The Not So Short Introduction To Latex - T. Oetiker, ...
The Not So Short Introduction To Latex - T. Oetiker, ...
Introduction to LATEX 2ε
Or LATEX 2ε in 151 minutes
by Tobias Oetiker
Hubert Partl, Irene Hyna and Elisabeth Schlegl
LATEX [1] is a typesetting system that is very suitable for producing scientific
and mathematical documents of high typographical quality. It is also suitable
for producing all sorts of other documents, from simple letters to complete
books. LATEX uses TEX [2] as its formatting engine.
This short introduction describes LATEX 2ε and should be sufficient for
most applications of LATEX. Refer to [1, 3] for a complete description of the
LATEX system.
Chapter 1 tells you about the basic structure of LATEX 2ε documents. You
will also learn a bit about the history of LATEX. After reading this
chapter, you should have a rough understanding how LATEX works.
Chapter 5 shows how to use LATEX for creating graphics. Instead of drawing
a picture with some graphics program, saving it to a file and then
including it into LATEX, you describe the picture and have LATEX draw it
for you.
It is important to read the chapters in order—the book is not that big, after
all. Be sure to carefully read the examples, because a lot of the information is
in the examples placed throughout the book.
LATEX is available for most computers, from the PC and Mac to large UNIX
and VMS systems. On many university computer clusters you will find that
a LATEX installation is available, ready to use. Information on how to access
the local LATEX installation should be provided in the Local Guide [5]. If you
have problems getting started, ask the person who gave you this booklet. The
scope of this document is not to tell you how to install and set up a LATEX
system, but to teach you how to write your documents so that they can be
processed by LATEX.
If you need to get hold of any LATEX related material, have a look at one of
the Comprehensive TEX Archive Network (CTAN) sites. The homepage is at
http://www.ctan.org.
You will find other references to CTAN throughout the book, especially
pointers to software and documents you might want to download. Instead of
writing down complete urls, I just wrote CTAN: followed by whatever location
within the CTAN tree you should go to.
If you want to run LATEX on your own computer, take a look at what is
available from CTAN://systems.
OETIKER+PARTNER AG
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Preface v
2 Typesetting Text 15
2.1 The Structure of Text and Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Line Breaking and Page Breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.1 Justified Paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Hyphenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Ready-Made Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Special Characters and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.1 Quotation Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
viii CONTENTS
4 Specialities 81
4.1 Including Encapsulated PostScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4 Fancy Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.5 The Verbatim Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.6 Installing Extra Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.7 Working with pdfLATEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.7.1 PDF Documents for the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7.2 The Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.7.3 Using Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.7.4 Hypertext Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.7.5 Problems with Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.7.6 Problems with Bookmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.7.7 Source Compatibility Between LATEX and pdfLATEX . . . 94
4.8 Working with XELATEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.8.1 The Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.8.2 Compatibility Between XELATEX and pdfLATEX . . . . . 97
4.9 Creating Presentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Bibliography 135
Index 138
List of Figures
The first part of this chapter presents a short overview of the philosophy and
history of LATEX 2ε . The second part focuses on the basic structures of a LATEX
document. After reading this chapter, you should have a rough knowledge of how
LATEX works, which you will need to understand the rest of this book.
1.1.2 LATEX
LATEX enables authors to typeset and print their work at the highest typo-
graphical quality, using a predefined, professional layout. LATEX was originally
written by Leslie Lamport [1]. It uses the TEX formatter as its typesetting
engine. These days LATEX is maintained by Frank Mittelbach.
LATEX is pronounced “Lay-tech” or “Lah-tech.” If you refer to LATEX in an
ASCII environment, you type LaTeX. LATEX 2ε is pronounced “Lay-tech two e”
and typed LaTeX2e.
1.2 Basics
1.2.1 Author, Book Designer, and Typesetter
To publish something, authors give their typed manuscript to a publishing
company. One of their book designers then decides the layout of the document
(column width, fonts, space before and after headings, . . . ). The book designer
writes his instructions into the manuscript and then gives it to a typesetter,
who typesets the book according to these instructions.
A human book designer tries to find out what the author had in mind while
writing the manuscript. He decides on chapter headings, citations, examples,
formulae, etc. based on his professional knowledge and from the contents of
the manuscript.
In a LATEX environment, LATEX takes the role of the book designer and
uses TEX as its typesetter. But LATEX is “only” a program and therefore needs
more guidance. The author has to provide additional information to describe
the logical structure of his work. This information is written into the text as
“LATEX commands.”
This is quite different from the WYSIWYG2 approach that most modern
word processors, such as MS Word or LibreOffice, take. With these applications,
authors specify the document layout interactively while typing text into the
computer. They can see on the screen how the final work will look when it is
printed.
When using LATEX it is not normally possible to see the final output while
typing the text, but the final output can be previewed on the screen after
processing the file with LATEX. Then corrections can be made before actually
sending the document to the printer.
• The font size and the numbering of headings have to be chosen to make
the structure of chapters and sections clear to the reader.
• The line length has to be short enough not to strain the eyes of the
reader, while long enough to fill the page beautifully.
With WYSIWYG systems, authors often generate aesthetically pleasing
documents with very little or inconsistent structure. LATEX prevents such
formatting errors by forcing the author to declare the logical structure of his
document. LATEX then chooses the most suitable layout.
LATEX also has some disadvantages, and I guess it’s a bit difficult for me to
find any sensible ones, though I am sure other people can tell you hundreds
;-)
4 Things You Need to Know
• LATEX does not work well for people who have sold their souls . . .
• Your hamster might, despite some encouraging first steps, never be able
to fully grasp the concept of Logical Markup.
1.3.1 Spaces
“Whitespace” characters, such as blank or tab, are treated uniformly as “space”
by LATEX. Several consecutive whitespace characters are treated as one “space.”
Whitespace at the start of a line is generally ignored, and a single line break
is treated as “whitespace.”
An empty line between two lines of text defines the end of a paragraph.
Several empty lines are treated the same as one empty line. The text below is
an example. On the left hand side is the text from the input file, and on the
right hand side is the formatted output.
As you will see, these characters can be used in your documents all the
same by using a prefix backslash:
The other symbols and many more can be printed with special commands
in mathematical formulae or as accents. The backslash character \ can not be
entered by adding another backslash in front of it (\\); this sequence is used
for line breaking. Use the \textbackslash command instead.
• They start with a backslash \ and then have a name consisting of letters
only. Command names are terminated by a space, a number or any
other ‘non-letter.’
LATEX ignores whitespace after commands. If you want to get a space after
a command, you have to put either an empty parameter {} and a blank or a
special spacing command after the command name. The empty parameter {}
stops LATEX from eating up all the white space after the command name.
\command[optional parameter]{parameter}
The next examples use some LATEX commands. Don’t worry about them; they
will be explained later.
1.3.4 Comments
When LAT
EX encounters a % character while processing an input file, it ignores
the rest of the present line, the line break, and all whitespace at the beginning
of the next line.
This can be used to write notes into the input file, which will not show up
in the printed version.
This is an % stupid
% Better: instructive <----
This is an example: Supercalifragilisticex-
example: Supercal%
pialidocious
ifragilist%
icexpialidocious
The % character can also be used to split long input lines where no whites-
pace or line breaks are allowed.
For longer comments you could use the comment environment provided by
the verbatim package. Add the line \usepackage{verbatim} to the preamble
of your document as explained below to use this command.
This is another
\begin{comment}
rather stupid,
This is another example for embedding
but helpful
comments in your document.
\end{comment}
example for embedding
comments in your document.
Note that this won’t work inside complex environments, like math for
example.
When all the setup work is done,4 you start the body of the text with the
command
\begin{document}
Now you enter the text mixed with some useful LATEX commands. At the
end of the document you add the
\end{document}
command, which tells LATEX to call it a day. Anything that follows this
command will be ignored by LATEX.
Figure 1.1 shows the contents of a minimal LATEX 2ε file. A slightly more
complicated input file is given in Figure 1.2.
4
The area between \documentclass and \begin{document} is called the preamble.
\documentclass{article}
\begin{document}
Small is beautiful.
\end{document}
\documentclass[a4paper,11pt]{article}
% define the title
\author{H.~Partl}
\title{Minimalism}
\begin{document}
% generates the title
\maketitle
% insert the table of contents
\tableofcontents
\section{Some Interesting Words}
Well, and here begins my lovely article.
\section{Good Bye World}
\ldots{} and here it ends.
\end{document}
Figure 1.2: Example of a Realistic Journal Article. Note that all the commands
you see in this example will be explained later in the introduction.
8 Things You Need to Know
1. Edit/Create your LATEX input file. This file must be plain ASCII text.
On Unix all the editors will create just that. On Windows you might
want to make sure that you save the file in ASCII or Plain Text format.
When picking a name for your file, make sure it bears the extension
.tex.
2. Open a shell or cmd window, cd to the directory where your input file is
located and run LATEX on your input file. If successful you will end up
with a .dvi file. It may be necessary to run LATEX several times to get
the table of contents and all internal references right. When your input
file has a bug LATEX will tell you about it and stop processing your input
file. Type ctrl-D to get back to the command line.
latex foo.tex
3. Now you may view the DVI file. There are several ways to do that. Look
at the file on screen with
This only works on Unix with X11. If you are on Windows you might
want to try yap (yet another previewer).
Convert the dvi file to PostScript for printing or viewing with GhostScript.
If you are lucky your LATEX system even comes with the dvipdf tool,
which allows you to convert your .dvi files straight into pdf.
dvipdf foo.dvi
5
This is the case with most well groomed Unix Systems, and . . . Real Men use Unix,
so . . . ;-)
1.6 The Layout of the Document 9
\documentclass[options]{class}
Here class specifies the type of document to be created. Table 1.1 lists the
document classes explained in this introduction. The LATEX 2ε distribution
provides additional classes for other documents, including letters and slides.
The options parameter customises the behaviour of the document class. The
options have to be separated by commas. The most common options for the
standard document classes are listed in Table 1.2.
Example: An input file for a LATEX document could start with the line
\documentclass[11pt,twoside,a4paper]{article}
which instructs LATEX to typeset the document as an article with a base font
size of eleven points, and to produce a layout suitable for double sided printing
on A4 paper.
1.6.2 Packages
While writing your document, you will probably find that there are some areas
where basic LATEX cannot solve your problem. If you want to include graphics,
minimal is as small as it can get. It only sets a page size and a base font. It
is mainly used for debugging purposes.
report for longer reports containing several chapters, small books, PhD theses,
...
slides for slides. The class uses big sans serif letters. You might want to
consider using the Beamer class instead.
10 Things You Need to Know
10pt, 11pt, 12pt Sets the size of the main font in the document. If no
option is specified, 10pt is assumed.
leqno Places the numbering of formulae on the left hand side instead of
the right.
coloured text or source code from a file into your document, you need to
enhance the capabilities of LATEX. Such enhancements are called packages.
Packages are activated with the
\usepackage[options]{package}
command, where package is the name of the package and options is a list of
keywords that trigger special features in the package. Some packages come
with the LATEX 2ε base distribution (See Table 1.3). Others are provided
separately. You may find more information on the packages installed at your
site in your Local Guide [5]. The prime source for information about LATEX
packages is The LATEX Companion [3]. It contains descriptions on hundreds
of packages, along with information of how to write your own extensions to
LATEX 2ε .
Modern TEX distributions come with a large number of packages prein-
stalled. If you are working on a Unix system, use the command texdoc for
accessing package documentation.
\pagestyle{style}
command defines which one to use. Table 1.4 lists the predefined page styles.
It is possible to change the page style of the current page with the command
\thispagestyle{style}
A description how to create your own headers and footers can be found in
The LATEX Companion [3] and in section 4.4 on page 85.
.sty LATEX Macro package. Load this into your LATEX document using the
\usepackage command.
12 Things You Need to Know
latexsym To access the LATEX symbol font, you should use the latexsym
package. Described in latexsym.dtx and in The LATEX Companion [3].
plain prints the page numbers on the bottom of the page, in the middle of
the footer. This is the default page style.
headings prints the current chapter heading and the page number in the
header on each page, while the footer remains empty. (This is the style
used in this document)
.dtx Documented TEX. This is the main distribution format for LATEX style
files. If you process a .dtx file you get documented macro code of the
LATEX package contained in the .dtx file.
.ins The installer for the files contained in the matching .dtx file. If you
download a LATEX package from the net, you will normally get a .dtx
and a .ins file. Run LATEX on the .ins file to unpack the .dtx file.
.cls Class files define what your document looks like. They are selected with
the \documentclass command.
.fd Font description file telling LATEX about new fonts.
The following files are generated when you run LATEX on your input file:
.dvi Device Independent File. This is the main result of a LATEX compile
run. Look at its content with a DVI previewer program or send it to a
printer with dvips or a similar application.
.log Gives a detailed account of what happened during the last compiler run.
.toc Stores all your section headers. It gets read in for the next compiler run
and is used to produce the table of content.
.lof This is like .toc but for the list of figures.
.lot And again the same for the list of tables.
.aux Another file that transports information from one compiler run to the
next. Among other things, the .aux file is used to store information
associated with cross-references.
.idx If your document contains an index. LATEX stores all the words that go
into the index in this file. Process this file with makeindex. Refer to
section 4.3 on page 84 for more information on indexing.
.ind The processed .idx file, ready for inclusion into your document on the
next compile cycle.
.ilg Logfile telling what makeindex did.
\include{filename}
Use this command in the document body to insert the contents of another file
named filename.tex. Note that LATEX will start a new page before processing
the material input from filename.tex.
14 Things You Need to Know
The second command can be used in the preamble. It allows you to instruct
LATEX to only input some of the \included files.
\includeonly{filename,filename,. . . }
\input{filename}
\usepackage{syntonly}
\syntaxonly
When you want to produce pages, just comment out the second line (by adding
a percent sign).
Chapter 2
Typesetting Text
After reading the previous chapter, you should know about the basic stuff of which
a LATEX 2ε document is made. In this chapter I will fill in the remaining structure
you will need to know in order to produce real world material.
The main point of writing a text (some modern DAAC1 literature excluded),
is to convey ideas, information, or knowledge to the reader. The reader will
understand the text better if these ideas are well-structured, and will see and
feel this structure much better if the typographical form reflects the logical
and semantical structure of the content.
LATEX is different from other typesetting systems in that you just have
to tell it the logical and semantical structure of a text. It then derives the
typographical form of the text according to the “rules” given in the document
class file and in various style files.
The most important text unit in LATEX (and in typography) is the para-
graph. We call it “text unit” because a paragraph is the typographical form
that should reflect one coherent thought, or one idea. You will learn in the
following sections how to force line breaks with e.g. \\, and paragraph breaks
with e.g. leaving an empty line in the source code. Therefore, if a new thought
begins, a new paragraph should begin, and if not, only line breaks should be
used. If in doubt about paragraph breaks, think about your text as a conveyor
of ideas and thoughts. If you have a paragraph break, but the old thought
continues, it should be removed. If some totally new line of thought occurs in
the same paragraph, then it should be broken.
Most people completely underestimate the importance of well-placed para-
graph breaks. Many people do not even know what the meaning of a paragraph
1
Different At All Cost, a translation of the Swiss German UVA (Um’s Verrecken
Anders).
16 Typesetting Text
break is, or, especially in LATEX, introduce paragraph breaks without knowing
it. The latter mistake is especially easy to make if equations are used in the
text. Look at the following examples, and figure out why sometimes empty
lines (paragraph breaks) are used before and after the equation, and sometimes
not. (If you don’t yet understand all commands well enough to understand
these examples, please read this and the following chapter, and then read this
section again.)
% Example 1
\ldots when Einstein introduced his formula
\begin{equation}
e = m \cdot c^2 \; ,
\end{equation}
which is at the same time the most widely known
and the least well understood physical formula.
% Example 2
\ldots from which follows Kirchhoff’s current law:
\begin{equation}
\sum_{k=1}^{n} I_k = 0 \; .
\end{equation}
% Example 3
\ldots which has several advantages.
\begin{equation}
I_D = I_F - I_R
\end{equation}
is the core of a very different transistor model. \ldots
a comma.
Finally, the paragraphs of a text should also be structured logically at
a higher level, by putting them into chapters, sections, subsections, and so
on. However, the typographical effect of writing e.g. \section{The Structure
of Text and Language} is so obvious that it is almost self-evident how these
high-level structures should be used.
\\ or \newline
\\*
\newpage
suggest places where a break may (or may not) happen. They enable the
author to influence their actions with the optional argument n, which can
be set to a number between zero and four. By setting n to a value below 4,
you leave LATEX the option of ignoring your command if the result would look
very bad. Do not confuse these “break” commands with the “new” commands.
Even when you give a “break” command, LATEX still tries to even out the
right border of the line and the total length of the page, as described in the
next section; this can lead to unpleasant gaps in your text. If you really want
to start a “new line” or a “new page”, then use the corresponding command.
Guess their names!
LATEX always tries to produce the best line breaks possible. If it cannot
find a way to break the lines in a manner that meets its high standards, it
18 Typesetting Text
lets one line stick out on the right of the paragraph. LATEX then complains
(“overfull hbox”) while processing the input file. This happens most often
when LATEX cannot find a suitable place to hyphenate a word.2 Instruct LATEX
to lower its standards a little by giving the \sloppy command. It prevents
such over-long lines by increasing the inter-word spacing—even if the final
output is not optimal. In this case a warning (“underfull hbox”) is given to
the user. In most such cases the result doesn’t look very good. The command
\fussy brings LATEX back to its default behaviour.
2.2.2 Hyphenation
LATEX hyphenates words whenever necessary. If the hyphenation algorithm
does not find the correct hyphenation points, remedy the situation by using
the following commands to tell TEX about the exception.
The command
\hyphenation{word list}
causes the words listed in the argument to be hyphenated only at the points
marked by “-”. The argument of the command should only contain words built
from normal letters, or rather signs that are considered to be normal letters by
LATEX. The hyphenation hints are stored for the language that is active when
the hyphenation command occurs. This means that if you place a hyphenation
command into the preamble of your document it will influence the English
language hyphenation. If you place the command after the \begin{document}
and you are using some package for national language support like babel, then
the hyphenation hints will be active in the language activated through babel.
The example below will allow “hyphenation” to be hyphenated as well as
“Hyphenation”, and it prevents “FORTRAN”, “Fortran” and “fortran” from
being hyphenated at all. No special characters or symbols are allowed in the
argument.
Example:
\hyphenation{FORTRAN Hy-phen-a-tion}
The command \- inserts a discretionary hyphen into a word. This also
becomes the only point hyphenation is allowed in this word. This command
is especially useful for words containing special characters (e.g. accented
characters), because LATEX does not automatically hyphenate words containing
special characters.
Several words can be kept together on one line with the command
\mbox{text}
\fbox is similar to \mbox, but in addition there will be a visible box drawn
around the content.
In some of the examples on the previous pages, you have seen some very simple
LATEX commands for typesetting special text strings:
‘‘Please press the ‘x’ key.’’ “Please press the ‘x’ key.”
Yes I know the rendering is not ideal, it’s really a back-tick or grave accent
(`) for opening quotes and vertical quote (') for closing, despite what the font
chosen might suggest.
20 Typesetting Text
The names for these dashes are: ‘-’ hyphen, ‘–’ en-dash, ‘—’ em-dash and
‘−’ minus sign.
http://www.rich.edu/\~{}bush \\ http://www.rich.edu/˜bush
http://www.clever.edu/$\sim$demo http://www.clever.edu/∼demo
It’s $-30\,^{\circ}\mathrm{C}$.
I will soon start to It’s −30 ◦ C. I will soon start to super-
super-conduct. conduct.
The textcomp package makes the degree symbol also available as \textdegree
or in combination with the C by using the \textcelsius.
30 \textcelsius{} is
86 \textdegree{}F. 30 ℃ is 86 °F.
2.4 Special Characters and Symbols 21
\usepackage{textcomp}
\texteuro
to access it.
If your font does not provide its own Euro symbol or if you do not like the
font’s Euro symbol, you have two more choices:
First the eurosym package. It provides the official Euro symbol:
\usepackage[official]{eurosym}
If you prefer a Euro symbol that matches your font, use the option gen in
place of the official option.
LM+textcomp \texteuro € € €
eurosym \euro e e e
[gen]eurosym \euro A
C A
C A
C
2.4.7 Ellipsis (. . . )
On a typewriter, a comma or a period takes the same amount of space as any
other letter. In book printing, these characters occupy only a little space and
are set very close to the preceding letter. Therefore, entering ‘ellipsis’ by just
typing three dots would produce the wrong result. Instead, there is a special
command for these dots. It is called
Not like this ... but like this:\\ Not like this ... but like this:
New York, Tokyo, Budapest, \ldots New York, Tokyo, Budapest, . . .
22 Typesetting Text
2.4.8 Ligatures
Some letter combinations are typeset not just by setting the different letters
one after the other, but by actually using special symbols.
2. LATEX needs to know the hyphenation rules for the new language. Getting
hyphenation rules into LATEX is a bit more tricky. It means rebuilding
the format file with different hyphenation patterns enabled. Your Local
Guide [5] should give more information on this.
\usepackage[language]{babel}
after the \documentclass command. A list of the languages built into your
LATEX system will be displayed every time the compiler is started. Babel will
automatically activate the appropriate hyphenation rules for the language you
choose. If your LATEX format does not support hyphenation in the language
of your choice, babel will still work but will disable hyphenation, which has
quite a negative effect on the appearance of the typeset document.
Babel also specifies new commands for some languages, which simplify the
input of special characters. The German language, for example, contains a lot
of umlauts (äöü). With babel loaded, enter an ö by typing "o instead of \"o.
If you call babel with multiple languages
\usepackage[languageA,languageB]{babel}
then the last language in the option list will be active (i.e. languageB). Use
the command
\selectlanguage{languageA}
\usepackage[encoding]{inputenc}
When using this package, you should consider that other people might
not be able to display your input files on their computer, because they use a
different encoding. For example, the German umlaut ä on OS/2 is encoded as
132, on Unix systems using ISO-LATIN 1 it is encoded as 228, while in Cyrillic
encoding cp1251 for Windows this letter does not exist at all; therefore you
should use this feature with care. The following encodings may come in handy,
depending on the type of system you are working on4
Operating encodings
system western Latin Cyrillic
Mac applemac macukr
Unix latin1 koi8-ru
Windows ansinew cp1251
DOS, OS/2 cp850 cp866nav
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
will enable you to create LATEX input files in utf8, a multi-byte encoding in
which each character can be encoded in as little as one byte and as many as
four bytes.
Since the turn of the Century most Operating Systems are based on
Unicode (Windows XP, MacOS X). Therefore it is recommended to use utf8
for any new project. The utf8 encoding used by inputenc only defines the
characters that are actually provided by the fonts used. If you need more
(non-latin) characters have a look at XELATEX in section 4.8 a Unicode based
TEX-engine.
Font encoding is a different matter. It defines at which position inside a
TEX-font each letter is stored. Multiple input encodings could be mapped
into one font encoding, which reduces the number of required font sets. Font
encodings are handled through fontenc package:
\usepackage[encoding]{fontenc}
ASCII character set. When accented characters are required, TEX creates
them by combining a normal character with an accent. While the resulting
output looks perfect, this approach stops the automatic hyphenation from
working inside words containing accented characters. Besides, some Latin
letters could not be created by combining a normal character with an accent,
to say nothing about letters of non-Latin alphabets, such as Greek or Cyrillic.
To overcome these shortcomings, several 8-bit CM-like font sets were
created. Extended Cork (EC) fonts in T1 encoding contains letters and punc-
tuation characters for most of the European languages using Latin script.
The LH font set contains letters necessary to typeset documents in languages
using Cyrillic script. Because of the large number of Cyrillic glyphs, they are
arranged into four font encodings—T2A, T2B, T2C, and X2.5 The CB bundle
contains fonts in LGR encoding for the composition of Greek text.
Improve/enable hyphenation in non-English documents by using these
fonts. Another advantage of using new CM-like fonts is that they provide
fonts of CM families in all weights, shapes, and optically scaled font sizes.
To enable hyphenation and change all automatic text to Portuguese, use the
command:
\usepackage[portuguese]{babel}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
Some hints for those creating French documents with LATEX: load French
5
Find a list of languages supported by each of these encodings in [11].
26 Typesetting Text
\usepackage[portuguese]{babel}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage[francais]{babel}
This enables French hyphenation, if you have configured your LATEX system
accordingly. It also changes all automatic text into French: \chapter prints
Chapitre, \today prints the current date in French and so on. A set of new
commands also becomes available, which allows you to write French input files
more easily. Check out table 2.4 for inspiration.
You will also notice that the layout of lists changes when switching to the
French language. For more information on what the francais option of babel
does and how to customize its behaviour, run LATEX on file frenchb.dtx and
read the produced file frenchb.dvi.
Recent versions of frenchb rely on numprint to implement the \nombre
command.
2.5 International Language Support 27
\usepackage[german]{babel}
"a ä "s ß
"‘ „ "’ “
"< or \flqq « "> or \frqq »
\flq ‹ \frq ›
\dq "
1. We must be able to edit Korean input files. Korean input files must
be in plain text format, but because Korean uses its own character set
6
Considering a number of issues Korean LATEX users have to cope with. This section
was written by Karnes KIM on behalf of the Korean lshort translation team. It was
translated into English by SHIN Jungshik and shortened by Tobi Oetiker.
28 Typesetting Text
outside the repertoire of US-ASCII, they will look rather strange with a
normal ASCII editor. The two most widely used encodings for Korean
text files are EUC-KR and its upward compatible extension used in
Korean MS-Windows, CP949/Windows-949/UHC. In these encodings
each US-ASCII character represents its normal ASCII character similar
to other ASCII compatible encodings such as ISO-8859-x, EUC-JP, Big5,
or Shift_JIS. On the other hand, Hangul syllables, Hanjas (Chinese
characters as used in Korea), Hangul Jamos, Hiraganas, Katakanas,
Greek and Cyrillic characters and other symbols and letters drawn
from KS X 1001 are represented by two consecutive octets. The first
has its MSB set. Until the mid-1990’s, it took a considerable amount
of time and effort to set up a Korean-capable environment under a
non-localized (non-Korean) operating system. Skim through the now
much-outdated http://jshin.net/faq to get a glimpse of what it was
like to use Korean under non-Korean OS in mid-1990’s. These days all
three major operating systems (Mac OS, Unix, Windows) come equipped
with pretty decent multilingual support and internationalization features
so that editing Korean text file is not so much of a problem anymore,
even on non-Korean operating systems.
2. TEX and LATEX were originally written for scripts with no more than
256 characters in their alphabet. To make them work for languages with
considerably more characters such as Korean7 or Chinese, a subfont
mechanism was developed. It divides a single CJK font with thousands
or tens of thousands of glyphs into a set of subfonts with 256 glyphs
each. For Korean, there are three widely used packages; HLATEX by
UN Koaunghi, hLATEXp by CHA Jaechoon and the CJK package by
Werner Lemberg.8 HLATEX and hLATEXp are specific to Korean and
provide Korean localization on top of the font support. They both can
process Korean input text files encoded in EUC-KR. HLATEX can even
7
Korean Hangul is an alphabetic script with 14 basic consonants and 10 basic vowels
(Jamos). Unlike Latin or Cyrillic scripts, the individual characters have to be arranged in
rectangular clusters about the same size as Chinese characters. Each cluster represents a
syllable. An unlimited number of syllables can be formed out of this finite set of vowels
and consonants. Modern Korean orthographic standards (both in South Korea and North
Korea), however, put some restrictions on the formation of these clusters. Therefore only a
finite number of orthographically correct syllables exist. The Korean Character encoding de-
fines individual code points for each of these syllables (KS X 1001:1998 and KS X 1002:1992).
So Hangul, albeit alphabetic, is treated like the Chinese and Japanese writing systems
with tens of thousands of ideographic/logographic characters. ISO 10646/Unicode of-
fers both ways of representing Hangul used for modern Korean by encoding Conjoin-
ing Hangul Jamos (alphabets: http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1100.pdf) in addi-
tion to encoding all the orthographically allowed Hangul syllables in modern Korean
(http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UAC00.pdf). One of the most daunting challenges in
Korean typesetting with LATEX and its related typesetting system is supporting Middle
Korean—and possibly future Korean—syllables that can only be represented by conjoining
Jamos in Unicode. It is hoped that future TEX engines like Ω and Λ will eventually provide
solutions to this.
8
They can be obtained at language/korean/HLaTeX/
language/korean/CJK/ and http://knot.kaist.ac.kr/htex/
2.5 International Language Support 29
3. The ultimate purpose of using typesetting programs like TEX and LATEX
is to get documents typeset in an ‘aesthetically’ satisfying way. Arguably
the most important element in typesetting is a set of well-designed fonts.
The HLATEX distribution includes UHC PostScript fonts of 10 different
families and Munhwabu9 fonts (TrueType) of 5 different families. The
CJK package works with a set of fonts used by earlier versions of HLATEX
and it can use Bitstream’s cyberbit TrueType font.
To use the HLATEX package for typesetting your Korean text, put the
following declaration into the preamble of your document:
\usepackage{hangul}
This command turns the Korean localization on. The headings of chapters,
sections, subsections, table of content and table of figures are all translated
into Korean and the formatting of the document is changed to follow Korean
conventions. The package also provides automatic “particle selection.” In
Korean, there are pairs of post-fix particles grammatically equivalent but
different in form. Which of any given pair is correct depends on whether the
preceding syllable ends with a vowel or a consonant. (It is a bit more complex
than this, but this should give you a good picture.) Native Korean speakers
have no problem picking the right particle, but it cannot be determined which
particle to use for references and other automatic text that will change while
you edit the document. It takes a painstaking effort to place appropriate
particles manually every time you add/remove references or simply shuffle
parts of your document around. HLATEX relieves its users from this boring
and error-prone process.
If you don’t need Korean localization features but just want to typeset
Korean text, put the following line in the preamble, instead.
\usepackage{hfont}
For more details on typesetting Korean with HLATEX, refer to the HLATEX
Guide. Check out the web site of the Korean TEX User Group (KTUG) at
9
Korean Ministry of Culture.
30 Typesetting Text
\usepackage[english,greek]{babel}
\usepackage[iso-8859-7]{inputenc}
See table 2.6 for the preamble you need to write in the Greek language. This
preamble enables hyphenation and changes all automatic text to Greek.10
A set of new commands also becomes available, which allows you to
write Greek input files more easily. In order to temporarily switch to En-
glish and vice versa, one can use the commands \textlatin{english text}
and \textgreek{greek text} that both take one argument which is then
typeset using the requested font encoding. Otherwise use the command
\selectlanguage{...} described in a previous section. Check out table 2.7
for some Greek punctuation characters. Use \euro for the Euro symbol.
; · ? ;
(( « )) »
‘‘ ‘ ’’ ’
Version 3.7h of babel includes support for the T2* encodings and for typesetting
Bulgarian, Russian and Ukrainian texts using Cyrillic letters.
Support for Cyrillic is based on standard LATEX mechanisms plus the
fontenc and inputenc packages. But, if you are going to use Cyrillics in math
10
If you select the utf8x option for the package inputenc, LATEX will understand Greek
and polytonic Greek Unicode characters.
2.5 International Language Support 31
\usepackage{mathtext}
\usepackage[T1,T2A]{fontenc}
\usepackage[koi8-ru]{inputenc}
\usepackage[english,bulgarian,russian,ukranian]{babel}
Generally, babel will authomatically choose the default font encoding, for
the above three languages this is T2A. However, documents are not restricted
to a single font encoding. For multi-lingual documents using Cyrillic and
Latin-based languages it makes sense to include Latin font encoding explicitly.
babel will take care of switching to the appropriate font encoding when a
different language is selected within the document.
In addition to enabling hyphenations, translating automatically gener-
ated text strings, and activating some language specific typographic rules
(like \frenchspacing), babel provides some commands allowing typesetting
according to the standards of Bulgarian, Russian, or Ukrainian languages.
For all three languages, language specific punctuation is provided: The
Cyrillic dash for the text (it is little narrower than Latin dash and surrounded
by tiny spaces), a dash for direct speech, quotes, and commands to facilitate
hyphenation, see Table 2.8.
Table 2.8: The extra definitions made by Bulgarian, Russian, and Ukrainian
options of babel
"| disable ligature at this position.
"- an explicit hyphen sign, allowing hyphenation in the rest of the word.
"--- Cyrillic emdash in plain text.
"--~ Cyrillic emdash in compound names (surnames).
"--* Cyrillic emdash for denoting direct speech.
"" like "-, but producing no hyphen sign (for compound words with
hyphen, e.g. x-""y or some other signs as “disable/enable”).
"~ for a compound word mark without a breakpoint.
"= for a compound word mark with a breakpoint, allowing hyphenation
in the composing words.
", thinspace for initials with a breakpoint in following surname.
"‘ for German left double quotes (looks like ,,).
"’ for German right double quotes (looks like “).
"< for French left double quotes (looks like <<).
"> for French right double quotes (looks like >>).
The Russian and Ukrainian options of babel define the commands \Asbuk
and \asbuk, which act like \Alph and \alph12 , but produce capital and small
11
If you use AMS-LATEX packages, load them before fontenc and babel as well.
12
the commands for turning counters into a, b, c, . . .
32 Typesetting Text
\usepackage[language,encoding]{mls}
to the preamble. Choose the language option xalx to generate captions and
dates in Modern Mongolian. To write a complete document in the traditional
Mongolian script you have to choose bicig for the language option. The
document language option bicig enables the “Simplified Transliteration” input
method.
Enable and disable Latin Transliteration Mode with
\SetDocumentEncodingLMC
and
\SetDocumentEncodingNeutral
\usepackage[T2A]{fontenc}
\usepackage[mn]{inputenc}
\usepackage[mongolian]{babel}
where mn is the cp1251 input encoding. For a more modern approach invoke
utf8 instead.
XETEX was developed for MacOS X but is now available for all architectures.
It was first included into TexLive 2007.
LuaTEX is the successor of pdfTEX. It was first included into TexLive 2008.
Quickstart
To convert an existing LATEX file to XELATEX the following needs to be done:
2. Remove
\usepackage{inputenc}
\usepackage{fontenc}
\usepackage{textcomp}
3. Change
\usepackage[languageA]{babel}
to
\usepackage{polyglossia}
\setdefaultlanguage[babelshorthands]{languageA}
4. Add
\usepackage[Ligatures=TeX]{fontspec}
to the preamble.
-- –
--- —
’’ ”
‘‘ “
!‘ ¡
?‘ ¿
,, „
<< «
>> »
So far there has been no advantage to using a Unicode TEX engine. This
changes when we leave the Latin script and move to a more interesting language
like Greek and Russian. With a Unicode based system, you can simply13 enter
the characters in your editor and TEX will understand them.
Writing in different languages is easy, just specify the languages in the
preamble:
\setdefaultlanguage{english}
\setotherlanguage[babelshorthands]{german}
Englisch text.
\begin{german}
Deutscher Text.
\end{german}
More English text.
If you just need a word in a foreign language you can use the \textlanguage
command:
This may look unnecessary since the only advantage is a correct hyphen-
ation, but when the second language is a little bit more exotic it will be worth
the effort.
Sometimes the font used in the main document does not contain glyphs
that are required in the second language14 . The solution is to define a font
that will be used for that language. Whenever a new language is activated,
13
For small values of simple.
14
Latin Modern does not contain Cyrillic letters
2.5 International Language Support 35
polyglossia will first check whether a font has been defined for that language.
\newfontfamily\russianfont[Script=Cyrillic,(...)]{(font)}
• arab (Arabic)
• persian
• urdu
• sindhi
• pashto
• ottoman (turk)
• kurdish
• kashmiri
• malay (jawi)
15
bidi does not support LuaTEX.
16
Supreme Council of Information and Communication Technology
36 Typesetting Text
• uighur
It offers a font mapping that enables XELATEX to process input using the
ArabTEX ASCII transcription.
Fonts that support several Arabic laguages are offered by the IRMUG17 at
http://wiki.irmug.org/index.php/X_Series_2.
There is no package available for Hebrew because none is needed. The
Hebrew support in polyglossia should be sufficient. But you do need a suitable
font with real Unicode Hebrew. SBL Hebrew is free for non-commercial use and
available at http://www.sbl-site.org/educational/biblicalfonts.aspx.
Another font available under the Open Font License is Ezra SIL, available at
http://www.sil.org/computing/catalog/show_software.asp?id=76.
Remember to select the correct script:
\newfontfamily\hebrewfont[Script=Hebrew]{SBL Hebrew}
\newfontfamily\hebrewfont[Script=Hebrew]{Ezra SIL}
The package xeCJK[25] takes care of font selection and punctuation of these
languages.
To get a straight right margin in the output, LATEX inserts varying amounts
of space between the words. It inserts slightly more space at the end of a
sentence, as this makes the text more readable. LATEX assumes that sentences
end with periods, question marks or exclamation marks. If a period follows
an uppercase letter, this is not taken as a sentence ending, since periods after
uppercase letters normally occur in abbreviations.
Any exception from these assumptions has to be specified by the author.
A backslash in front of a space generates a space that will not be enlarged. A
tilde ‘~’ character generates a space that cannot be enlarged and additionally
prohibits a line break. The command \@ in front of a period specifies that this
period terminates a sentence even when it follows an uppercase letter.
Mr.~Smith was happy to see her\\ Mr. Smith was happy to see her
cf.~Fig.~5\\ cf. Fig. 5
I like BASIC\@. What about you? I like BASIC. What about you?
17
Iranian Mac User Group
2.7 Titles, Chapters, and Sections 37
The additional space after periods can be disabled with the command
\frenchspacing
which tells LATEX not to insert more space after a period than after ordinary
character. This is very common in non-English languages, except bibliographies.
If you use \frenchspacing, the command \@ is not necessary.
\section{...}
\subsection{...}
\subsubsection{...}
\paragraph{...}
\subparagraph{...}
If you want to split your document in parts without influencing the section
or chapter numbering use
\part{...}
When you work with the report or book class, an additional top-level
sectioning command becomes available
\chapter{...}
As the article class does not know about chapters, it is quite easy to add
articles as chapters to a book. The spacing between sections, the numbering
and the font size of the titles will be set automatically by LATEX.
Two of the sectioning commands are a bit special:
LATEX creates a table of contents by taking the section headings and page
numbers from the last compile cycle of the document. The command
\tableofcontents
\maketitle
before calling \maketitle. In the argument to \author, you can supply several
names separated by \and commands.
An example of some of the commands mentioned above can be found in
Figure 1.2 on page 7.
Apart from the sectioning commands explained above, LATEX 2ε introduced
three additional commands for use with the book class. They are useful for
dividing your publication. The commands alter chapter headings and page
numbering to work as you would expect in a book:
\frontmatter should be the very first command after the start of the doc-
ument body (\begin{document}). It will switch page numbering to
Roman numerals and sections be non-enumerated as if you were us-
ing the starred sectioning commands (eg \chapter*{Preface}) but the
sections will still show up in the table of contents.
2.8 Cross References 39
\mainmatter comes right before the first chapter of the book. It turns on
Arabic page numbering and restarts the page counter.
\appendix marks the start of additional material in your book. After this
command chapters will be numbered with letters.
\backmatter should be inserted before the very last items in your book, such
as the bibliography and the index. In the standard document classes,
this has no visual effect.
where marker is an identifier chosen by the user. LATEX replaces \ref by the
number of the section, subsection, figure, table, or theorem after which the
corresponding \label command was issued. \pageref prints the page number
of the page where the \label command occurred.19 As with section titles
and page numbers for the table of contents, the numbers from the previous
compile cycle are used.
2.9 Footnotes
With the command
\footnote{footnote text}
a footnote is printed at the foot of the current page. Footnotes should always
be put20 after the word or sentence they refer to. Footnotes referring to a
sentence or part of it should therefore be put after the comma or period.21
19
Note that these commands are not aware of what they refer to. \label just saves the
last automatically generated number.
20
“put” is one of the most common English words.
21
Note that footnotes distract the reader from the main body of your document. After
all, everybody reads the footnotes—we are a curious species, so why not just integrate
everything you want to say into the body of the document?22
22
A guidepost doesn’t necessarily go where it’s pointing to :-).
40 Typesetting Text
\underline{text}
\emph{text}
to emphasize text. What the command actually does with its argument
depends on the context:
If you want control over font and font size, section 6.2 on page 119 might
provide some inspiration.
2.11 Environments
\begin{aaa}...\begin{bbb}...\end{bbb}...\end{aaa}
\flushleft
\begin{enumerate}
\item You can nest the list
environments to your taste: 1. You can nest the list environments
\begin{itemize} to your taste:
\item But it might start to • But it might start to look
look silly. silly.
\item[-] With a dash.
\end{itemize} - With a dash.
\item Therefore remember: 2. Therefore remember:
\begin{description}
\item[Stupid] things will not Stupid things will not become
become smart because they are smart because they are in a
in a list. list.
\item[Smart] things, though,
Smart things, though, can be
can be presented beautifully
presented beautifully in a list.
in a list.
\end{description}
\end{enumerate}
\begin{flushright}
This text is right-\\aligned. This text is right-
\LaTeX{} is not trying to make aligned. LATEX is not trying to make each
each line the same length. line the same length.
\end{flushright}
\begin{center}
At the centre
At the centre\\of the earth
of the earth
\end{center}
42 Typesetting Text
There are two similar environments: the quotation and the verse envi-
ronments. The quotation environment is useful for longer quotes going over
several paragraphs, because it indents the first line of each paragraph. The
verse environment is useful for poems where the line breaks are important.
The lines are separated by issuing a \\ at the end of a line and an empty line
after each verse.
I know only one English poem by I know only one English poem by heart. It
heart. It is about Humpty Dumpty. is about Humpty Dumpty.
\begin{flushleft}
\begin{verse}
Humpty Dumpty sat on a
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall:\\
wall:
Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.\\
Humpty Dumpty had a great
All the King’s horses and all
fall.
the King’s men\\
All the King’s horses and all
Couldn’t put Humpty together
the King’s men
again.
Couldn’t put Humpty
\end{verse}
together again.
\end{flushleft}
2.11.4 Abstract
In scientific publications it is customary to start with an abstract which gives
the reader a quick overview of what to expect. LATEX provides the abstract
environment for this purpose. Normally abstract is used in documents typeset
with the article document class.
\begin{abstract}
The abstract abstract. The abstract abstract.
\end{abstract}
2.11 Environments 43
\verb+text+
\begin{verbatim*}
the starred version of the␣starred␣version␣of
the verbatim the␣␣␣␣␣␣verbatim
environment emphasizes environment␣emphasizes
the spaces in the text the␣spaces␣␣␣in␣the␣text
\end{verbatim*}
The verbatim environment and the \verb command may not be used
within parameters of other commands.
2.11.6 Tabular
The tabular environment can be used to typeset beautiful tables with optional
horizontal and vertical lines. LATEX determines the width of the columns
automatically.
The table spec argument of the
\begin{tabular}[pos]{table spec}
command defines the format of the table. Use an l for a column of left-
aligned text, r for right-aligned text, and c for centred text; p{width }
44 Typesetting Text
for a column containing justified text with line breaks, and | for a vertical
line.
If the text in a column is too wide for the page, LATEX won’t automatically
wrap it. Using p{width } you can define a special type of column which will
wrap-around the text as in a normal paragraph.
The pos argument specifies the vertical position of the table relative to
the baseline of the surrounding text. Use one of the letters t , b and c to
specify table alignment at the top, bottom or center.
Within a tabular environment, & jumps to the next column, \\ starts
a new line and \hline inserts a horizontal line. Add partial lines by using
\cline{i-j}, where i and j are the column numbers the line should extend
over.
\begin{tabular}{|r|l|}
\hline
7C0 & hexadecimal \\ 7C0 hexadecimal
3700 & octal \\ \cline{2-2} 3700 octal
11111000000 & binary \\ 11111000000 binary
\hline \hline
1984 & decimal \\ 1984 decimal
\hline
\end{tabular}
\begin{tabular}{|p{4.7cm}|}
\hline
Welcome to Boxy’s paragraph. Welcome to Boxy’s paragraph. We
We sincerely hope you’ll sincerely hope you’ll all enjoy the
all enjoy the show.\\ show.
\hline
\end{tabular}
The column separator can be specified with the @{...} construct. This
command kills the inter-column space and replaces it with whatever is between
the curly braces. One common use for this command is explained below in
the decimal alignment problem. Another possible application is to suppress
leading space in a table with @{} .
\begin{tabular}{@{} l @{}}
\hline
no leading space\\ no leading space
\hline
\end{tabular}
\begin{tabular}{l}
\hline
leading space left and right\\ leading space left and right
\hline
\end{tabular}
2.11 Environments 45
\begin{tabular}{c r @{.} l}
Pi expression &
\multicolumn{2}{c}{Value} \\ Pi expression Value
\hline π 3.1416
$\pi$ & 3&1416 \\ ππ 36.46
$\pi^{\pi}$ & 36&46 \\ (π π )π 80662.7
$(\pi^{\pi})^{\pi}$ & 80662&7 \\
\end{tabular}
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|}
\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{Ene} \\ Ene
\hline
Mene Muh!
Mene & Muh! \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\begin{tabular}{|l|}
\hline
These lines\\\hline
are tight\\\hline
\end{tabular} These lines
are tight
{\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.5}
\renewcommand{\tabcolsep}{0.2cm} less cramped
\begin{tabular}{|l|}
\hline table layout
less cramped\\\hline
table layout\\\hline
\end{tabular}}
If you just want to grow the height of a single row in your table add an
invisible vertical bar24 . Use a zero width \rule to implement this trick.
23
If the ‘tools’ bundle is installed on your system, have a look at the dcolumn package.
24
In professional typesetting, this is called a strut.
46 Typesetting Text
\begin{tabular}{|c|}
\hline
\rule{1pt}{4ex}Pitprop \ldots\\ Pitprop . . .
\hline
\rule{0pt}{4ex}Strut\\ Strut
\hline
\end{tabular}
The pt and em in the example above are TEX units. Read more on units
in table 6.5 on page 125.
A number of extra commands, enhancing the tabular environment are
available in the booktabs package. It makes the creation of professional looking
tables with proper spacing quite a bit simples.
Let’s first have a look at the commands LATEX supplies for floats:
Any material enclosed in a figure or table environment will be treated
as floating matter. Both float environments support an optional parameter
called the placement specifier. This parameter is used to tell LATEX about the
locations to which the float is allowed to be moved. A placement specifier is
constructed by building a string of float-placing permissions. See Table 2.9.
For example, a table could be started with the following line
\begin{table}[!hbp]
The placement specifier [!hbp] allows LATEX to place the table right here (h)
or at the bottom (b) of some page or on a special floats page (p), and all this
even if it does not look that good (!). If no placement specifier is given, the
standard classes assume [tbp].
LATEX will place every float it encounters according to the placement
specifier supplied by the author. If a float cannot be placed on the current
2.12 Floating Bodies 47
page it is deferred either to the figures queue or the tables queue.25 When a
new page is started, LATEX first checks if it is possible to fill a special ‘float’
page with floats from the queues. If this is not possible, the first float on each
queue is treated as if it had just occurred in the text: LATEX tries again to
place it according to its respective placement specifiers (except ‘h,’ which is
no longer possible). Any new floats occurring in the text get placed into the
appropriate queues. LATEX strictly maintains the original order of appearance
for each type of float. That’s why a figure that cannot be placed pushes all
further figures to the end of the document. Therefore:
If LATEX is not placing the floats as you expected, it is often only
one float jamming one of the two float queues.
While it is possible to give LATEX single-location placement specifiers, this
causes problems. If the float does not fit in the location specified it becomes
stuck, blocking subsequent floats. In particular, you should never, ever use the
[h] option—it is so bad that in more recent versions of LATEX, it is automatically
replaced by [ht].
Having explained the difficult bit, there are some more things to mention
about the table and figure environments. Use the
\caption{caption text}
command to define a caption for the float. A running number and the string
“Figure” or “Table” will be added by LATEX.
The two commands
figures or tables, respectively. These lists will display the whole caption, so if
you tend to use long captions you must have a shorter version of the caption
for the lists. This is accomplished by entering the short version in brackets
after the \caption command.
\caption[Short]{LLLLLoooooonnnnnggggg}
Use \label and \ref to create a reference to a float within your text. Note
that the \label command must come after the \caption command since you
want it to reference the number of the caption.
The following example draws a square and inserts it into the document.
You could use this if you wanted to reserve space for images you are going to
paste into the finished document.
In the example above, LATEX will try really hard (!) to place the figure right
here (h).26 If this is not possible, it tries to place the figure at the bottom (b)
of the page. Failing to place the figure on the current page, it determines
whether it is possible to create a float page containing this figure and maybe
some tables from the tables queue. If there is not enough material for a special
float page, LATEX starts a new page, and once more treats the figure as if it
had just occurred in the text.
Under certain circumstances it might be necessary to use the
them by putting the \protect command in front of them. Now they will work
properly even when used in moving arguments.
\protect only refers to the command that follows right behind, not even
to its arguments. In most cases a superfluous \protect won’t hurt.
\section{I am considerate
\protect\footnote{and protect my footnotes}}
Chapter 3
Now you are ready! In this chapter, we will attack the main strength of TEX:
mathematical typesetting. But be warned, this chapter only scratches the surface.
While the things explained here are sufficient for many people, don’t despair if
you can’t find a solution to your mathematical typesetting needs here. It is highly
likely that your problem is addressed in AMS-LATEX.
If you want your larger equations to be set apart from the rest of the
paragraph, it is preferable to display them rather than to break the para-
graph apart. To do this, you enclose them between \begin{equation} and
\end{equation}.2 You can then \label an equation number and refer to it
somewhere else in the text by using the \eqref command. If you want to
name the equation something specific, you \tag it instead.
If you don’t want LATEX to number the equations, use the starred version
of equation using an asterisk, equation*, or even easier, enclose the equation
in \[ and \]:3
2
This is an amsmath command. If you don’t have access to the package for some obscure
reason, you can use LATEX’s own displaymath environment instead.
3
This is again from amsmath. Standard LATEX’s has only the equation environment
without the star.
3.2 Single Equations 53
While \[ is short and sweet, it does not allow switching between numbered
and not numbered style as easily as equation and equation*.
Note the difference in typesetting style between text style and display style
equations:
A $d_{e_{e_p}}$ mathematical
expression followed by a A deep mathematical expression followed
$h^{i^{g^h}}$ expression. As gh
opposed to a smashed by a hi expression. As opposed to a
\smash{$d_{e_{e_p}}$} expression smashed
g h de ep expression followed by a
followed by a hi expression.
\smash{$h^{i^{g^h}}$} expression.
1. Most spaces and line breaks do not have any significance, as all spaces
are either derived logically from the mathematical expressions, or have
to be specified with special commands such as \,, \quad or \qquad (we’ll
get back to that later, see section 3.7).
2. Empty lines are not allowed. Only one paragraph per formula.
54 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
Mathematicians can be very fussy about which symbols are used: it would
be conventional here to use the ‘blackboard bold’ font, which is obtained using
\mathbb from the package amssymb.4 The last example becomes
See Table 3.14 on page 77 and Table 6.4 on page 121 for more math fonts.
$\lambda,\xi,\pi,\theta,
λ, ξ, π, θ, µ, Φ, Ω, ∆
\mu,\Phi,\Omega,\Delta$
$p^3_{ij} \qquad P3
m_\text{Knuth}\qquad p3ij mKnuth k=1
k
\sum_{k=1}^3 k \\[5pt]
2
a^x+y \neq a^{x+y}\qquad ax + y 6= ax+y ex 6= ex2
e^{x^2} \neq {e^x}^2$
The square root is entered as \sqrt; the nth root is generated with
\sqrt[n]. The size of the root sign is determined automatically by LATEX. If
just the sign is needed, use \surd.
See various kinds of arrows like ,→ and on Table 3.6 on page 75.
While the dot sign to indicate the multiplication operation is normally left
out, it is sometimes written to help the eye in grouping a formula. Use \cdot
to typeset a single centered dot. \cdots is three centered dots while \ldots
sets the dots low (on the baseline). Besides that, there are \vdots for vertical
and \ddots for diagonal dots. There are more examples in section 3.6.
6 9
$\underbrace{\overbrace{a+b+c}^6 z }| { z }| {
\cdot \overbrace{d+e+f}^9} a + b + c · d + e + f = 42
_\text{meaning of life} = 42$ | {z }
meaning of life
placement of \bar for a variable with subscript. The apostrophe mark ’ gives
a prime:
Vectors are often specified by adding small arrow symbols on the tops
of variables. This is done with the \vec command. The two commands
\overrightarrow and \overleftarrow are useful to denote the vector from
A to B:
$\vec{a} \qquad
\vec{AB} \qquad ~ −→
~a AB AB
\overrightarrow{AB}$
Names of functions are often typeset in an upright font, and not in italics
as variables are, so LATEX supplies the following commands to typeset the most
common function names:
\arccos \cos \csc \exp \ker \limsup
\arcsin \cosh \deg \gcd \lg \ln
\arctan \cot \det \hom \lim \log
\arg \coth \dim \inf \liminf \max
\sinh \sup \tan \tanh \min \Pr
\sec \sin
\begin{equation*}
\lim_{x \rightarrow 0} sin x
\frac{\sin x}{x}=1 lim =1
x→0 x
\end{equation*}
For functions missing from the list, use the \DeclareMathOperator com-
mand. There is even a starred version for functions with limits. This command
works only in the preamble so the commented lines in the example below must
be put into the preamble.
%\DeclareMathOperator{\argh}{argh}
%\DeclareMathOperator*{\nut}{Nut}
\begin{equation*} 3 argh = 2 Nut
x=1
3\argh = 2\nut_{x=1}
\end{equation*}
For the modulo function, there are two commands: \bmod for the binary
operator “a mod b” and \pmod for expressions such as “x ≡ a (mod b):”
$a\bmod b \\ a mod b
x\equiv a \pmod{b}$ x ≡ a (mod b)
3.3 Building Blocks of a Mathematical Formula 57
In display style:
\begin{equation*} In display style:
3/8 \qquad \frac{3}{8} 3 3
\qquad \tfrac{3}{8} 3/8 8
8
\end{equation*}
In text style: 1
$1\frac{1}{2}$~hours \qquad In text style: 1 21 hours 1 hours
$1\dfrac{1}{2}$~hours 2
\begin{equation*}
\sqrt{\frac{x^2}{k+1}}\qquad r
x^\frac{2}{k+1}\qquad x2 2 ∂2f
\frac{\partial^2f} x k+1
k+1 ∂x2
{\partial x^2}
\end{equation*}
Pascal’s rule is
\begin{equation*} Pascal’s rule is
\binom{n}{k} =\binom{n-1}{k} n n − 1 n − 1
+ \binom{n-1}{k-1} = +
k k k−1
\end{equation*}
For binary relations it may be useful to stack symbols over each other.
\stackrel{#1}{#2} puts the symbol given in #1 in superscript-like size over
#2 which is set in its usual position.
\begin{equation*}
∗
f_n(x) \stackrel{*}{\approx} 1 fn (x) ≈ 1
\end{equation*}
The integral operator is generated with \int, the sum operator with
\sum, and the product operator with \prod. The upper and lower limits
are specified with ^ and _ like subscripts and superscripts:
58 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
\begin{equation*}
n π
\sum_{i=1}^n \qquad
Z
X 2 Y
\int_0^{\frac{\pi}{2}} \qquad
\prod_\epsilon i=1 0
\end{equation*}
\begin{equation*} n
\sum^n_{\substack{0<i<n \\ X
j\subseteq i}} P (i, j) = Q(i, j)
P(i,j) = Q(i,j) 0<i<n
j⊆i
\end{equation*}
LATEX provides all sorts of symbols for bracketing and other delimiters
(e.g. [ h k l). Round and square brackets can be entered with the corresponding
keys and curly braces with \{, but all other delimiters are generated with
special commands (e.g. \updownarrow).
\begin{equation*}
{a,b,c} \neq \{a,b,c\} a, b, c 6= {a, b, c}
\end{equation*}
\begin{equation*}
1 + \left(\frac{1}{1-x^{2}} 3
1
\right)^3 \qquad 1+ ‡
\left. \ddagger \frac{~}{~}\right) 1 − x2
\end{equation*}
$\Big((x+1)(x-1)\Big)^{2}$\\ 2
$\big( \Big( \bigg( \Bigg( \quad (x + 1)(x − 1)
\big\} \Big\} \bigg\} \Bigg\} \quad ww
\big\| \Big\| \bigg\| \Bigg\| \quad
oo ww
www
\big\Downarrow \Big\Downarrow w
\bigg\Downarrow \Bigg\Downarrow$
For a list of all delimiters available, see Table 3.8 on page 76.
3.4 Single Equations that are Too Long: multline 59
\begin{multline}
a + b + c + d + e + f
+ g + h + i a+b+c+d+e+f +g+h+i
\\
= j + k + l + m + n = j + k + l + m + n (3.4)
\end{multline}
\begin{equation}
a = b + c + d + e + f
+ g + h + i + j
+ k + l + m + n + o + p a = b+c+d+e+f +g+h+i+j+k+l+m+n+o+p
\label{eq:equation_too_long} (3.5)
\end{equation}
Here it is actually the RHS that is too long to fit on one line. The multline
environment creates the following output:
\begin{multline}
a = b + c + d + e + f
+ g + h + i + j \\ a=b+c+d+e+f +g+h+i+j
+ k + l + m + n + o + p + k + l + m + n + o + p (3.6)
\end{multline}
6
The multline-environment is from amsmath.
60 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
This is better than (3.5), but it has the disadvantage that the equality sign
loses its natural greater importance with respect to the plus operator in front
of k. The better solution is provided by the IEEEeqnarray environment that
will be discussed in detail in Section 3.5.
\begin{align}
a & = b + c \\ a=b+c (3.7)
& = d + e
\end{align} =d+e (3.8)
\begin{align}
a & = b + c \\ a=b+c (3.9)
& = d + e + f + g + h + i
+ j + k + l \nonumber \\ =d+e+f +g+h+i+j+k+l
& + m + n + o \\ +m+n+o (3.10)
& = p + q + r + s =p+q+r+s (3.11)
\end{align}
Here + m should be below d and not below the equality sign. Of course,
one could add some space (\hspace{...}), but this will never yield a precise
arrangement (and is bad style. . . ).
A better solution is offered by the eqnarray environment:
\begin{eqnarray}
a & = & b + c \\
a = b+c (3.12)
& = & d + e + f + g + h + i
+ j + k + l \nonumber \\ = d+e+f +g+h+i+j+k+l
&& +\: m + n + o \\ +m+n+o (3.13)
& = & p + q + r + s
= p+q+r+s (3.14)
\end{eqnarray}
7
The align-environment can also be used to group several blocks of equations beside
each other. Another excellent use case for the IEEEeqnarray environment. Try an argument
like {rCl+rCl}.
3.5 Multiple Equations 61
This is still not optimal. The spaces around the equality signs are too
big. Particularly, they are not the same as in the multline and equation
environments:
\begin{eqnarray}
a & = & a = a
a = a=a (3.15)
\end{eqnarray}
. . . and the expression sometimes overlaps with the equation number even
though there would be enough room on the left:
\begin{eqnarray}
a & = & b + c
\\
& = & d + e + f + g + h^2 a = b+c (3.16)
+ i^2 + j = d + e + f + g + h2 + i2 + j
(3.17)
\label{eq:faultyeqnarray}
\end{eqnarray}
While the environment offers a command \lefteqn that can be used when
the LHS is too long:
\begin{eqnarray}
\lefteqn{a + b + c + d
+ e + f + g + h}\nonumber\\ a+b+c+d+e+f +g+h
& = & i + j + k + l + m
= i+j+k+l+m (3.18)
\\
& = & n + o + p + q + r + s = n + o + p + q + r + s (3.19)
\end{eqnarray}
this is not optimal either as the RHS is too short and the array is not properly
centered:
\begin{eqnarray}
\lefteqn{a + b + c + d
+ e + f + g + h} a+b+c+d+e+f +g+h
\nonumber \\
& = & i + j = i+j (3.20)
\end{eqnarray}
having badmouthed the competition sufficiently, I can now steer you gently
towards the glorious . . .
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{rCl}
a & = & b + c
\\
a=b+c (3.21)
& = & d + e + f + g + h
+ i + j + k \nonumber\\ =d+e+f +g+h+i+j+k
&& +\: l + m + n + o +l+m+n+o (3.22)
\\
=p+q+r+s (3.23)
& = & p + q + r + s
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
any number of columns can be specified: {c} will give only one column
with all entries centered, or {rCll} would add a fourth, left-justified column
to use for comments. Moreover, beside l, c, r, L, C, R for math mode entries
there are also s, t, u for left, centered, and right text mode entries. Additional
space can be added with . and / and ? in increasing order.10 Note the spaces
around the equality signs in contrast to the space produced by the eqnarray
environment.
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{rCl}
a & = & b + c
\\
& = & d + e + f + g + h a=b+c (3.24)
+ i + j + k = d + e + f + g + h + i + j + (3.25)
k
\\ =l+m+n (3.26)
& = & l + m + n
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
9
The IEEEtrantools package may not be included in your setup, it can be found on
CTAN.
10
For more spacing types refer to Section 3.9.1.
3.5 Multiple Equations 63
we get
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{rCl}
a & = & b + c
\\
& = & d + e + f + g + h a=b+c (3.27)
+ i + j + k = d + e + f + g + h + i + j + k (3.28)
\IEEEeqnarraynumspace\\ = l + m + n. (3.29)
& = & l + m + n.
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
If the LHS is too long, as a replacement for the faulty \lefteqn command,
IEEEeqnarray offers the \IEEEeqnarraymulticol command which works in
all situations:
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{rCl}
\IEEEeqnarraymulticol{3}{l}{
a + b + c + d + e + f
+ g + h a+b+c+d+e+f +g+h
}\nonumber\\ \quad
=i+j (3.30)
& = & i + j
\\ =k+l+m (3.31)
& = & k + l + m
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{rCl}
\IEEEeqnarraymulticol{3}{l}{
a + b + c + d + e + f
+ g + h a+b+c+d+e+f +g+h
}\nonumber\\ \qquad\qquad
=i+j (3.32)
& = & i + j
\\ =k+l+m (3.33)
& = & k + l + m
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
If an equation is split into two or more lines, LATEX interprets the first + or
− as a sign instead of operator. Therefore, it is necessary to add an additional
space \: between the operator and the term: instead of
11
I think that one quad is the distance that looks good for most cases.
64 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{rCl}
a & = & b + c
\\
a=b+c (3.34)
& = & d + e + f + g + h
+ i + j + k \nonumber\\ =d+e+f +g+h+i+j+k
&& + l + m + n + o +l + m + n + o (3.35)
\\
=p+q+r+s (3.36)
& = & p + q + r + s
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
we should write
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{rCl}
a & = & b + c
\\
a=b+c (3.37)
& = & d + e + f + g + h
+ i + j + k \nonumber\\ =d+e+f +g+h+i+j+k
&& +\: l + m + n + o +l+m+n+o (3.38)
\\
=p+q+r+s (3.39)
& = & p + q + r + s
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
• a bracket with adaptive size using \left and \right (this is in contrast
to normal brackets or brackets with fixed size like \big( ),
a + or − cannot be a sign, but must be an operator. In those situations LATEX
will add the correct spacing and no additional space is needed.
If a particular line should not have an equation number, the number can
be suppressed using \nonumber (or \IEEEnonumber). If on such a line a label
\label{eq:...} is defined, then this label is passed on further to the next
equation number that is not suppressed. Place the labels right before the
line-break \\ or the next to the equation it belongs to. Apart from improving
the readability of the source code this prevents a compilation error in the
situation of a \IEEEmulticol command after the label-definition.
There also exists a *-version where all equation numbers are suppressed.
In this case an equation number can be made to appear using the command
\IEEEyesnumber:
\begin{IEEEeqnarray*}{rCl}
a & = & b + c \\ a=b+c
& = & d + e \IEEEyesnumber\\
=d+e (3.40)
& = & f + g
\end{IEEEeqnarray*} =f +g
3.6 Arrays and Matrices 65
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{rCl}
a & = & b + c
\IEEEyessubnumber\\
& = & d + e a=b+c (3.40a)
\nonumber\\ =d+e
& = & f + g =f +g (3.40b)
\IEEEyessubnumber
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
\begin{equation*}
\mathbf{X} = \left(
\begin{array}{ccc} x1 x2 ...
x_1 & x_2 & \ldots \\ x3 x4 ...
x_3 & x_4 & \ldots \\ X=
.. .. ..
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots . . .
\end{array} \right)
\end{equation*}
\begin{equation*}
|x| = \left\{
\begin{array}{rl} (
−x if x < 0,
-x & \text{if } x < 0,\\
0 & \text{if } x = 0,\\ |x| = 0 if x = 0,
x if x > 0.
x & \text{if } x > 0.
\end{array} \right.
\end{equation*}
\begin{equation*}
\begin{matrix}
1 & 2 \\
3 & 4
\end{matrix} \qquad
\begin{bmatrix} p p12 ... p1n
p_{11} & p_{12} & \ldots 11
& p_{1n} \\ 1 2 p21 p22 ... p2n
p_{21} & p_{22} & \ldots 3 4 .. .. .. ..
& p_{2n} \\ . . . .
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots pm1 pm2 ... pmn
& \vdots \\
p_{m1} & p_{m2} & \ldots
& p_{mn}
\end{bmatrix}
\end{equation*}
\begin{equation*}
\int_1^2 \ln x \mathrm{d}x Z 2 Z 2
\qquad ln xdx ln x dx
\int_1^2 \ln x \,\mathrm{d}x 1 1
\end{equation*}
\newcommand{\ud}{\,\mathrm{d}}
Z b
\begin{equation*} f (x) dx
\int_a^b f(x)\ud x a
\end{equation*}
3.8 Fiddling with the Math Fonts 67
If you want to typeset multiple integrals, you’ll discover that the spacing
between the integrals is too wide. You can correct it using \!, but amsmath
provides an easier way for fine-tuning the spacing, namely the \iint, \iiint,
\iiiint, and \idotsint commands.
\newcommand{\ud}{\,\mathrm{d}} Z Z
f (x)g(y) dx dy
\begin{IEEEeqnarray*}{c}
\int\int f(x)g(y) ZZ
\ud x \ud y \\ f (x)g(y) dx dy
\int\!\!\!\int
f(x)g(y) \ud x \ud y \\ ZZ
\iint f(x)g(y) \ud x \ud y f (x)g(y) dx dy
\end{IEEEeqnarray*}
3.7.1 Phantoms
When vertically aligning text using ^ and _ LATEX is sometimes just a little too
helpful. Using the \phantom command you can reserve space for characters
that do not show up in the final output. The easiest way to understand this is
to look at an example:
\begin{equation*}
{}^{14}_{6}\text{C}
\qquad \text{versus} \qquad 14 14
6 C versus 6C
{}^{14}_{\phantom{1}6}\text{C}
\end{equation*}
$\Re \qquad
\mathcal{R} \qquad
\mathfrak{R} \qquad < R R R
\mathbb{R} \qquad $
\begin{equation*}
P = \frac{\displaystyle{ n
X
\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i- x) (xi − x)(yi − y)
(y_i- y)}}
{\displaystyle{\left[ i=1
P = " #1/2
\sum_{i=1}^n(x_i-x)^2 n n
X X
\sum_{i=1}^n(y_i- y)^2 2 2
(xi − x) (yi − y)
\right]^{1/2}}}
i=1 i=1
\end{equation*}
Changing styles generally affects the way big operators and limits are
displayed.
$\mu, M \qquad
\mathbf{\mu}, \mathbf{M}$ µ, M µ, M µ, M
\qquad \boldmath{$\mu, M$}
$\mu, M \qquad
µ, M µ, M
\boldsymbol{\mu}, \boldsymbol{M}$
\newtheorem{name}[counter]{text}[section]
The arguments in square brackets are optional. They are both used to
specify the numbering used on the “theorem”. Use the counter argument to
specify the name of a previously declared “theorem”. The new “theorem” will
then be numbered in the same sequence. The section argument allows you to
specify the sectional unit within which the “theorem” should get its numbers.
After executing the \newtheorem command in the preamble of your docu-
ment, you can use the following command within the document.
\begin{name}[text]
This is my interesting theorem
\end{name}
\theoremstyle{definition} \newtheorem{law}{Law}
\theoremstyle{plain} \newtheorem{jury}[law]{Jury}
\theoremstyle{remark} \newtheorem*{marg}{Margaret}
\begin{law} \label{law:box}
Don’t hide in the witness box
\end{law} Law 1. Don’t hide in the witness box
\begin{jury}[The Twelve] Jury 2 (The Twelve). It could be you! So
It could be you! So beware and beware and see law 1.
see law~\ref{law:box}.\end{jury}
\begin{jury} Jury 3. You will disregard the last state-
You will disregard the last ment.
statement.\end{jury}
\begin{marg}No, No, No\end{marg} Margaret. No, No, No
\begin{marg}Denis!\end{marg} Margaret. Denis!
The “Jury” theorem uses the same counter as the “Law” theorem, so it
gets a number that is in sequence with the other “Laws”. The argument in
square brackets is used to specify a title or something similar for the theorem.
\newtheorem{mur}{Murphy}[section]
\begin{mur} If there are two or Murphy 3.9.1. If there are two or more
more ways to do something, and ways to do something, and one of those
one of those ways can result in ways can result in a catastrophe, then
a catastrophe, then someone someone will do it.
will do it.\end{mur}
70 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
\begin{proof}
Trivial, use Proof. Trivial, use
\begin{equation*}
E=mc^2. E = mc2 .
\end{equation*}
\end{proof}
With the command \qedhere you can move the ‘end of proof’ symbol
around for situations where it would end up alone on a line.
\begin{proof}
Trivial, use
\begin{equation*} Proof. Trivial, use
E=mc^2. \qedhere E = mc2 .
\end{equation*}
\end{proof}
\begin{proof}
This is a proof that ends
with an equation array: Proof. This is a proof that ends with an
\begin{IEEEeqnarray*}{rCl} equation array:
a & = & b + c \\ a=b+c
& = & d + e. \qedhere
= d + e.
\end{IEEEeqnarray*}
\end{proof}
\begin{proof}
This is a proof that ends
with an equation array: Proof. This is a proof that ends with an
\begin{IEEEeqnarray*}{+rCl+x*} equation array:
a & = & b + c \\ a=b+c
& = & d + e. & \qedhere
= d + e.
\end{IEEEeqnarray*}
\end{proof}
Note that the + in {+rCl+x*} denotes stretchable spaces, one on the left of the
equations (which, if not specified, will be done automatically by IEEEeqnarray!)
and one on the right of the equations. But now on the right, after the stretching
column, we add an empty column x. This column will only be needed on the
last line if the \qedhere command is put there. Finally, we specify a *. This
is a null-space that prevents IEEEeqnarray from adding another unwanted
+-space!
In the case of equation numbering, there is a similar problem. Comparing
\begin{proof}
This is a proof that ends Proof. This is a proof that ends with a
with a numbered equation: numbered equation:
\begin{equation}
a = b + c. a = b + c. (3.41)
\end{equation}
\end{proof}
with
\begin{proof}
This is a proof that ends Proof. This is a proof that ends with a
with a numbered equation: numbered equation:
\begin{equation}
a = b + c. \qedhere a = b + c. (3.42)
\end{equation}
\end{proof}
you notice that in the (correct) second version the 2 is much closer to the
equation than in the first version.
Similarly, the correct way of putting the QED-symbol at the end of an
equation array is as follows:
\begin{proof}
This is a proof that ends
Proof. This is a proof that ends with an
with an equation array:
equation array:
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{+rCl+x*}
a & = & b + c \\ a=b+c (3.43)
& = & d + e. \\ = d + e. (3.44)
&&& \qedhere\nonumber
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
\end{proof}
\begin{proof}
This is a proof that ends Proof. This is a proof that ends with an
with an equation array: equation array:
\begin{IEEEeqnarray}{rCl} a=b+c (3.45)
a & = & b + c \\
& = & d + e. = d + e. (3.46)
\end{IEEEeqnarray}
\end{proof}
3.10 List of Mathematical Symbols 73
There is no uppercase of some of the letters like \Alpha, \Beta and so on,
because they look the same as normal roman letters: A, B. . .
12
The tables were derived from symbols.tex by David Carlisle and subsequently changed
extensively as suggested by Josef Tkadlec.
74 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
You can negate the following symbols by prefixing them with a \not command.
+ + − -
± \pm ∓ \mp / \triangleleft
· \cdot ÷ \div . \triangleright
× \times \ \setminus ? \star
∪ \cup ∩ \cap ∗ \ast
t \sqcup u \sqcap ◦ \circ
∨ \vee , \lor ∧ \wedge , \land • \bullet
⊕ \oplus \ominus \diamond
\odot \oslash ] \uplus
⊗ \otimes \bigcirc q \amalg
4 \bigtriangleup 5 \bigtriangledown † \dagger
\lhd a \rhd a ‡ \ddagger
\unlhd a \unrhd a o \wr
3.10 List of Mathematical Symbols 75
u \dotplus \centerdot
n \ltimes o \rtimes > \divideontimes
d \doublecup e \doublecap r \smallsetminus
Y \veebar Z \barwedge [ \doublebarwedge
\boxplus \boxminus \circleddash
\boxtimes \boxdot } \circledcirc
| \intercal ~ \circledast i \rightthreetimes
g \curlyvee f \curlywedge h \leftthreetimes
78 Typesetting Mathematical Formulae
Specialities
When putting together a large document, LATEX will help with some special features
like index generation, bibliography management, and other things. A much more
complete description of specialities and enhancements possible with LATEX can be
found in the LATEX Manual [1] and The LATEX Companion [3].
to The LATEX Companion [3] and the LATEX Manual [1] for more information
on that subject.
A much easier way to get graphics into a document is to generate them
with a specialised software package1 and then include the finished graphics
in the document. Here again, LATEX packages offer many ways to do this,
but this introduction will only discuss the use of Encapsulated PostScript
(EPS) graphics, because it is quite easy to do and widely used. In order to use
pictures in the EPS format, you must have a PostScript printer2 available
for output.
A good set of commands for inclusion of graphics is provided in the graphicx
package by D. P. Carlisle. It is part of a whole family of packages called the
“graphics” bundle.3
When working on a system with a PostScript printer available for output
and with the graphicx package installed, use the following step by step guide
to include a picture into your document:
1
Such as XFig, Gnuplot, Gimp, Xara X . . .
2
Another possibility to output PostScript is the GhostScript program available from
CTAN://support/ghostscript. Windows and OS/2 users might want to look for GSview.
3
CTAN://pkg/graphics
82 Specialities
2. Load the graphicx package in the preamble of the input file with
\usepackage[driver]{graphicx}
\includegraphics[key=value, . . . ]{file}
4
If your software cannot export into EPS format, you can try to install a PostScript
printer driver (such as an Apple LaserWriter, for example) and then print to a file with
this driver. With some luck this file will be in EPS format. Note that an EPS must not
contain more than one page. Some printer drivers can be explicitly configured to produce
EPS format.
4.2 Bibliography 83
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[angle=90,
width=0.5\textwidth]{test}
\caption{This is a test.}
\end{figure}
It includes the graphic stored in the file test.eps. The graphic is first rotated
by an angle of 90 degrees and then scaled to the final width of 0.5 times the
width of a standard paragraph. The aspect ratio is 1.0, because no special
height is specified. The width and height parameters can also be specified in
absolute dimensions. Refer to Table 6.5 on page 125 for more information. If
you want to know more about this topic, make sure to read [9] and [13].
4.2 Bibliography
Produce a bibliography with the thebibliography environment. Each entry
starts with
\bibitem[label]{marker}
The marker is then used to cite the book, article or paper within the
document.
\cite{marker}
If you do not use the label option, the entries will get enumerated automat-
ically. The parameter after the \begin{thebibliography} command defines
how much space to reserve for the number of labels. In the example below,
{99} tells LATEX to expect that none of the bibliography item numbers will be
wider than the number 99.
Partl~\cite{pa} has
proposed that \ldots
\begin{thebibliography}{99}
\bibitem{pa} H.~Partl:
\emph{German \TeX},
TUGboat Volume~9, Issue~1 (1988)
Bibliography
\end{thebibliography}
For larger projects, you might want to check out the BibTEX program.
BibTEX is included with most TEX distributions. It allows you to maintain a
bibliographic database and then extract the references relevant to things you
cited in your paper. The visual presentation of BibTEX-generated bibliogra-
phies is based on a style-sheets concept that allows you to create bibliographies
following a wide range of established designs.
4.3 Indexing
A very useful feature of many books is their index. With LATEX and the
support program makeindex,5 an index can be generated quite easily. This
introduction will only explain the basic index generation commands. For a
more in-depth view, please refer to The LATEX Companion [3].
To enable their indexing feature of LATEX, the makeidx package must be
loaded in the preamble with
\usepackage{makeidx}
\makeindex
\index{key@formatted_entry}
commands, where formatted_entry will appear in the index and key will be
used for sorting. The formatted_entry is optional. If it is missing the key will
be used. You enter the index commands at the points in the text that you
want the final index entries to point to. Table 4.2 explains the syntax with
several examples.
When the input file is processed with LATEX, each \index command writes
an appropriate index entry, together with the current page number, to a
special file. The file has the same name as the LATEX input file, but a different
extension (.idx). This .idx file can then be processed with the makeindex
program:
makeindex filename
The makeindex program generates a sorted index with the same base file
name, but this time with the extension .ind. If now the LATEX input file is
5
On systems not necessarily supporting filenames longer than 8 characters, the program
may be called makeidx.
4.4 Fancy Headers 85
processed again, this sorted index gets included into the document at the point
where LATEX finds
\printindex
The showidx package that comes with LATEX 2ε prints out all index entries
in the left margin of the text. This is quite useful for proofreading a document
and verifying the index.
Note that the \index command can affect your layout if not used carefully.
\documentclass{book}
\usepackage{fancyhdr}
\pagestyle{fancy}
% with this we ensure that the chapter and section
% headings are in lowercase.
\renewcommand{\chaptermark}[1]{%
\markboth{#1}{}}
\renewcommand{\sectionmark}[1]{%
\markright{\thesection\ #1}}
\fancyhf{} % delete current header and footer
\fancyhead[LE,RO]{\bfseries\thepage}
\fancyhead[LO]{\bfseries\rightmark}
\fancyhead[RE]{\bfseries\leftmark}
\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0.5pt}
\renewcommand{\footrulewidth}{0pt}
\addtolength{\headheight}{0.5pt} % space for the rule
\fancypagestyle{plain}{%
\fancyhead{} % get rid of headers on plain pages
\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt} % and the line
}
For ultimate flexibility, the \chapter command and its friends do not rede-
fine \rightmark and \leftmark themselves. They call yet another command
(\chaptermark, \sectionmark, or \subsectionmark) that is responsible for
redefining \rightmark and \leftmark.
If you want to change the look of the chapter name in the header line, you
need only “renew” the \chaptermark command.
Figure 4.1 shows a possible setup for the fancyhdr package that makes
the headers look about the same as they look in this booklet. In any case, I
suggest you fetch the documentation for the package at the address mentioned
in the footnote.
\verbatiminput{filename}
command, which allows you to include raw ASCII text into your document as
if it were inside a verbatim environment.
As the verbatim package is part of the ‘tools’ bundle, you should find it
pre-installed on most systems. If you want to know more about this package,
make sure to read [10].
1. Run LATEX on the .ins file. This will extract a .sty file.
88 Specialities
2. Move the .sty file to a place where your distribution can find it. Usually
this is in your .../localtexmf /tex/latex subdirectory (Windows or
OS/2 users should feel free to change the direction of the slashes).
1. Run LATEX on the .dtx file. This will generate a .dvi file. Note that you
may have to run LATEX several times before it gets the cross-references
right.
2. Check to see if LATEX has produced a .idx file among the various files
you now have. If you do not see this file, then you may proceed to step 5.
5. Last but not least, make a .ps or .pdf file to increase your reading
pleasure.
Sometimes you will see that a .glo (glossary) file has been produced. Run
the following command between step 4 and 5:
makeindex -s gglo.ist -o name.gls name.glo
Be sure to run LATEX on the .dtx one last time before moving on to step 5.
There have been many attempts to create translators from LATEX to HTML.
Some were even quite successful in the sense that they are able to produce
legible web pages from a standard LATEX input file. But all of them cut corners
left and right to get the job done. As soon as you start using more complex
LATEX features and external packages things tend to fall apart. Authors
wishing to preserve the unique typographic quality of their documents even
when publishing on the web turn to PDF (Portable Document Format), which
preserves the layout of the document and permits hypertext navigation. Most
modern browsers come with plugins that allow the direct display of PDF
documents.
Even though there are DVI and PS viewers for almost every platform, you
will find that Acrobat Reader and Xpdf for viewing PDF documents are more
widely deployed7 . So providing PDF versions of your documents will make
them much more accessible to your potential readers.
\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth
\pdfpageheight=\paperheight
The following section will go into more detail regarding the differences
between normal LATEX and pdfLATEX. The main differences concern three
areas: the fonts to use, the format of images to include, and the manual
configuration of hyperlinks.
7
http://pdfreaders.org
90 Specialities
pdftitle (={text}) define the title that gets displayed in the Document
Info window of Acrobat
When you just want to provide information for the Document Info section
of the PDF file:
\usepackage[pdfauthor={Pierre Desproges},%
pdftitle={Des femmes qui tombent},%
pdftex]{hyperref}
\href{url}{text}
The code
produces the output “CTAN”; a click on the word “CTAN” will take you to
the CTAN website.
If the destination of the link is not a URL but a local file, use the \href
command without the ’http://’ bit:
which produces the text “The complete document is here”. A click on the
word “here” will open the file manual.pdf. (The filename is relative to the
location of the current document).
The author of an article might want her readers to easily send email
messages by using the \href command inside the \author command on the
title page of the document:
Note that I have put the link so that my email address appears not only in
the link but also on the page itself. I did this because the link
\href{mailto:mary@oetiker.ch}{Mary Oetiker}
would work well within Acrobat, but once the page is printed the email address
would not be visible anymore.
appear when a counter gets reinitialized, for example by using the command
\mainmatter provided by the book document class. It resets the page number
counter to 1 prior to the first chapter of the book. But as the preface of the
book also has a page number 1 all links to “page 1” would not be unique
anymore, hence the notice that “duplicate has been ignored.”
The counter measure consists of putting plainpages=false into the hy-
perref options. This unfortunately only helps with the page counter. An even
more radical solution is to use the option
hypertexnames=false, but this will cause the page links in the index to stop
working.
Work around this problem by providing a text string for the bookmarks, which
replaces the offending text:
\section{\texorpdfstring{$E=mc^2$}%
{E = mc ** 2}}
For the cases where you want to use different code for the PDF version of
your document, simply add the package ifpdf 9 to your preamble. Chances are
that you already have it installed; if not then you’re probably using MiKTEX
which will install it for you automatically the first time you try to use it.
This package defines the special command \ifpdf that will allow you to write
conditional code easily. In this example, we want the PostScript version to
be black and white due to the printing costs but we want the PDF version for
online viewing to be colourful.
\RequirePackage{ifpdf} % are we producing PDF ?
\documentclass[a4paper,12pt]{book}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{lmodern}
\usepackage[bookmarks, % tune hyperref
colorlinks,
plainpages=false]{hyperref}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\ifpdf
\hypersetup{linkscolor=blue}
\else
\hypersetup{linkscolors=black}
\fi
\usepackage[english]{babel}
...
In the example above I have included the hyperref package even in the non-PDF
version. The effect of this is to make the \href command work in all cases,
which saves me from wrapping every occurrence into a conditional statement.
Note that in recent TEX distributions (like TEXLive, MacTEX and MiKTEX),
the normal TEX program is actually pdfTEX and it will automatically switch
between producing pdf and dvi according to the name it is called with: use
the pdflatex command to get pdf output and latex for normal dvi output.
Most of the things said about pdfLATEX are valid for XELATEX as well.
There is a Wiki at http://wiki.xelatex.org/doku.php that collects in-
formation relevant to XETEX and XELATEX.
\usepackage{fontspec}
\setmainfont[Ligatures=TeX]{Linux Libertine}
in the preamble. This will normally detect the italic and bold versions as well,
so \textit and \textbf will work as usual. When the font is using OpenType
technology you have access to many features which required switching to
a separate font or using virtual fonts in the past. The main feature is the
extended character set; a font may contain Latin, Greek and Cyrillic characters
and the corresponding ligatures.
Many fonts contain at least two kinds of numerals, the normal lining
numerals and so called old style (or lower case) numerals, which partly extend
below the baseline. They may contain proportional numerals (the “1” takes
less space than the “0”) or monospaced numerals which are suitable for tables.
\newfontfamily\LLln[Numbers=Lining]{(font)}
\newfontfamily\LLos[Numbers=OldStyle]{(font)}
\newfontfamily\LLlnm[Numbers=Lining,Numbers=Monospaced]{(font)}
\newfontfamily\LLosm[Numbers=OldStyle,Numbers=Monospaced]{(font)}
Almost all OpenType fonts contain the standard ligatures (fl fi ffi) but
there are also some rare or historical ligatures like st, ct and tz. You may not
want to use them in a technical report but they are fine for a novel. To enable
these ligatures use either of the following lines:
\setmainfont[Ligatures=Rare]{(font)}
\setmainfont[Ligatures=Historic]{(font)}
\setmainfont[Ligatures=Historic,Ligature=Rare]{(font)}
Not every font contains both sets of ligature, consult the font documentation
or just try it out. Sometimes these ligatures are language dependent; for
example a ligature used in Polish (fk) is not used in English. You have to add
\setmainfont[Language=Polish]{(font)}
to enable the Polish ligatures.
Some fonts (like the commercial Adobe Garamond Premier Pro) contain
alternative glyphs that are activated by default in XELATEX distributed with
TEXLive 201010 . The result is a stylish “Q” with a descender reaching below
the following “u”. To disable this feature you have to define the font with
disabled contextuals:
\setmainfont[Contextuals=NoAlternate]{(font)}
• The microtype packages does not work with XELATEX yet, support for
character protrusion is already under development.
You can present the results of your scientific work on a blackboard, with
transparencies, or directly from your laptop using some presentation software.
pdfLATEX combined with the beamer class allows you to create presentations
in PDF, looking much like something you might be able to generate with
LibreOffice or PowerPoint if you had a very good day, but much more portable
because PDF readers are available on many more systems.
11
A commercial version of the font called Zapfino Extra is available.
98 Specialities
The beamer class uses graphicx, color and hyperref with options adapted to
screen presentations.
\documentclass[10pt]{beamer}
\mode<beamer>{%
\usetheme[hideothersubsections,
right,width=22mm]{Goettingen}
}
\title{Simple Presentation}
\author[D. Flipo]{Daniel Flipo}
\institute{U.S.T.L. \& GUTenberg}
\titlegraphic{\includegraphics[width=20mm]{USTL}}
\date{2005}
\begin{document}
\begin{frame}<handout:0>
\titlepage
\end{frame}
\section{An Example}
\begin{frame}
\frametitle{Things to do on a Sunday Afternoon}
\begin{block}{One could \ldots}
\begin{itemize}
\item walk the dog\dots \pause
\item read a book\pause
\item confuse a cat\pause
\end{itemize}
\end{block}
and many other things
\end{frame}
\end{document}
When you compile the code presented in figure 4.2 with pdfLATEX you get
a PDF file with a title page and a second page showing several items that will
be revealed one at a time as you step though your presentation.
One of the advantages of the beamer class is that it produces a PDF file
that is directly usable without first going through a PostScript stage like
prosper or requiring additional post processing like presentations created with
the ppower4 package.
4.9 Creating Presentations 99
With the beamer class you can produce several versions (modes) of your
document from the same input file. The input file may contain special
instructions for the different modes in angular brackets. The following modes
are available:
Most people use LATEX for typesetting their text. And since the structure oriented
approach to authoring is so convenient, LATEX also offers a, if somewhat restricted,
means for producing graphical output from textual descriptions. Furthermore,
quite a number of LATEX extensions have been created in order to overcome these
restrictions. In this section, you will learn about a few of them.
5.1 Overview
Creating graphical output with LATEX has a long tradition. It started out with
the picture environment which allows you to create graphics by cleverly plac-
ing predefined elements onto the canvas. A complete description can be found
in the LATEX Manual [1]. The picture environment of LATEX 2ε brings with
it the \qbezier command, “q” meaning “quadratic”. Many frequently used
curves such as circles, ellipses, or catenaries can be satisfactorily approximated
by quadratic Bézier curves, although this may require some mathematical toil.
If, in addition, a programming language is used to generate \qbezier blocks
of LATEX input files, the picture environment becomes quite powerful.
Although programming pictures directly in LATEX is severely restricted,
and often rather tiresome, there are still reasons for doing so. The documents
thus produced are “small” with respect to bytes, and there are no additional
graphics files to be dragged along.
This has been the state of things until a few years ago when Till Tantau of
beamer fame came up with the Portable Grafics Format pgf and its companion
package TikZ (tikz). This system lets you create high quality vector graphics
with all current TEX systems including full support for pdf.
Building on these basic, numerous packages have been written for specific
purposes. A wide variety of these packages is described in detail in The LATEX
Graphics Companion [4].
Perhaps the most advanced graphical tool related with LATEX is METAPOST.
It is a stand-alone application based on Donald E. Knuth’s METAFONT. META-
102 Producing Mathematical Graphics
or
\setlength{\unitlength}{1.2cm}
The default value of \unitlength is 1pt. The first pair, (x, y), effects the
reservation, within the document, of rectangular space for the picture. The
optional second pair, (x0 , y0 ), assigns arbitrary coordinates to the bottom left
corner of the reserved rectangle.
1
Believe it or not, the picture environment works out of the box, with standard LATEX 2ε
no package loading necessary.
5.2 The picture Environment 103
\put(x, y){object}
or
Bézier curves are an exception. They are drawn with the command
\setlength{\unitlength}{5cm}
\begin{picture}(1,1)
\put(0,0){\line(0,1){1}}
\put(0,0){\line(1,0){1}}
\put(0,0){\line(1,1){1}}
\put(0,0){\line(1,2){.5}}
\put(0,0){\line(1,3){.3333}}
\put(0,0){\line(1,4){.25}}
%%
\put(0,0){\line(1,5){.2}} %
\put(0,0){\line(1,6){.1667}} % ,
,
#
\put(0,0){\line(2,1){1}} % , #
#
\put(0,0){\line(2,3){.6667}} % ,
#
\put(0,0){\line(2,5){.4}} ,
% # " "
\put(0,0){\line(3,1){1}} % , ,
# "
\put(0,0){\line(3,2){1}}
#" "
\put(0,0){\line(3,4){.75}}
% # ,
% " ! !
\put(0,0){\line(3,5){.6}} ,
#"!!
\put(0,0){\line(4,1){1}} % ,
# " !
" !!
\put(0,0){\line(4,3){1}} % ,
#
" !
,
# " !
\put(0,0){\line(4,5){.8}} %
" !
(((( ( (
\put(0,0){\line(5,1){1}}
,
#
" ! !
( (
%
,
#
"
!
(
(( (
\put(0,0){\line(5,2){1}} %
(
,
#
"
! !
( (
\put(0,0){\line(5,3){1}}
\put(0,0){\line(5,4){1}}
\put(0,0){\line(5,6){.8333}}
\put(0,0){\line(6,1){1}}
\put(0,0){\line(6,5){1}}
\end{picture}
2. a length.
−6, −5, . . . , 5, 6,
and they have to be coprime (no common divisor except 1). The figure
illustrates all 25 possible slope values in the first quadrant. The length is
relative to \unitlength. The length argument is the vertical coordinate in
the case of a vertical line segment, the horizontal coordinate in all other cases.
5.2.3 Arrows
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.75mm}
\begin{picture}(60,40)
\put(30,20){\vector(1,0){30}}
\put(30,20){\vector(4,1){20}} OCC
*
\put(30,20){\vector(3,1){25}} C
\put(30,20){\vector(2,1){30}} y
X
XXX C
:
1
\put(30,20){\vector(1,2){10}} XXX C
-
\thicklines
\put(30,20){\vector(-4,1){30}}
\put(30,20){\vector(-1,4){5}}
\thinlines
\put(30,20){\vector(-1,-1){5}}
\put(30,20){\vector(-1,-4){5}}
\end{picture}
For arrows, the components of the direction vector are even more narrowly
restricted than for line segments, namely to the integers
−4, −3, . . . , 3, 4.
Components also have to be coprime (no common divisor except 1). Notice
the effect of the \thicklines command on the two arrows pointing to the
upper left.
5.2 The picture Environment 105
5.2.4 Circles
\setlength{\unitlength}{1mm}
\begin{picture}(60, 40)
\put(20,30){\circle{1}}
\put(20,30){\circle{2}}
\put(20,30){\circle{4}}
\put(20,30){\circle{8}}
\put(20,30){\circle{16}}
\put(20,30){\circle{32}}
'$ '$
#
\put(40,30){\circle{1}}
\put(40,30){\circle{2}}
\put(40,30){\circle{3}} j
be m
j
h
be
\put(40,30){\circle{4}}
"!
\put(40,30){\circle{5}} &% &%
\put(40,30){\circle{6}}
\put(40,30){\circle{7}}
\put(40,30){\circle{8}}
\put(40,30){\circle{9}}
\put(40,30){\circle{10}}
r u x z}
\put(40,30){\circle{11}}
\put(40,30){\circle{12}}
\put(40,30){\circle{13}}
\put(40,30){\circle{14}}
\put(15,10){\circle*{1}}
\put(20,10){\circle*{2}}
\put(25,10){\circle*{3}}
\put(30,10){\circle*{4}}
\put(35,10){\circle*{5}}
\end{picture}
The command
\put(x, y){\circle{diameter}}
draws a circle with center (x, y) and diameter (not radius) diameter. The
picture environment only admits diameters up to approximately 14 mm, and
even below this limit, not all diameters are possible. The \circle* command
produces disks (filled circles).
As in the case of line segments, one may have to resort to additional
packages, such as eepic or pstricks. For a thorough description of these
packages, see The LATEX Graphics Companion [4].
There is also a possibility within the picture environment. If one is not
afraid of doing the necessary calculations (or leaving them to a program),
arbitrary circles and ellipses can be patched together from quadratic Bézier
curves. See Graphics in LATEX 2ε [17] for examples and Java source files.
106 Producing Mathematical Graphics
As this example shows, text and formulas can be written into a picture
environment with the \put command in the usual way.
The command
has 4 arguments: the starting point, the translation vector from one ob-
ject to the next, the number of objects, and the object to be drawn. The
\linethickness command applies to horizontal and vertical line segments,
but neither to oblique line segments, nor to circles. It does, however, apply to
quadratic Bézier curves!
5.2 The picture Environment 107
5.2.7 Ovals
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.75cm}
\begin{picture}(6,4)
\linethickness{0.075mm}
\multiput(0,0)(1,0){7}% #
{\line(0,1){4}}
\multiput(0,0)(0,1){5}%
{\line(1,0){6}} #
\thicklines
\put(2,3){\oval(3,1.8)} "
# ! !
\thinlines
\put(3,2){\oval(3,1.8)}
" !
\thicklines
\put(2,1){\oval(3,1.8)[tl]} " !
\put(4,1){\oval(3,1.8)[b]}
\put(4,3){\oval(3,1.8)[r]}
\put(3,1.5){\oval(1.8,0.4)}
\end{picture}
The command
or
produces an oval centered at (x, y) and having width w and height h. The
optional position arguments b, t, l, r refer to “top”, “bottom”, “left”, “right”,
and can be combined, as the example illustrates.
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.5mm}
\begin{picture}(120,168)
\newsavebox{\foldera}
\savebox{\foldera}
(40,32)[bl]{% definition
\multiput(0,0)(0,28){2}
{\line(1,0){40}}
\multiput(0,0)(40,0){2}
{\line(0,1){28}}
\put(1,28){\oval(2,2)[tl]}
\put(1,29){\line(1,0){5}}
\put(9,29){\oval(6,6)[tl]}
\put(9,32){\line(1,0){8}}
\put(17,29){\oval(6,6)[tr]}
\put(20,29){\line(1,0){19}}
\put(39,28){\oval(2,2)[tr]}
}
\newsavebox{\folderb}
\savebox{\folderb}
(40,32)[l]{% definition
\put(0,14){\line(1,0){8}}
\put(8,0){\usebox{\foldera}}
}
\put(34,26){\line(0,1){102}}
\put(14,128){\usebox{\foldera}}
\multiput(34,86)(0,-37){3}
{\usebox{\folderb}}
\end{picture}
\newsavebox{name}
then defined by
\savebox{name}(width,height)[position]{content}
\put(x, y){\usebox{name}}
The optional position parameter has the effect of defining the ‘anchor point’
of the savebox. In the example it is set to bl which puts the anchor point into
the bottom left corner of the savebox. The other position specifiers are top
and right.
The name argument refers to a LATEX storage bin and therefore is of a
command nature (which accounts for the backslashes in the current example).
5.2 The picture Environment 109
Boxed pictures can be nested: In this example, \foldera is used within the
definition of \folderb.
The \oval command had to be used as the \line command does not work
if the segment length is less than about 3 mm.
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.8cm}
\begin{picture}(6,4)
\linethickness{0.075mm}
\multiput(0,0)(1,0){7}
{\line(0,1){4}}
\multiput(0,0)(0,1){5}
{\line(1,0){6}}
\thicklines
\put(0.5,0.5){\line(1,5){0.5}}
\put(1,3){\line(4,1){2}} D
\qbezier(0.5,0.5)(1,3)(3,3.5) D
\thinlines H
H
D
\put(2.5,2){\line(2,-1){3}} HH D
\put(5.5,0.5){\line(-1,5){0.5}} HH D
\linethickness{1mm} HD
\qbezier(2.5,2)(5.5,0.5)(5,3)
\thinlines
\qbezier(4,2)(4,3)(3,3)
\qbezier(3,3)(2,3)(2,2)
\qbezier(2,2)(2,1)(3,1)
\qbezier(3,1)(4,1)(4,2)
\end{picture}
m2 x2 − m1 x1 − (y2 − y1 )
rclx = ,
m2 − m1 (5.1)
y= yi + mi (x − xi ) (i = 1, 2).
See Graphics in LATEX 2ε [17] for a Java program which generates the necessary
\qbezier command line.
110 Producing Mathematical Graphics
5.2.10 Catenary
\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
\begin{picture}(4.3,3.6)(-2.5,-0.25)
\put(-2,0){\vector(1,0){4.4}}
\put(2.45,-.05){$x$}
\put(0,0){\vector(0,1){3.2}}
\put(0,3.35){\makebox(0,0){$y$}}
\qbezier(0.0,0.0)(1.2384,0.0)
(2.0,2.7622)
\qbezier(0.0,0.0)(-1.2384,0.0)
(-2.0,2.7622) y
\linethickness{.075mm} 6
\multiput(-2,0)(1,0){5}
{\line(0,1){3}}
\multiput(-2,0)(0,1){4}
{\line(1,0){4}}
\linethickness{.2mm}
\put( .3,.12763){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(.5,-.07237){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(-.7,.12763){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(-.5,-.07237){\line(0,1){.4}} -x
\put(.8,.54308){\line(1,0){.4}} u
\put(1,.34308){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(-1.2,.54308){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(-1,.34308){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(1.3,1.35241){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(1.5,1.15241){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(-1.7,1.35241){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(-1.5,1.15241){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(-2.5,-0.25){\circle*{0.2}}
\end{picture}
\begin{picture}(4.3,3.6)(-2.5,-0.25)
its lower left corner (marked by the black disk) is assigned the coordinates
(−2.5, −0.25).
5.3 The PGF and TikZ Graphics Packages 111
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.8cm}
\begin{picture}(6,4)(-3,-2)
\put(-2.5,0){\vector(1,0){5}}
\put(2.7,-0.1){$\chi$}
\put(0,-1.5){\vector(0,1){3}} β = v/c = tanh χ
\multiput(-2.5,1)(0.4,0){13} 6
{\line(1,0){0.2}}
\multiput(-2.5,-1)(0.4,0){13}
{\line(1,0){0.2}} - χ
\put(0.2,1.4)
{$\beta=v/c=\tanh\chi$}
\qbezier(0,0)(0.8853,0.8853)
(2,0.9640)
\qbezier(0,0)(-0.8853,-0.8853) t
(-2,-0.9640)
\put(-3,-2){\circle*{0.2}}
\end{picture}
The control points of the two Bézier curves were calculated with formulas
(5.1). The positive branch is determined by P1 = (0, 0), m1 = 1 and P2 =
(2, tanh 2), m2 = 1/ cosh2 2. Again, the picture is defined in mathematically
convenient coordinates, and the lower left corner is assigned the mathematical
coordinates (−3, −2) (black disk).
Today every LATEX output generation system can create nice vector graphics,
it’s just the interfaces that are rather diverse. The pgf package provides an
abstraction layer over these interface. The pgf package comes with a large
manual/tutorial of its own [18]. So we are only going to scratch the surface of
the package with this little section.
The pgf package comes with a high level access language provided by the
tikz package. TikZ provides highly efficient commands to draw graphics right
from inside your document. Use the tikzpicture environment to wrap your
TikZ commands.
As mentioned above, there is an excellent manual for pgf and friends. So
instead of actually explaining how it works, I will just show you a few examples
so that you can get a first impression of how this tool works.
First a simple non-sense diagram.
112 Producing Mathematical Graphics
\begin{tikzpicture}[scale=3]
\clip (-0.1,-0.2)
rectangle (1.8,1.2);
\draw[step=.25cm,gray,very thin]
(-1.4,-1.4) grid (3.4,3.4);
\draw (-1.5,0) -- (2.5,0);
\draw (0,-1.5) -- (0,1.5);
\draw (0,0) circle (1cm);
\filldraw[fill=green!20!white,
draw=green!50!black]
(0,0) -- (3mm,0mm)
arc (0:30:3mm) -- cycle;
\end{tikzpicture}
\shorthandoff{:}
\begin{tikzpicture} economics psychology
\node[circle,draw,
minimum size=3cm,
label=120:{economics}]
at (0,0) {};
\node[circle,draw,
minimum size=3cm,
label=60:{psychology}]
at (1,0) {};
\node (i) at (0.5,-1) {};
\node at (0.6,-2.5)
{behavioral economics}
edge[->,thick,
out=60,in=-60] (i); behavioral economics
\end{tikzpicture}
If you are using tikz in connection with babel some of the characters used
in the TikZ language may get modified by babel, leading to odd errors. To
counteract this, add the \shorthandoff command to your code.
\begin{tikzpicture}[scale=0.8]
\tikzstyle{v}=[circle, minimum size=2mm,inner sep=0pt,draw]
\foreach \i in {1,...,8}
\foreach \j in {1,...,3}
\node[v]
(G-\i-\j) at (\i,\j) {};
\foreach \i in {1,...,8}
\foreach \j/\o in {1/2,2/3}
\draw[->]
(G-\i-\j) -- (G-\i-\o);
\foreach \i/\n in
{1/2,2/3,3/4,4/5,5/6,6/7,7/8}
\foreach \j/\o in {1/2,2/3} {
\draw[->] (G-\i-\j) -- (G-\n-\o);
\draw[->] (G-\n-\j) -- (G-\i-\o);
}
\end{tikzpicture}
\usetikzlibrary{%
decorations.pathmorphing} B
\begin{tikzpicture}[
decoration={bent,aspect=.3}]
\draw [decorate,fill=lightgray]
(0,0) rectangle (5.5,4);
\node[circle,draw]
(A) at (.5,.5) {A};
\node[circle,draw]
(B) at (5,3.5) {B};
\draw[->,decorate] (A) -- (B);
\draw[->,decorate] (B) -- (A); A
\end{tikzpicture}
\usetikzlibrary{positioning}
\begin{tikzpicture}[xscale=6,
yscale=8,>=stealth]
\tikzstyle{v}=[circle,
minimum size=1mm,draw,thick]
\node[v] (a) {$1$}; 1 2
\node[v] (b) [right=of a] {$2$};
\node[v] (c) [below=of a] {$2$};
\node[v] (d) [below=of b] {$1$};
\draw[thick,->]
(a) to node {} (c); 2 1
\draw[thick,->]
(a) to node {} (d);
\draw[thick,->]
(b) to node {} (d);
\end{tikzpicture}
114 Producing Mathematical Graphics
You can even draw syntax diagrams that look as if they came straight
from a book on Pascal programming. The code is a bit more daunting than
the example above, so I will just show you the result. If you have a look at
the pgf documentation you will find a detailed tutorial on drawing this exact
diagram.
And there is more, if you have to draw plots of numerical data or functions,
you should have a closer look at the pgfplot package. It provides everything
you need to draw plots. It can even call the external gnuplot command to
evaluate actual functions you wrote into the graph.
For more inspiration make sure to visit Kjell Magne Fauske’s excellent
http://www.texample.net/tikz/. it contains an ever expanding store of
beautiful graphs and other LATEX code. On TEXample.net you will also find a
list of tools to work with PGF/TikZ so that you do not have to write all that
code by hand.
Chapter 6
Customising LATEX
Documents produced with the commands you have learned up to this point will
look acceptable to a large audience. While they are not fancy-looking, they obey
all the established rules of good typesetting, which will make them easy to read
and pleasant to look at.
However, there are situations where LATEX does not provide a command or
environment that matches your needs, or the output produced by some existing
command may not meet your requirements.
In this chapter, I will try to give some hints on how to teach LATEX new tricks
and how to make it produce output that looks different from what is provided by
default.
\begin{lscommand} \dum
\ci{dum}
\end{lscommand}
\newcommand{name}[num]{definition}
command. Basically, the command requires two arguments: the name of the
command you want to create, and the definition of the command. The num
argument in square brackets is optional and specifies the number of arguments
the new command takes (up to 9 are possible). If missing it defaults to 0, i.e.
no argument allowed.
The following two examples should help you to get the idea. The first
example defines a new command called \tnss. This is short for “The Not So
Short Introduction to LATEX 2ε .” Such a command could come in handy if you
had to write the title of this book over and over again.
\newcommand{\tnss}{The not
so Short Introduction to This is “The not so Short Introduction to
\LaTeXe} LATEX 2ε ” . . . “The not so Short Introduc-
This is ‘‘\tnss’’ \ldots{} tion to LATEX 2ε ”
‘‘\tnss’’
The next example illustrates how to define a new command that takes
one argument. The #1 tag gets replaced by the argument you specify. If you
wanted to use more than one argument, use #2 and so on.
\newcommand{\txsit}[2]
{This is the \emph{#1}
#2 Introduction to \LaTeXe} • This is the not so short Introduction
% in the document body: to LATEX 2ε
\begin{itemize} • This is the very long Introduction
\item \txsit{not so}{short} to LATEX 2ε
\item \txsit{very}{long}
\end{itemize}
LATEX will not allow you to create a new command that would overwrite
an existing one. But there is a special command in case you explicitly want
this: \renewcommand. It uses the same syntax as the \newcommand command.
In certain cases you might also want to use the \providecommand command.
It works like \newcommand, but if the command is already defined, LATEX 2ε
will silently ignore it.
There are some points to note about whitespace following LATEX commands.
See page 5 for more information.
6.1 New Commands, Environments and Packages 117
\newenvironment{name}[num]{before}{after}
\newenvironment{king}
{\rule{1ex}{1ex}%
\hspace{\stretch{1}}}
{\hspace{\stretch{1}}%
\rule{1ex}{1ex}} My humble subjects . . .
\begin{king}
My humble subjects \ldots
\end{king}
The num argument is used the same way as in the \newcommand command.
LATEX makes sure that you do not define an environment that already exists.
If you ever want to change an existing command, use the \renewenvironment
command. It uses the same syntax as the \newenvironment command.
The commands used in this example will be explained later. For the \rule
command see page 130, for \stretch go to page 124, and more information
on \hspace can be found on page 124.
\newenvironment{simple}%
{\noindent}%
{\par\noindent} See the space
to the left.
\begin{simple} Same
See the space\\to the left. here.
\end{simple}
Same\\here.
118 Customising LATEX
\newenvironment{correct}%
{\noindent\ignorespaces}%
{\par\noindent% No space
\ignorespacesafterend} to the left.
\begin{correct} Same
No space\\to the left. here.
\end{correct}
Same\\here.
\usepackage{ifthen}
\ifthenelse{\equal{\blackandwhite}{true}}{
% "black and white" mode; do something..
}{
% "color" mode; do something different..
}
\ProvidesPackage{package name}
for use at the very beginning of your package file. \ProvidesPackage tells
LATEX the name of the package and will allow it to issue a sensible error
message when you try to include a package twice. Figure 6.1 shows a small
example package that contains the commands defined in the examples above.
6.2 Fonts and Sizes 119
One important feature of LATEX 2ε is that the font attributes are indepen-
dent. This means that issuing size or even font changing commands, and still
keep bold or slant attributes set earlier.
In math mode use the font changing commands to temporarily exit math
mode and enter some normal text. If you want to switch to another font for
math typesetting you need another special set of commands; refer to Table 6.4.
In connection with the font size commands, curly braces play a significant
role. They are used to build groups. Groups limit the scope of most LATEX
commands.
The font size commands also change the line spacing, but only if the
paragraph ends within the scope of the font size command. The closing curly
brace } should therefore not come too early. Note the position of the \par
command in the next two examples. 1
1
\par is equivalent to a blank line
120 Customising LATEX
{\Large This is not true either. This is not true either. But re-
But remember I am a liar.}\par member I am a liar.
\begin{Large}
This is not true.
But then again, what is these
This is not true. But then again,
days \ldots what is these days . . .
\end{Large}
\newcommand{\oops}[1]{%
\textbf{#1}}
Do not enter this room, it’s occupied by
Do not \oops{enter} this room,
machines of unknown origin and purpose.
it’s occupied by \oops{machines}
of unknown origin and purpose.
This approach has the advantage that you can decide at some later stage
that you want to use a visual representation of danger other than \textbf,
without having to wade through your document, identifying all the occurrences
of \textbf and then figuring out for each one whether it was used for pointing
out danger or for some other reason.
Please note the difference between telling LATEX to emphasize something
and telling it to use a different font. The \emph command is context aware,
while the font commands are absolute.
6.2.3 Advice
To conclude this journey into the land of fonts and font sizes, here is a little
word of advice:
!
Remember The MO RE fonts you use in a document, the more
readable and beautiful it becomes.
6.3 Spacing
\linespread{factor}
\setlength{\baselineskip}{1.5\baselineskip}
{\setlength{\baselineskip}%
{1.5\baselineskip}
This paragraph is typeset with the base-
This paragraph is typeset with
the baseline skip set to 1.5 of line skip set to 1.5 of what it was before.
what it was before. Note the par
Note the par command at the end of the
command at the end of the
paragraph.\par} paragraph.
This paragraph has a clear purpose, it
This paragraph has a clear
shows that after the curly brace has been
purpose, it shows that after the
closed, everything is back to normal.
curly brace has been closed,
everything is back to normal.
\indent
at the beginning of the paragraph.2 Obviously, this will only have an effect
when \parindent is not set to zero.
2
To indent the first paragraph after each section head, use the indentfirst package in the
‘tools’ bundle.
124 Customising LATEX
\noindent
as the first command of the paragraph. This might come in handy when you
start a document with body text and not with a sectioning command.
\hspace{length}
If such a space should be kept even if it falls at the end or the start of a
line, use \hspace* instead of \hspace. The length in the simplest case is just
a number plus a unit. The most important units are listed in Table 6.5.
The command
\stretch{n}
generates a special rubber space. It stretches until all the remaining space on
a line is filled up. If multiple \hspace{\stretch{n}} commands are issued on
the same line, they occupy all available space in proportion of their respective
stretch factors.
x\hspace{\stretch{1}}
x x x
x\hspace{\stretch{3}}x
When using horizontal space together with text, it may make sense to
make the space adjust its size relative to the size of the current font. This can
be done by using the text-relative units em and ex:
{\Large{}big\hspace{1em}y}\\ big y
{\tiny{}tin\hspace{1em}y} tin y
6.4 Page Layout 125
\vspace{length}
This command should normally be used between two empty lines. If the
space should be preserved at the top or at the bottom of a page, use the
starred version of the command, \vspace*, instead of \vspace.
The \stretch command, in connection with \pagebreak, can be used to
typeset text on the last line of a page, or to centre text vertically on a page.
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
This goes onto the last line of the page.\pagebreak
Additional space between two lines of the same paragraph or within a table
is specified with the
\\[length]
command.
With \bigskip and \smallskip you can skip a predefined amount of
vertical space without having to worry about exact numbers.
6
i 5i 6i
4 i
2
? ?
?
6 ?Header
6
6 6
Body i
7
Margin
Notes
- 9i
10i
-
i
3
-
i
8 -
? ?
1i- Footer
i
6
11
Figure 6.2: Layout parameters for this book. Try the layouts package to print
the layout of your own document.
6.5 More Fun With Lengths 127
Figure 6.2 shows all the parameters that can be changed. The figure was
produced with the layout package from the tools bundle.3
WAIT! . . . before you launch into a “Let’s make that narrow page a bit
wider” frenzy, take a few seconds to think. As with most things in LATEX,
there is a good reason for the page layout to be as it is.
Sure, compared to your off-the-shelf MS Word page, it looks awfully narrow.
But take a look at your favourite book4 and count the number of characters
on a standard text line. You will find that there are no more than about 66
characters on each line. Now do the same on your LATEX page. You will find
that there are also about 66 characters per line. Experience shows that the
reading gets difficult as soon as there are more characters on a single line.
This is because it is difficult for the eyes to move from the end of one line to
the start of the next one. This is also why newspapers are typeset in multiple
columns.
So if you increase the width of your body text, keep in mind that you
are making life difficult for the readers of your paper. But enough of the
cautioning, I promised to tell you how you do it . . .
LATEX provides two commands to change these parameters. They are
usually used in the document preamble.
The first command assigns a fixed value to any of the parameters:
\setlength{parameter}{length}
\addtolength{parameter}{length}
This second command is actually more useful than the \setlength com-
mand, because it works relative to the existing settings. To add one centimetre
to the overall text width, I put the following commands into the document
preamble:
\addtolength{\hoffset}{-0.5cm}
\addtolength{\textwidth}{1cm}
In this context, you might want to look at the calc package. It allows you
to use arithmetic operations in the argument of \setlength and other places
where numeric values are entered into function arguments.
The following 3 commands allow you to determine the width, height and
depth of a text string.
\settoheight{variable}{text}
\settodepth{variable}{text}
\settowidth{variable}{text}
\flushleft
\newenvironment{vardesc}[1]{%
\settowidth{\parindent}{#1:\ }
\makebox[0pt][r]{#1:\ }}{}
\begin{displaymath} a2 + b2 = c2
a^2+b^2=c^2
\end{displaymath} Where: a, b – are adjoin to the right angle
of a right-angled triangle.
\begin{vardesc}{Where}$a$,
c – is the hypotenuse of the
$b$ -- are adjoin to the right
triangle and feels lonely.
angle of a right-angled triangle.
d – finally does not show up here
$c$ -- is the hypotenuse of at all. Isn’t that puzzling?
the triangle and feels lonely.
6.6 Boxes
LATEX builds up its pages by pushing around boxes. At first, each letter is a
little box, which is then glued to other letters to form words. These are again
glued to other words, but with special glue, which is elastic so that a series of
words can be squeezed or stretched as to exactly fill a line on the page.
I admit, this is a very simplistic version of what really happens, but the
point is that TEX operates on glue and boxes. Letters are not the only things
that can be boxes. You can put virtually everything into a box, including
other boxes. Each box will then be handled by LATEX as if it were a single
letter.
In the past chapters you have already encountered some boxes, although I
did not tell you. The tabular environment and the \includegraphics, for
example, both produce a box. This means that you can easily arrange two
tables or images side by side. You just have to make sure that their combined
width is not larger than the textwidth.
6.6 Boxes 129
You can also pack a paragraph of your choice into a box with either the
\parbox[pos]{width}{text}
command or the
environment. The pos parameter can take one of the letters c, t or b to control
the vertical alignment of the box, relative to the baseline of the surrounding
text. width takes a length argument specifying the width of the box. The
main difference between a minipage and a \parbox is that you cannot use
all commands and environments inside a parbox, while almost anything is
possible in a minipage.
While \parbox packs up a whole paragraph doing line breaking and ev-
erything, there is also a class of boxing commands that operates only on
horizontally aligned material. We already know one of them; it’s called \mbox.
It simply packs up a series of boxes into another one, and can be used to
prevent LATEX from breaking two words. As boxes can be put inside boxes,
these horizontal box packers give you ultimate flexibility.
\makebox[width][pos]{text}
width defines the width of the resulting box as seen from the outside.5 Be-
sides the length expressions, you can also use \width, \height, \depth, and
\totalheight in the width parameter. They are set from values obtained by
measuring the typeset text. The pos parameter takes a one letter value: center,
flushleft, flushright, or spread the text to fill the box.
The command \framebox works exactly the same as \makebox, but it
draws a box around the text.
The following example shows you some things you could do with the
\makebox and \framebox commands.
\makebox[\textwidth]{%
c e n t r a l}\par central
\makebox[\textwidth][s]{%
s p r e a d}\par s p r e a d
\framebox[1.1\width]{Guess I’m Guess I’m framed now!
framed now!} \par
\framebox[0.8\width][r]{Bummer, Bummer, I am too wide
I am too wide} \par
\framebox[1cm][l]{never never mind,
Can you
so am
read
I this?
mind, so am I}
Can you read this?
5
This means it can be smaller than the material inside the box. You can even set
the width to 0pt so that the text inside the box will be typeset without influencing the
surrounding boxes.
130 Customising LATEX
Now that we control the horizontal, the obvious next step is to go for the
vertical.6 No problem for LATEX. The
\raisebox{lift}[extend-above-baseline][extend-below-baseline]{text}
command lets you define the vertical properties of a box. You can use \width,
\height, \depth, and \totalheight in the first three parameters, in order to
act upon the size of the box inside the text argument.
\raisebox{0pt}[0pt][0pt]{\Large%
\textbf{Aaaa\raisebox{-0.3ex}{a}%
\raisebox{-0.7ex}{aa}%
\raisebox{-1.2ex}{r}% Aaaaaaa she shouted, but not
\raisebox{-2.2ex}{g}% even the nextrone
g in line noticed that some-
\raisebox{-4.5ex}{h}}} thing terrible had
h happened to her.
she shouted, but not even the next
one in line noticed that something
terrible had happened to her.
6.7 Rules
A few pages back you may have noticed the command
\rule[lift]{width}{height}
\rule{3mm}{.1pt}%
\rule[-1mm]{5mm}{1cm}%
\rule{3mm}{.1pt}%
\rule[1mm]{1cm}{5mm}%
\rule{3mm}{.1pt}
This is useful for drawing vertical and horizontal lines. The line on the title
page, for example, has been created with a \rule command.
The End.
6
Total control is only to be obtained by controlling both the horizontal and the vertical
...
Appendix A
Installing LATEX
Knuth published the source to TEX back in a time when nobody knew about
OpenSource and/or Free Software. The License that comes with TEX lets you do
whatever you want with the source, but you can only call the result of your work
TEX if the program passes a set of tests Knuth has also provided. This has lead to
a situation where we have free TEX implementations for almost every Operating
System under the sun. This chapter will give some hints on what to install on
Linux, Mac OS X and Windows, to get a working TEX setup.
1. The TEX/LATEX program for processing your LATEX source files into
typeset PDF or DVI documents.
2. A text editor for editing your LATEX source files. Some products even let
you start the LATEX program from within the editor.
For all platforms there are several programs that fit the requirements above.
Here we just tell about the ones we know, like and have some experience with.
Over the past few years I have come to like Texmaker quite a lot. Apart from
being very a useful editor with integrated pdf-preview and syntax high-lighting,
it has the advantage of running on Windows, Mac and Unix/Linux equally
well. See http://www.xm1math.net/texmaker for further information. There
is also a forked version of Texmaker called TeXstudio on http://texstudio.
sourceforge.net/. It also seems well maintained and is also available for all
three major platforms.
You will find some platform specific editor suggestions in the OS sections
below.
will download missing LATEX packages on the fly and install them magically
while compiling a document. Alternatively you can also use the TeXlive
distribution which exists for Windows, Unix and Mac OS to get your base
setup going http://www.tug.org/texlive/.
If you are looking for a more windows like graphical editing environment,
check out Texmaker. See section A.2.
Most Linux distros insist on splitting up their TEX environments into a
large number of optional packages, so if something is missing after your first
install, go check again.
Bibliography
[11] Vladimir Volovich, Werner Lemberg and LATEX3 Project Team. Cyrillic
languages support in LATEX. Comes with the LATEX 2ε distribution as
cyrguide.tex.
[14] Kristoffer H. Rose. XY-pic User’s Guide. Downloadable from CTAN with
XY-pic distribution
[16] Alan Hoenig. TEX Unbound. Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-19-
509685-1; 0-19-509686-X (pbk.)
[17] Urs Oswald. Graphics in LATEX 2ε , containing some Java source files for
generating arbitrary circles and ellipses within the picture environment,
and METAPOST - A Tutorial. Both downloadable from http://www.
ursoswald.ch
[21] Will Robertson and Khaled Hosny. The fontspec package. Comes with
the TEXLive distribution as fontspec.pdf. (Type texdoc fontspec on
the command line.)
[22] Apostolos Syropoulos. The xgreek package. Comes with the TEXLive
distribution as xgreek.pdf. (Type texdoc xgreek on the command line.)
[23] Vafa Khalighi. The bidi package. Comes with the TEXLive distribution
as bidi.pdf. (Type texdoc bidi on the command line.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 137
[24] Vafa Khalighi. The XePersian package. Comes with the TEXLive distribu-
tion as xepersian-doc.pdf. (Type texdoc xepersian on the command
line.
[25] Wenchang Sun. The xeCJK package. Comes with the TEXLive distribution
as xeCJK.pdf. (Type texdoc xecjk on the command line.
Index
backslash, 5 Chinese, 36
\bar, 56 \ci, 115
base font size, 10 \circle, 105
beamer, 97–99, 101 \circle*, 105
\begin, 40, 102, 110 \cite, 83
\Beta, 73 CJK package, 28
\bibitem, 83 \cleardoublepage, 48
bibliography, 83 \clearpage, 48
bicig, 32 \cline, 44
bidi, 35 color, 98
\Big, 58 coloured text, 11
\big, 58 comma, 21
\big(, 64 commands, 5
\Bigg, 58 \!, 66
\bigg, 58 \,, 53, 66
\bigskip, 125 \-, 18
binary relations, 57 \:, 63, 66
\binom, 57 \;, 66
binomial coefficient, 57 \@, 36
blackboard bold, 54 \[, 52, 53
block, 99 \\, 17, 41, 42, 44, 125
bm, 68 \\*, 17
Bmatrix, 66 \], 52
bmatrix, 66 \addtolength, 127
\bmod, 56 \Alph, 31, 32
bold face, 120 \alph, 31, 32
bold symbols, 54, 68 \Alpha, 73
\boldmath, 68 \and, 38
\boldsymbol, 68 \appendix, 37, 39
book class, 9 \arccos, 56
booktabs, 46 \arcsin, 56
brace \arctan, 56
horizontal, 55 \arg, 56
bracketing, 58 \arraystretch, 45
brazilian, 25 \Asbuk, 31
\asbuk, 31
C \author, 38, 93
calc, 127 \backmatter, 39
\caption, 47, 48 \bar, 56
cases, 65 \begin, 40, 102, 110
\cdot, 55 \Beta, 73
\cdots, 55 \bibitem, 83
center, 41 \Big, 58
\chapter, 37 \big, 58
\chaptermark, 87 \big(, 64
140 INDEX
\Bigg, 58 \flqq, 27
\bigg, 58 \foldera, 109
\bigskip, 125 \folderb, 109
\binom, 57 \footnote, 39, 48
\bmod, 56 \footskip, 126
\boldmath, 68 \frac, 57
\boldsymbol, 68 \framebox, 129
\caption, 47, 48 \frenchspacing, 31, 37
\cdot, 55 \frontmatter, 38
\cdots, 55 \frq, 27
\chapter, 37 \frqq, 27
\chaptermark, 87 \fussy, 18
\ci, 115 \gcd, 56
\circle, 105 \hat, 55
\circle*, 105 \headheight, 126
\cite, 83 \headsep, 126
\cleardoublepage, 48 \height, 129, 130
\clearpage, 48 \hline, 44
\cline, 44 \hom, 56
\cos, 56 \href, 93, 95
\cosh, 56 \hspace, 117, 124
\cot, 56 \hyphenation, 18
\coth, 56 \idotsint, 67
\csc, 56 \IEEEeqnarraymulticol, 63
\date, 38 \IEEEmulticol, 64
\ddots, 55 \IEEEnonumber, 64
\DeclareMathOperator, 56 \IEEEyesnumber, 64
\deg, 56 \IEEEyessubnumber, 65
\depth, 129, 130 \ifpdf, 95
\det, 56, 64 \ignorespaces, 117
\dfrac, 57 \ignorespacesafterend, 117
\dim, 56 \iiiint, 67
\displaystyle, 67 \iiint, 67
\documentclass, 9, 13, 18 \iint, 67
\dq, 27 \include, 13, 14
\dum, 115 \includegraphics, 82, 91, 94,
\emph, 40, 120, 122 128
\end, 40, 102 \includeonly, 14
\enumBul, 32 \indent, 123
\enumEng, 32 \index, 84, 85
\enumLat, 32 \inf, 56
\eqref, 52 \input, 14
\exp, 56 \int, 57, 64
\fbox, 19 \item, 41
\flq, 27 \ker, 56
INDEX 141
Deutsch, 27 cp866nav, 24
\dfrac, 57 koi8-ru, 24, 31
diagonal dots, 55 latin1, 24
\dim, 56 macukr, 24
dimensions, 124 mn, 32
display style, 51, 53 utf8, 24, 32
displaymath, 52 \end, 40, 102
\displaystyle, 67 \enumBul, 32
doc, 12 \enumEng, 32
document font size, 10 enumerate, 41
document title, 10 \enumLat, 32
\documentclass, 9, 13, 18 environments
dot, 55 Bmatrix, 66
dotless ı and , 22 IEEEeqnarray, 59–62
dots, 55 Vmatrix, 66
three, 55 abstract, 42
double line spacing, 122 align, 60
double sided, 10 array, 65, 66
\dq, 27 block, 99
\dum, 115 bmatrix, 66
cases, 65
E center, 41
eepic, 105 comment, 6
ellipsis, 21 description, 41
em-dash, 20 displaymath, 52
\emph, 40, 120, 122 enumerate, 41
empty, 11 eqnarray, 60
en-dash, 20 equation*, 52, 53, 59
Encapsulated PostScript, 81, 91, equation, 52, 53, 59, 61
133 figure, 46, 47
encodings flushleft, 41
font flushright, 41
LGR, 25 frame, 99
OT1, 24 itemize, 41
T1, 25, 31 lscommand, 115
T2*, 30 matrix, 65, 66
T2A, 25, 31 minipage, 129
T2B, 25 multline*, 59
T2C, 25 multline, 59, 61
X2, 25 parbox, 129
input picture, 101, 102, 105, 106
ansinew, 24 pmatrix, 66
applemac, 24 proof, 70
cp1251, 24, 32 quotation, 42
cp850, 24 quote, 42
144 INDEX
\printindex, 85 \sectionmark, 87
proc class, 9 \selectlanguage, 23
\prod, 57 \setlength, 102, 123, 127
product operator, 57 \settodepth, 128
proof, 70 \settoheight, 128
prosper, 98 \settowidth, 128
\protect, 49 \shorthandoff, 112
\providecommand, 116 showidx, 85
\ProvidesPackage, 118 \sin, 56, 64
pstricks, 105 Sindhi, 35
\put, 103–108 single sided, 10
pxfonts, 90 \sinh, 56
slanted, 120
Q Slash, 20
\qbezier, 101, 103, 109 \slash, 20
\qedhere, 70, 71 slides class, 9
\qquad, 53, 66 \sloppy, 18
\quad, 53, 63, 66 \small, 120
quotation, 42 Small Caps, 120
quotation marks, 19 \smallskip, 125
quote, 42 \smash, 53
space, 4
R spacing
\raisebox, 130 math mode, 53
\ref, 39, 48, 88 special character, 22
\renewcommand, 116 \sqrt, 55
\renewenvironment, 117 square brackets, 5
report class, 9 square root, 55
reserved characters, 4 \stackrel, 57
\right, 58, 64, 65 \stretch, 117, 124
right-aligned, 41 structure, 6
\right., 58 strut, 45
\rightmark, 85, 87 \subparagraph, 37
roman, 120 subscript, 54
\rule, 45, 117, 130 \subsection, 37
Russian, 35 \subsectionmark, 87
\substack, 58
S \subsubsection, 37
sans serif, 120 \sum, 57, 64
\savebox, 108 sum operator, 57
Scandinavian letters, 22 \sup, 56
\scriptscriptstyle, 67 superscript, 54
\scriptsize, 120 syntonly, 12, 14
\scriptstyle, 67
\sec, 56 T
\section, 37, 48 T1, 25, 31
150 INDEX
W
whitespace, 4
after commands, 5
at the start of a line, 4
\widehat, 55
\widetilde, 55
\width, 129, 130
Word, 85
WYSIWYG, 2, 3
X
X2, 25
xalx, 32
xeCJK, 36
XELATEX, 95
xepersian, 35
XETEX, 95
xgreek, 35
Xpdf, 89