few cases they are shown standing or running in full spirit and
vigor while in other cases, they are depicted as either sitting back to back facing or
crouching to on the top of the pillars in the group of other animals. In Ananta-
Gumpha the hind legs of the upper two lions are tightly held by stout wrestlers and
floral motifs are coming out from their mouths.

Horse: Horse is a symbol of power, energy, wealth and abundance. It also represents
speed, movement, desire and passion. It is a vehicle of Sun, Moon, Venus and Jupiter
and is also a symbol of royalty. In Jainism it is the cognizance of Sambabanatha, the
3rd Tirthankara. In the Mahavira-Gumpha of Khandagiri hill, it is carved along with
the Tirthankara as lanchana where as it is also depicted in narrative panels and at the
capital of pillar and pilasters. A well caparisoned horse provided with a saddle is
noticed over the horizontal band and the interval between the semi-circular arch-
bands of the lower storey of Rani-Gumpha23. The richly caparisoned horse with the
hunter is depicted at the upper storey of Rani-Gumpha. In Ananta-Gumpha, the horse
is depicted as driving a chariot. It is also depicted as capital figures at the door
pilasters of Ganesa-Gumpha and verandah pillars of the lower right wing of the Rani-
Gumpha24.

Antelope: Winged antelope figures are realistic in the hunting panel of the upper
main wing of Rani-Gumpha as depicted in the space between the hunter and the lady

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on the tree. Deer are also represented in crouching position at the capital of door
pilasters of Ganesa-Gumpha and Manchapuri-Gumpha.

Other Animals: Besides elephant, bull, lion and horse, the other quadruped depicted
in this site are fox, snakes and monkey. The representation of the two monkeys near
the crest of an arch in the upper main wing of Rani-Gumpha is noteworthy. A bushy
tailed animal or a fox seen near the end of the hunting scene also found depicted in
the same cave.

Among the reptiles lizard, is depicted within the inner projection of the Bagha-
Gumpha whereas a snake is depicted on the facade of the Ananta -Gumpha flanking
the door arches and at the cave of depicted on the upper main wing of the Rani-
Gumpha. In Ananta-Gumpha it is noticed above the door frame as a garland shape
design is remarkable of their representation in early Odishan art. In another instance
the serpent effectively entwined a huge tusker in a tree and is about to strike at his
head25.

Winged and Enigmatic Animal Figures: Winged and enigmatic figures are depicted
on the faces of the capitals of pillar/pilaster’s and within the bracket designs of
Bajaghara-Gumpha, Alakapuri-Gumpha, Patalapuri-Gumpha and Jagannatha-Gumpha
of Udayagiri hill26. The use of West-Asian motifs like honeysuckles, merlons and
winged animals are found in pan India distribution preludes the possibility of an
independent development of these caves. The animal have the head of bird, animal or
human being are not clearly recognizable. They comprise animals which we with
much difficulty have taken as horse, bull or lion, are attached with ram, goat, human,
parrot, cock’s head. A running domesticated dog in another place of the false capital
of a verandah pillar has also been set with two wings and a flowery tail. Another dog
like animal has been provided with a parrot's beak holding a flower bud and a pair of
wings. A huge fish with the stem of the lotus in mouth yet, form the decoration of one
more face of the capital of a pillar in this cave. But the faces of the pillar tops of
Alakapuri-Gumpha, Thakurani-Gumpha and Patalapuri-Gumpha contain numerous
motifs of those winged and enigmatic figures, whose identification is difficult to
ascertain. These fabulous creatures of imagination have been used at to fill some of
the empty spaces, had perhaps been derived from the western concept and formed
mainly a decorative order without any religious significance attached to them. The

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representation of different animals indicates people are also conscious about the fauna
of their surroundings and their belief on super natural animal are reflected through art.

Domestic Appliance

Many objects used in domestic life have also been found in the cave art viz.,
seats, caskets, trays, bowls, spouted jars, pitchers, money purses, wicker stands,
flywhisks, umbrellas, flower garlands, musical instruments of mridanga, flute, harp,
cymbal and weapons of war like bow, arrow, shields, clubs, swords and spears etc.

Dress and Ornaments

The principal lower garment of the male figure is the dhoti or a sheet of cloth
passed round the waist and then gathered in front. Above the waist, the body is
usually represented as quite naked apart from a tight scarf or sheet of cloth which is
generally thrown over the shoulders with the ends hanging down outside the thigh. In
some cases it appears to have passed round the body and the end thrown over the left
shoulder. The lower garments of the ladies mostly of sari which is tied by waist band
with folds of the ends dangling in front. They also scarp as upper garments and cover
the face with a veil while dancing. The contemporary dress and ornaments are well
projected in the sculptural art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri.

Hair Dress

Different varieties of coiffure are noticed both in men and women. Both men
and women have long hair and tied in knots with curled locks in front and sides. The
male hair dress has only two top knots bordered by band of hair locks at the base and
the two knots are either arranged vertically above the head or one in the centre and the
other slightly tilting to the side. However, evidence of hairs tied in three knots over
the head is also found. In case of two knots, the main one is larger than the other and
in case of three the central knot is more decorated.

In case of the ladies the hair are gathered at the top and tied in a piece of cloth
or dragged to a side and sometime a band of curled locks or ringlets of hair decorate
the forehead. Some of the other designs of hair are (i) the curled locks commencing
from the forehead fall on one side or brought to the back, (ii) the hair at the top is tied
in ropes and then slightly tilted to a side, (iii) the ringlets of hair were pinned to the
head to gathered in a knot, (iv) the hair is entirely arranged in ringlets and held in a

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chaplet allowing to them fall on either sides, (v) the simple and plain varieties shows
hairs are just combed behind and the end tied in a knot, (vi) the hair are just gathered
at the top in a bulging shape and a thin veil covers them, (vii) the hairs are plaited in a
single pigtail and falls at the back and (viii) the more elaborate ones are decorated
with flowers, feathers of colourful birds and leaves.

Ornaments

The decorative ornaments marked on the male and female figures in

Udayagiri and Khandagiri are seems crude and unsophisticated variety as like a touch
of folk style. The girdles, a series of round beads arranged in separate strings and the
number of strings range from one to three are found on the waist of the ladies.
Necklaces are designed in rectangular, circular or petalled. The longer ones often run
up to the chest and suitably decorated with both flat bands of plain metal or strings set
with jewels. They are often attached with lockets at the centre. Studs and round rings
and either closely attached to the lower part of the ear or hanging from it by a hook
are represented as ear ornaments. Ornaments like bald, a ring of metal or clay of
cylindrical plate ordinarily plain and heavy and ranges in number from one to nine are
represented in the fore arm as ornaments. The ornaments for the legs are the circular
anklets either one in each leg or a pair at times are noticed as leg ornament.

Independent Figurines

Jaina images are found in different stone material in Odisha where as in metal
particularly in bronze their number are very few and reported at places like
Khuntapala in Mayurbhanj district; Bhanapur in Cuttack district; Achutrajpur and
Kakatapur in Puri district27, Biripada of Rayagada district; Choudwar of Cuttack
district and Tarangasagarpur of Jajpur district. In case of the Achutrajpur hoard is the
usual cire perdue or lost wax process was used for casting the images28. The
composition of their alloys has not been chemically analysed but for the common
usages described as bronzes.

The icons in bronze (copper) of Khuntapala comprise of three of Parsvanatha,

three of Risabhanatha, two of Ambika and one unidentified Tirthankara images which
are in badly damaging condition29. The Parsvanatha figures were provided with a
canopy of snake hoods, the Risabhanatha figures with jatabhara, a few strands of
which fell on the shoulders and the Ambika figures are seen holding baby on their

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laps, lion as lanchana and bunch of mangoes in hands. Haloes in most cases are not
visible but at least in one Parsvanatha figure it is in elliptical shape. The Tirthankaras
are fashioned both in standing and seated posture on plain pedestals or lotus pedestals.
Decorative arches with a pointed top, originate from the pedestal are fashioned with
rows of beads and petals or radiating flames at the border. The second Ambika figure
of the place is profusely decked with drapery, necklace, earrings, girdle, bangles and
anklets.

The Parsvanatha image of Bhanapur worshipped at present as Ananta

Vasudeva is standing in kayotsarga posture on a circular lotus pedestal supported by a
square base with legs. A canopy of seven hooded snake is seen over his head. The
auspicious srivatsa mark, a rare occurrence in Odisha is noticed on its chest. Hairs on
the head are arranged in spiral knots with usnisa at the centre. The naga and nagi
figures with three hooded snake canopy are depicted in the front part of the pedestal.

Of the three Jaina icons recovered from Kakatpur, two are preserved in the
Odisha State Museum and one in Asutosh Museum of Kolkata. The image in Asutosh
Museum is the figure of Tirthankara Chandraprabha which kayotsarga posture on a
lotus supported by a square pedestal and bears the conventional emblem, the crescent
moon.

The Risabhanatha image from Kakatapur is an example of fine workmanship,

with a beautiful jata-bhara, a serene expression of the face and graceful outline of the
body. He is carved in kayotsarga posture on a double petalled lotus supported by a
footed pedestal. Bull, the lanchana of the Tirthankara is engraved in front of it. On
the other hand the Parsvanatha image is carved seated in dhyanamudra in a double
petalled lotus displaying a canopy of seven hooded snake, trivali in neck, and snake as
his lanchana.

The images of Ambika found at Achutrajpur dressed in a diaphanous sari held

by a girdle with a flower shaped clasp and an uttariya partly covering the chest in an
upavita fashion, the icon is elegantly bejeweled in anklets, valayas, a short beaded
hara, armlets with a flower shaped central piece, large ear-studs and a short mukuta.
The cloth and simple ornaments are treated in such a way that the beauty of the body
has been enhanced effectively. She is rendered with bun-shaped coiffure.

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 The icon of Chandraprabha reveal high quality of soft plastic treatment with
calculative proportionate and represents with the full roundish face, elongated ear
lobes, short neck, broad shoulders and expanded chest sharply narrowing down to a
relatively thin waist.

Vasapujya, the 12th Tirthankara is the only independent figure of its variety
found so far in Odisha30. The facial and physiognomical forms, crude modelling and
decorations indicate the figures are primitive, hard and rigid. He is carved seated in
dhyanamudra over an oblong pedestal of the throne on a khura shaped base and a
semi-circular mould at the top. The two ends of the horizontal lintel of the solid
backrest are in the form of a makara heads supported by posts. A roundish halo with a
raised moulded boarder of knitted tongues of flames and having a beaded line in the
middle are beautifully represented on the back side of the Tirthankara. The
Tirthankara and the Sasanadevi in the same piece wear anklets, a girdle or waist band,
bangles, upavita, a broad necklace with a disc shaped pendent, armlets, ear-studs and
a mukuta each. The halo behind these figures is in the form of a beaded arch edged by
leaf shaped flames or branches. At its crown is a small chhatra with a thick
cylindrical shaft.

There are almost ten bronze images of Jaina Tirthankaras are found in the
river Baitarani by a villager near Tarangasagarpur of Jajpur district31. All the
Tirthankaras are molded independently without any pedestal below their feet. Their
mark of cognizance is also not depicted, which makes us difficult about their proper
identification. One more interesting feature in few of these images is a scarf shown
behind the Tirthankaras hanging from head to ankle, though their body parts are
depicted as complete naked as found in case of digambara images. But the presence
of garments is for the first time noticed in Odishan Jaina art which indicates the
existence of svetambara cult images in Odisha.

In short it can be concluded that the metal sculptures are ornamented or

decorated as like the stone images.

Jaina images in different stone materials and belonging to different periods are
noticed in many districts of Odisha. The distinguishing features of Jaina Tirthankara
image found in Odisha are youthful body and nudity, long hanging arms up to the
knee in case of kayotsarga and palm kept upward one above the other in case of

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dhyanamudra and the auspicious srivatsa symbol at the chest in the mild form. The
asta-pratiharyas viz., kevala tree, throne/seat, trilinear umbrella, halo, cymbals and
drums played with the palm of invisible gandharvas, flying garland bearers, chauri-
bearers and lanchanas are noticed. In few cases Sasanadevis are also found depicted
at the pedestal of the Tirthankara in a smaller size. Each Tirthankara has identified on
the basis of their lanchana carved in his pedestal. Besides, the figures of Risabhanatha
and Parsvanatha have identified with their unique features i.e. matted locks of hairs
falling on the shoulders and canopy of the seven hooded snake overhead respectively.

Risabhanatha images in Odisha32 are found generally in kayotsarga or

dhyanamudra posture over a lotus pedestal supported by crouching lions at the below.
He is flanked by chauri bearers on either side, flying figures with garlands, heavenly
music, trilinear umbrella, halo and the lanchanas are depicted in their respective
position. Half-closed eyes, elongated ears, jatabhara as head gear with some locks
falling on the shoulders are key features of Risabhanatha images in Odisha.

A number of Jaina images have been recovered from Podasingidi and

Vaidakhia located in the Baula hill range of Keonjhar district. The inscribed
Risabhanatha figure33 now in Odisha State Museum originally from Podasingidi is
seated in dhyanamudra on a lotus pedestal with a bull as mark of his cognizance. In
front of the bull seems to be a lamp and two devotees kneeling with their hands joined
in adoration. Flying gandharvas with garland in hands and the oval halo behind head
are only depicted among the asta-pratiharyas which shows the Jaina art in Odisha is a
primitive stage at that period. On the basis of paleographical study of the inscription,
the image can be dated back to circa 8th century CE.

The Tirthankara images of Charampa have distinguishing feature of deep-cut

marks on the body34. By these marks the artist may try to indicate the rigorous of the
austerities by which the Tirthankara had to go through to attain salvation. Similar cut
marks are also found in few Jaina images reported from Ada but they are not on the
image but on the upper face of stone slab. The cut marks due to the sharpening of
tools by the lay villagers cannot be also ruled out. On the inner walls of Navamuni-
Gumpha of Khandagiri Tirthankara images are carved in high relief with the
auspicious srivatsa mark on the chest. The verity of dvitirthi, tritirthi and
chaturvimsatimurti are also found in Odisha portraying different Tirthankara images.

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The dvitirthi images are reported from Pratapanagari, Jaina temple of Cuttack and
Podasingidi of Keonjhar district where as the tritirthi images are only reported from
Choudwar and Balasore. The chaturvimsatimurti is found in the places like
Kantabania of Jajpur district, Jamunda of Koraput district, Jagannatha temple of
Baripada in Mayurbhanj district, Choudwar and Pratapanagari of Cuttack district.
Interestingly, images numbering five (Khandagiri Jaina temple), thirteen (Kantabania)
and twenty one (Baripada Museum) are also found in a common slab.

In the Barabhuji-Gumpha altogether twenty five figures of Tirthankaras in a

panel and Parsvanatha repeated twice covering the three walls of the inner chamber
are found35. The Parsvanatha figure standing at the commencement of the series is
larger in size than the rest and positioned as mulanayaka. The rest of the figures of
Tirthankaras are in yogasana on double petalled lotus pedestal supported by lions
beneath the trees under which they attained their kevala-jnana.

In separate compartments Sasanadevis are carved below with their respective

Tirthankaras36. All the Sasanadevi images are found in lalitasana except the
Mahamanasi in yogasana and Bahurupini in reclining on a cot are displayed. Twenty
of them are on plain pedestals and four on lotus below which are their mounts. All
except Bahurupini and Padmavati, the latter with a canopy of snake, have haloes
behind their heads. The images of Chakresvari and Rohini are also relieved on the
inner verandah wall of the same cave.

The Tirthankara figures both in standing and seated position of Mahavira-

Gumpha represent crude workmanship.

A number of Jaina images preserved in the museum of Khiching are mostly in

damaging condition. Among these, the figure of Risabhanatha and Mahavira on one
stele (dvitirthi image) now preserved in the British Museum, London37. Both the
Tirthankara in kayotsarga posture stands on lotus pedestal. Their lanchanas i.e., bull
and lion are delicately carved on the pedestal below their respective Tirthankaras.
Besides, all the asta-pratiharyas are also noticed in the image. On the basis of stylistic
ground the images can be attributed to the circa 10th-11th centuries CE.

The Tirthankara image found at Adaspur38 are carved standing in kayotsarga

posture and in complete nudity. Astagrahas have been depicted in meditative posture
on either side of the Tirthankara. The prabhavali has been depicted just above his

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head which had curled locks of hairs. While a makara torana as decorative design is
visible at the back. The halo behind his head is stylized in three bands of scroll work
and is oblong in shape. Cymbals and drums played with invisible hands, flying
garland bearers are the other features found at the upper portion of the stone slab.
Champak flower marks are also found on either side of the image.

The Yaksha Gomedha and Yakshi Ambika are carved seated in lalitasana pose
on respective Ictus pedestals designed in a common slab containing a series of seven
devotees are found at Lataharana, Ayodhya, Jajpur, Choudwar and Koraput etc. They
wore simple loin cloths in the same style and bear on them same types of ornaments,
the only exception being in the conical head dress of the Yaksha and the round hair
knot of his consort. The mango tree is depicted in the background. From the trunk of
the tree a baby is found swinging in between Yaksha and Yakshi. At the top,
Tirthankara Neminatha is found seated in yogasana, on a lotus pedestal. On both sides
of the Tirthankara, the chauri bearers are also depicted with artistic care.

Jaina images of Odisha are generally carved along with the lanchana, which
are specially attributed to him or her. In the absence of lanchanas, inscriptions, hair
style and attendants are the only available means for identification of individual
Tirthankaras. These marks usually consist of animals, birds, reptiles, flowers and
objects like pitchers, conch-shells, vajra, moon, svastika, nandyavrata, etc. and
convey artistic tradition of the period of their execution.

In the initial stage the seat or throne are left plain upon which the Tirthankara
and Sasanadevi are seated. But in course of time they are fashioned in one or two
rows of petals of lotus flowers. In rare cases, it is noticed that decorative covering was
spread over the lotus seat. These lotus pedestals are usually supported by lions either
seated at ease facing to the front or rampart or seated back to back flanking the
lanchana carved in the centre of the pedestal. In cases of bronze icons the lotus seat is
supported by an oval or rectangular hollowed base supported by legs at each corner.

Devotees in kneeling position and folded hands, heaps of offerings at times on

separate pedestals, figures of Yaksha and Yakshi displaying emblems in hands and
mount are also noticed in the lower parts of the pedestals. In Parsvanatha images naga
kanyas or naga devotees are a normal feature of representation within the pedestal in

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addition to the coiled snake. In case of Ambika and Yaksha Gomedha, seven female
devotees are also seen in rajalilasana on the lower part of the pedestal.

Chauri bearers are represented in tribhanga posture with fly-whisks in hands

across their shoulders on the right and left of the main figure. They are well decked
with costumes and ornaments and held chauri is in one hand and the other rests on the
hip. Usually, they are depicted on separated lotus pedestal but in some cases these
figures flank the Tirthankaras standing on the same common pedestal. But in case of
Chandraprabha image reported from Nuadhana, Jagatsinghpur district, the chauri
bearers are standing upon elephants instead of lotus pedestals. The chauri bearers of
the Risabhanatha image of Cave No.10 of Khandagiri are shown above the graha
figures instead of their conventional place. The chauri bearers holding champak
flower instead of fly whisk are found in the Risabhanatha image of Subei and in one
Mahavira image which is now preserved in Odisha State Museum.

Decorative toranas with horizontal bars which are fitted with makara-mukha
i.e. elephant head and crocodile face are found in some of the Tirthankara images. In
few cases chains of pearls are falling from the mouths as like kirtimukha design found
depicted in Odishan temple art. The horizontal bars on the other hand are relieved
with floral medallions, beaded and wavy lines as well as various geometrical patterns.
The Chandraprabha image of Hatamala is the best example depicting the horizontal
bar supported by tapering shafts with neckings and ghata bases. The two ends of the
bar are crowned by lion figures. The makara heads attached to the torana of the
Tirthankara image of Martasol and the Parsvanatha image of Pratapanagari are
display chains of pearls falling from their mouths. The Risabhanatha image of
Ayodhya is envisaged within a pidha shaped miniature deul. Similarly, a Tirthankara
image frorm B. Singhpur displays gaja-simha motif and the figure of Risabhanatha
from Baudei (near Turirntira) and Tirthankara image in Ayodhya museum and Puri
District Museum are flanked by a pair of vidalas. The marks of lotus and champak
flowers along with a pair of geese at the base of the trefoil arch over the head are also
found in some images. Champaka flowers has depicted in the Risabhanatha images of
Pratapanagari, Adaspur, Nibarana, Panchagaon, Subei and few other places of
Koraput district. The Chakreswari image of Subei is also displays champak flower on
either side of the Sasanadevi.

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 Astagrahas seated in dhyanamudra over independent lotus pedestal are
generally figured vertically on both sides of Tirthankaras. In some instances they are
placed in a row in front of the lotus pedestal. Ketu is absent in the graha panel,
perhaps the Jainas might not believe the theory of his separation from Rahu. They are
all depicted in dhyanamudra with a pot of nectar and rosary in their hands except the
Surya who holds two full blown lotuses. Each Tirthankara image is associated with a
particular heavenly tree known as “kevala tree” under which the Tirthankara attained
the kevala-jnana or perfect knowledge. It normally found depicted symbolically over
the sacred umbrella in the shape of a few leaves or branch, spreading on either side.
But in case of Amra (Ambika) the tree is most lavishly displayed behind the seated or
standing figures and sometime laded with fruits. The Ambika image in Kachela and
the Navamuni cave, Jaina temple of Khandagiri are represented with lot of mangoes
in the tree. The image of Neminatha is uniformly seated in the midst of mango leaves
flanked by chauri bearers and topped by garland bearer and cymbals played with
invisible hands. In the image of Ambika with Yaksha Gomedha, a small child is seen
swinging from the trunk of the tree. The trees are quite noteworthy in view of their
delicate carvings and lavish representations.

The canopy of seven hooded snake is the identification mark of Parsvanatha.

In case of the seated figures the hoods just cover the head of the Tirthankara while in
cases of standing images the coils of the snake originating from the pedestal are
gathered at the back. The Parsvanatha images kept in the Jagannatha temple of
Baripada are provided with a canopy thirteen hoods. The snake coils rolled behind the
Parsvanatha figures of Pratapanagari, Ayodhya, Jajpur are remarkably fashioned. The
figure of Suparsvanatha is represented with a canopy of five hooded snake.

Trilinear Umbrella

A threefold umbrella or chhatravali is usually shown over the head of the

Tirthankaras. In some cases, they are very much decorated and in others they are
shown in outline only39. In most of the Tirthankara figures of Mahavira-Gumpha at
Khandagiri, the umbrella is designed in the pattern of pidha deul. The outer faces of the
umbrella folds in some cases are arranged in lotus petals fronted by rows of beads, in
its outer edges. In case of some bronze figures, streamers are attached to the edge of
the lower fold of the trilinear umbrella.

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Flying Gandharvas

Hovering in the sky, gandharvas holds garland in hand is envisaged on top

corners of Jaina Tirthankaras. They are depicted either one or in pairs on each side.
These figures are entirely absent with the Tirthankara figures of Navamuni-Gumpha
in Khandagiri hill while found in pair on a Parsvanatha image at Pratapanagari. The
garlands in their hands are mostly finished in a rolled fashion.

Divyadhuni

Cymbals or a drum to produce heavenly music (divyadhuni) on either side

of the sacred umbrella are played with invisible hands of gandharvas. In rare cases
however full figures of these heavenly damsels and semi divine figures are
depicted playing with various musical instruments including blowing of conch-
shells as noticed in the Parsvanatha image of Pratapanagari and Mahavira image at
Odisha State Museum. These gandharvas are often represented on elephants
displaying fly whisks in hands on either side of the Tirthankara at the top as
evidenced in the Parsvanatha image of Pratapanagari kept in a shed. Tirthankara
image of Koraput district, a tubular drum ribbed in outer sides is usually kept at
the centre of slab at the top.

Halo or Prabhamandala

Halo or prabhamandala, a beautiful radiance is one of the asta-pratiharyas has

been depicted behind the head of most of the Tirthankaras and Sasanadevi figures
except the figures in the Navamuni-Gumpha of Khandagiri hill. At the incipient stage,
they were entirely plain and elliptical in shape and later on these plain haloes were
given a beaded border. During course of time they appear to be circular in design
either entirely plain or with simple decoration in lotus petals and beaded chains. In
more elaborate ones the visible surface was very delicately designed with profuse
representation of lotus petals, floral medallions, auspicious marks, diamond shaped
designs and various linear motifs. In complicated ones, they are designed in two
sections, one inner and the other outer and both are equally decorated. The halos
behind the figures of Koraput district are very richly decorated and the more
noteworthy of the one being available with the Risabhanatha image of Kachela. The
halo behind head of divine figures in a later stage is replaced by trefoil or pentafolia
arch as noticed with the Tirthankara figures of Mahavira-Gumpha of Khandagiri and

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Digambara Jaina temple of Cuttack, the Mahavira image of Odisha State Museum and
the Risabhanatha figure of Nibarana etc. The outer bands of these arches are
decorated with beaded chains and floral medallions. In exceptional cases they are
surmounted by creepers, patches of lotus and champaka marks and inverted parrots
crowned by kirtimukha.

The three fold marks in the neck is known as trivali are distinctly shown in all
Tirthankara images. The hairs in the head of Tirthankaras except Risabhanatha are
arranged in spiral curls with occasional evidence of usnisa at the centre. In case of
Risabhanatha, the hairs are arranged in matted locks and a few strands of his falling
on the shoulders. They are mostly combed towards the top and tied in a chaplet. In
other case the collected hairs on the head are shown tied in a bulging knot tilting to
one side. The head of these ladies are set with bejewelled crowns or with well
decorated fore-head ornaments. They too are provided with ornaments for the neck,
ears, waist, arms, wrists and ankles and draped in the lower parts. The Padmavati
figure of Naguan of Jajpur, Kenduli of Cuttack, Ambika figures of Podasingidi and
Kachela and the Sasanadevi figures of Barabhuji-Gumpha of Khandagiri are very
elaborately decorated with costumes and ornaments. The necklace ranging from
simple beaded chains to multi-stranded ones are mostly set with lockets. The girdles
are fitted with floral medallions and tassels.

The auspicious mark on the chest i.e. srivatsa, in Jaina icons of Odisha is very
rare and noticed in the Risabhanatha images of Dolamundai of Cuttack, Kachela and
Jeypore, in one Parsvanatha image at Jagannatha temple of Baripada and the bronze
image of Parsvanatha of Bhanapur etc. Several postures like kayotsarga, yogasana,
lalitasana, maharaja-lilasana, samabhanga and tribhahga are associated with sitting or
standing Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis. The Sasanadevis display abhaya, varada, anjali,
tarjani and vitarka mudras in their hands in addition to the numerous varieties of
emblems viz., deadly weapons of war to manuscripts, musical instruments, rosary,
water pot, crescent moon, baby on the lap, flowers, fruits and branches of trees etc.
Apart from the distinctive lanchana below the pedestal of Tirthankaras and
Sasanadevis, a series of sacred objects and heads of offerings are also found40. They
usually form a single or two pitchers, spouted jars and other items sacred to Jaina
religion.

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 The Jaina’s have a remarkable representation in art which may regarded as a
substitute to Buddhist votive stupas i.e. chaturmukha or chaumukha and further
named as sarvatobhadrapratima41. Four Tirthankara images are generally represented
on four cardinal direction of the chaumukha which is design either as a miniature
rekha deul or pidha deul. In few cases only single image of Tirthankara is also found
as reported from Kartara, Sitalesvara and Sana Bazar of Jajpur town area and Naguan
of Vyasanagar area of Jajpur district and the one at found in Sitalesvara is carved in
the shape of stupa and a Parsvanatha figure appeared in the dome portion. A number
of miniature chaumukha made of laterite stone block having a single nice in one of its
facade are found at Naguan and Nayagarh of Jajpur district. Besides, laterite blocks
with apsidal top and provision of rectangular niche at Naguan are noteworthy to
mention. The stone tablet depicting Ganadharas and Purvadharas are found the places
like Panchagaon of Khordha district, Digambara Jaina temple of Cuttack city, Kartara
and Naguan of Jajpur district are minutely carved and depicted the deities in very
smaller dimension and a Tirthankara as mulanayaka at the top.

References:

1. U.P. Saha, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955, pp.3-4.

2. M.N.P. Tiwary, Ambika in Jaina Art and Literature, New Delhi, 1989, p.3.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., p.4.
5. Ibid., pp.1-15.
6. R.P. Mohapatra, Jaina Monuments of Orissa, Delhi, 1984, p.161.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid., p.162.
9. D. Mitra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, New Delhi, 1992, pp.26-31.
10. V.S. Agrawala, Indian Art, Varanasi, 2003, pp.181-182
11. M.M. Chakravarty, Bengal District Gazetteer, Puri, LSS’ OMalley (ed.),
1908, p.256.
12. D. Mitra, op.cit., pp.31-32.
13. S. Agrawal, Sri Kharavela, Cuttack, 2000, pp.116-118.
14. V.S. Agrawala, op.cit., pp.179-180.
15. R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., p.170.
16. N.K. Sahu, History of Odisha, Vol.I, Bhubaneswar, 1964, p. 385.

227
17. Ibid., pp.385-386.
18. D. Mitra, op.cit., pp.52-56.
19. R.P. Mohapatra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Delhi, 1981, pp.116-117.
20. Ibid., pp. 120-122.
21. Ibid., p.130.
22. Ibid., p.132.
23. K.C. Panigrahi, The Archaeological Remains at Bhubaneswar, Culcatta, 1961,
p.86.
24. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol.I, Bhubaneswar, 1964, p.44.
25. R.P. Mohapatra, Archaeology in Orissa, Vol.I, New Delhi, 1986, p.133.
26. R.P. Mohapatra, 1981, op.cit., pp.130-131.
27. R.P. Mohapatra, 1984, op.cit., p.182.
28. D. Mitra, Bronzes from Achutrajpur, Orissa, Delhi, 1978, pp.36-37.
29. R.P. Mohapatra, 1984, op.cit., pp.183-184.
30. D. Mitra, op.cit., pp.50-51.
31. A.R. Sahoo, “A study of Jaina Images of Jajpur”, (un-published M.Phil thesis),
2004, pp.57-92.
32. K.S. Behera and T.E. Donaldson, Sculpture Masterpieces from Orissa, New
Delhi, 1998, pp.48-49.
33. A. Joshi, “An unique Rsaba image from Podasingidi,” OHRJ, Vol. X, No.3,
1961, pp.74-76.
34. M.P. Dash, “Jaina Antiquities from Charampa,” OHRJ, Vol.XII, No.2, 1964,
pp.50-53.
35. R.P. Mohapatra, “Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis of Khandagiri Caves,” in H.C.
Das and et al. (ed.), Buddhism & Jainism, Cuttack, pp.53-60.
36. Ibid.
37. A.C. Sahoo, Jaina Religion and Art, Delhi, 1994, pp.187-188.
38. P.K. Ray, Prachi Valley, Bhubaneswar, 1975, pp.53-55.
39. R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., p.56.
40. Ibid., p.57.
41. A.C. Sahoo, op.cit., p.177.

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