COURSE SYNOPSIS

MCB 201: GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY I (3 UNITS)

LECTURERS: Prof (Mrs) M.O. Bankole*, Dr S.A. Balogun, Dr (Mrs) O.R. Afolabi

1. Biology of microorganisms: Nutrition, metabolism, growth and reproduction in

microorganisms
 Nutritional Requirements
All forms of life, from microorganisms to human beings, share certain nutritional
requirements, in terms of the chemicals necessary for their growth and normal
functioning.
a. Source of Energy: microorganisms can be classified as
- Phototrophs: utilising radiant energy (sunlight) as sole source of energy
- Chemotrophs: depend on oxidation of chemical compounds for their energy.
b. Source of Carbon
- Autotrophs: Carbondioxide is their sole carbon source
- Heterotrophs: organic form of carbon as the sole source of carbon
c. Other nutrients: Water, Vitamins
d. Other elements: Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium, Manganese, iron, Zinc, Copper, Cobalt.

 Conditions for Growth

a. Temperature: Microorganisms could be classified as:
i. Psychrophiles: they are able to grow at 0˚C or lower, though they grow at
higher temperatures (15˚-20˚C).
ii. Mesophiles: they grow within temperature range of approximately 25˚-40˚C.
iii. Thermophiles: they grow at temperatures between 45˚ – 60˚C. There are
some extreme thermophiles that can withstand temperatures about 100˚C e.g
Thermus aquaticus.
Optimum temperature is the temperature of incubation which allows for most rapid
growth during a short period of time (12 to 24 h).

b. pH:
i. Acidophiles: they grow at acidic pH
ii. Neutrophiles: they grow at neutral pH
iii. Alkalophiles: they grow at basic/alkaline pH

For most bacteria, the optimum pH for growth ranges from 6.5 – 7.5.

c. Oxygen Requirement:
i. Aerobes: grow in the presence of free oxygen
ii. Anaerobes: grow in the absence of free oxygen
iii. Facultative anaerobes: grow either in the presence or absence of free oxygen.
iv. Microaerophiles: grow in the presence of minute quantities of free oxygen.
 d. Additional requirements:
i. Halophiles: grow only in medium with unusually high concentration of salt
(10-15%) found in brines, salt packs, ocean water and certain foods.

2. Role of microorganisms in nature

 How they affect people, property and the environment
Microorganisms are widely distributed in the different habitats available in nature. They are
carried by air currents from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere. They are found in seas
and oceans and they can be transported to high altitudes. They are carried by streams and
rivers and found at ocean depths and sea beds. Microorganisms are found abundantly in the
soil too.

Microorganisms occur abundantly where they find nutrients, moisture and conditions
conducive for their growth and reproduction. These conditions are prevail everywhere
around places humans inhabit and that’s why microorganisms are found in the air we
breathe, food we eat, on body surfaces, alimentary canal, mouth, nose etc.

Microorganisms can be found in very harsh environments where other life forms could not
be found such as salt lakes which have high concentrations of salt and thermal vents which
are characterised by exceptionally high temperature.

Microorganisms play several roles in nature that has a wide range of effects on man and the
environment, which could be advantageous or detrimental.

Some of the beneficial roles microorganisms play are as follows:

a. In the production of antibiotics
b. Production of fermented foods: improved flavours and texture in foods
c. Bioleaching of metal from ores
d. Production of alcoholic beverages
e. Production of milk-based products
f. Production of organic acids
g. Production of amino acids and enzymes
h. Remediation of oil spills
i. Biodegradation of sewage
j. Biogas production
k. Production of bio-fertiliser
l. Production of microbial pesticides
m. Production of vaccines

Detrimental roles of microorganisms

a. Deterioration of food/Food spoilage
b. Food borne diseases
 c. Degradation of food materials
d. Cause animal diseases
e. Cause plant diseases
f. Degradation of industrial materials

 Broad aspects of Host-Parasite relationships

3. Public Health
 Bacterial Diseases
- Tuberculosis: caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis which spreads through
droplets. M. bovis cause tuberculosis in cow and cattle. Diagnosis is by isolation
of the bacterium, chest X-ray, DNa probe, HPLC test and Mantoux (Tuberculin)
test. Treatment is by administering isoniazid plus rifampicin, ethambutol, and
pyrazinamide.
- Diphtheria: caused by Corynebacterium diphteriae and this is inhaled through
droplets. The organism produces exotoxin which inflames the respiratory mucosa.
Diagnosis is by culturing the organism dn pseudomembrane in throat. Treatment
is by Penicillin and Erythromycin.
- Pertussis: caused by Bordetella pertussis and is characterised by whooping cough.
Diagnosis is by culturing the bacterium, fluorescent antibody and serological test.
Treatment is by chloramphenicol, tetracycline or erythromycin. Vaccination with
DPT vaccine is also done to prevent the disease.
- Tetanus: caused by Clostridium tetani, and characterised by a muscle spasm
called “lock jaw”. It is prevented by using tetanus toxoid and antitoxin and
penicillin are used as prophylaxis.
- Cholera: caused by Vibrio cholerae. It is characterised by loss of water and
electrolyte from the body and results in vomiting, abdominal cramps, fever and
watery diarrhoea. Diagnosis is by culturing faeces and agglutination reactions. For
treatment, patients are rehydrated with ORT (salt and sugar solution) and
antibiotics such as tetracycline, trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole or ciprofloxacin.
- Syphilis: Veneral syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease while congenital
syphilis is acquired by newborns from the mother in uterus. It is caused by
Treponema pallidum Diagnosis is by clinical history, physical examination and
immunofluorescence examination of fluids from lesions. Several serological tests
can be used to detect the antigen including the Wassermann test. Prevention is by
public education, prompt treatment of new cases and prophylaxis.
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 Mycotic Diseases
Fungal diseases can either be mycoses (caused by infection) or toxicoses (caused by
toxic fungal metabolites).

Examples of Mycotic diseases are as follow:

 a. Candidiasis: This is an acute or chromic superficial infection caused by Candida
albicans. Other species associated with one or more clinical types of
candidiasis is C. parapsilopsis, C. tropicalis, C. stellotoidea, C. krusei,
C. guilliermondii etc.
Candidiasis could be manifested as oral candidiasis, bronchocandidiasis,
pulmonary candidiasis, endocarditis and meningitis.
Though the disease could subside with therapy, treatment could be by Nystatin
in form of ointment or cream for topical application. Sodium carprylate, sodium
or calcium propionate, gentian violet, amphotericin-B are also used for
treatment of candidiasis.
b. Dermatophytosis: It is also called Dermatomycosis. It is a superficial infection on
the keratinised parts of the body such as skin, nails and hairs. They are caused
by species of Epidermophyton, Tricophyton and Microsporum.
The scaly annular skin lesions caused by dermatophytes are called Tinea. Tinea
are classified according to the parts of the body they affect.
i. Tinea pedis: ringworm of the foot (athletes foot) caused by T. rubrum
, T. mentagrophytes, E. floccosum.
ii. Tinea capitis: ringworm of the scalp (hair) caused by T. tonsurans , T.
mentagrophytes,M. Audouinii, M. canis
iii. Tinea corporis: ringworm of non-hairy skin of the body caused by T.
rubrum , T. mentagrophytes, M. canis
iv. Tinea unguium: ringworm of the nail caused by T. rubrum , T.
mentagrophytes,
v. Tinae barbae: ringworm of the beard caused by T. verrucosum , T.
mentagrophytes,
vi. Tinea cruris: ringworm of the groin caused by T. schoenleinii , T.
violaceum, M. Gypseum

c. Aspergillosis: It is caused primarily by Aspergillus fumigatus. It is in occupational

disease which occurs in the sinuses, bronchi, lungs and other parts of the body
and is important among those who are immunocompromised.
It could be pulmonary aspergillosis, myocarditis, otomycosis or
bronchopulmonary aspergillosis.
Treatment is with Sodium iodide intravenously, potassium iodide orally and
amphotericin B.
Other fungal diseases are caused by Cryptococcus neoformans, Coccidioides immitis,
Blastomyces dermatidis, Histoplasma capsulatum

 Viral Diseases
- Measles: caused by Morbillivirus of family Paramyxoviridae. Symptms are nasal
discharge, cough, fever, headache and conjunctivitis. Diagnosis can be by
observing bright-red lesions called koplik’s spots on the oral cavity. Vaccination
with attenuated measles vaccine (Attenuvax) is used. There is no specific
treatment for measles.
 - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS): caused by Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which is a lentivirus in the family Retroviridae.
Transmission is by sexual contact, sharing sharp objects with infected persons,
blood transfusion, and by mother-to-child transmission. Preventing is by avoiding
contact with infected objects, blood or sexual intercourse with infected person.
Attempts are being made to develop a vaccine but antiretroviral drugs are being
used to manage the condition.

 Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the science that deals with the occurrence, determination, distribution
and control of disease. The study of infectious disease is very important to public
health. Infectious diseases is any change in a state of normal health in which part or the
whole body of the individual does not function properly due to the presence of an
infectious agent or its products.
When a disease occurs occasionally and at irregular intervals in a human population, it
is called a sporadic disease e.g. typhoid. A disease maintaining a steady, low level
frequency at a regular interval is called endemic disease. An epidemic is a sudden
increase in the occurrence of a disease beyond limit while Pandemic is if the occurrence
of disease increase within a large population over a wide region.
- Characteristics of Infectious Disease
- Disease Cycle
- Transmission of Pathogens
- Control of Infectious Disease

4. Ecology of Soils and Water

 Soil is the outer region of the earth crust consisting of loose material formed by
gradual weathering of rocks and gives plants both mechanical and nutritional
support. Soil is a unique habitat which harbours a variety of microflora and fauna.
Microorganisms which live in soil include
i. Algae such as Anabaena, Calothrix, Oscillatoria, Aulosira, Nostoc, Scytonema,
Tolypothrix etc. They serve as cyanobacterial biofertiliser and also in reclamationof
sodic soils.
ii. Bacteria: they are the most abundant group in soil being as much as 1010 cells per
gram of soil. They could be autochthonous or allochthonous. They help in organic
matter decomposition, biotransformation, biogas formation, nitrogen fixation etc.
Examples are Agrobacterium, Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Alcaligens, Clostridium,
Corynebacterium, erwinia, Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium,
Thiobacillus etc.
iii. Actinomycetes: Gram positive bacteria that share some characteristics of fungi. They
are known to impart the earthy odour of newly wetted soils by their volatile growth
products. They also release antibiotics Examples are Actinomyces, Actinoplane,
Micromonospora, Microbispora, Nocardia, Streptomyces, Thermoactinomyces.
iv. Protozoans: they regulate the number of bacteria by predating on them and eating
them.
 v. Nematodes: they derive nutrients for their growth and reproduction from the cell
contents and cytoplasm of protozoa, bacteria, fungi, etc. Examples are Colpoda,
Cercomonas.
vi. Fungi: Aspergillus, Alternaria, Metarrhizium, Cladosporium, Helminthosporum.

 Water is important to life. It is an essential part of protoplasm and creates a state for
metabolic activities to occur smoothly. About 75% of the earth surface is covered by
water.
Water receives microorganisms from air, soil, sewage, organic wastes, dead plants
and animal. Majority of bacteria found in water belong to
- Fluorescent e.g Pseudomonas and Alginomonas
- Chromogenic e.g Xanthomonas
- Coliform e.g E.coli, Aerobacter
- Proteus
- Spore formers e.g Bacillus
- Pigmentedand non pigmented cocci e.g Micrococcus
Water borne pathogenic microbes include Vibro cholera, Yersinia enterocolitica,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aeromonas hydrophilia

 Environmental Pollution
The environment is constantly polluted by heavy metals and petroleum products.
Soil microorganisms function as biogeochemical agents for the mineralisation of
organic carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and other compounds.

Many microorganisms have been used to produce improved quality and variety of
products for improved livelihood of humans. They are involved in solving
environmental problems by:
i. Degrading solid wastes (Lignocellulosics) into compost
ii. Degradation of pesticides: Proteus vulgaris, Clostridium sporogenes
iii. Degradation of heavy metal wastes and industrial effluent: Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus
iv. Treatment and Degradation of sewage sludge e.g Spirulina platensis,
Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Beggiatoa alba, Achromobacter spp
v. Degradation of petrol and other petroleum pollutants: Pseudomonas putida
vi. Bioleaching of ores e.g Thiobacillus ferroxidans, Desulfotomaculum

5. Systematic classification of microorganisms

Classification of microorganisms are done based on several criteria
i. Morphological
 Shape and Arrangement
Spherical: They are ellipsoidal cells called cocci (singular: coccus). The
particular pattern is characteristic of particular bacteria.
Diplocci is arranged in pairs. Streptococci are arranged in chains. Tetracocci
are arranged in two planes characteristic group of four cells. Staphylococci an
 irregular pattern in bunches. Sarcinae in a regular pattern producing a
cubiodal arrangement.
 Cylindrical cells; they are rodlike (singular: bacillus; plural; bacilli).
Diplobacilli arranged in pairs and Streptobacilli arranged in chains, palisade
arrangement grouped like matchsticks.
 Spiral-shaped bacteria (singular: spirillium, plural: spirilla) occur as
unattached cells with characteristic spiral shape and rigid cell wall. Short
incomplete spirals are called comma bacteria or vibrio.

ii. Genetic Relatedness

This classification is based on DNA and RNA relatedness between organisms. The
% G+C determines whether the organisms are similar or differ. If two organisms
have different %G+C, then they are likely to be different. Genetic relatedness could
be achieved by:
i. DNA-DNA Hybridization/DNA Homology. If DNA from two
organisms are similar, pairing will occur in the DNA strands when
mixed, if not they are not of the same species.
ii. 16S rRNA Sequencing: Ribosomal RNA homology and ribosomal
RNA cataloguing determine the molecular characteristics and can be
used to demonstrate the degree of relatedness.

iii. Biochemical reactions

- Gram reaction: The response of bacteria cell wall to gram staining is able to
classify the organism as either Gram positive or Gram negative.

- Assimilation of sugars