Groundwater Hydrology

Edited by Muhammad Salik Javaid

Groundwater Hydrology
Edited by Muhammad Salik Javaid

Published in London, United Kingdom

Supporting open minds since 2005
Groundwater Hydrology
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79108
Edited by Muhammad Salik Javaid

Contributors
André Bon, Jules Rémy Ndam Ngoupayou, Guillaume Ewodo Mboudou, Nasser Ngouh Abdou, Georges
Emmanuel Ekodeck, Amira Gasmi Ziadi, Najla Hariga Tlatli, Jamila Tarhouni, Maki Tsujimura, Atsuchi
Kawachi, Fethi Lachaal, Amna Trabelsi, Kanak Moharir, Chaitanya Pande, Sudhir Singh, Rodrigo Abarca
Del, Maryam Dehban Avan Stakhri, Ali Mirarabi, Mohammad Hossin Ghobadi, Manuel Vitor Gonçalves,
Manoel Jerônimo Cruz, Carlos Alberto Coutinho, Rodrigo Santos, Muhammad Salik Javaid

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Groundwater Hydrology
Edited by Muhammad Salik Javaid
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 Meet the editor

Dr. Muhammad Salik Javaid has a long meritorious career in-

teracting with hydrology, hydraulics, and water resources as an
engineering student, registered professional engineer, research-
er, and university teaching professor. For over three decades he
has worked as a hydraulics engineer, a disaster risk consultant,
and a water resources expert in Pakistan and abroad in the Corps
of Engineers, Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation
Authority, Frontier Works Organization, and Design & Consultancy Department.
His undergraduate engineering education is from the Military College of Engineer-
ing. He is a graduate of Georgia Tech, Atlanta, USA, where he earned his Mas-
ter’s and Doctoral degrees in Civil Engineering. He has been on the faculty of the
National University of Sciences and Technology, University of Lahore, and Abasyn
University Islamabad, teaching undergraduate and graduate level courses related to
hydrology and hydraulics.
Contents

Preface XIII

Chapter 1 1
Hydrogeological Characteristics of Shallow Hard Rock Aquifers in Yaounde
(Cameroon, Central Africa)
by Jules Rémy Ndam Ngoupayou, André Firmin Bon, Guillaume Ewodo Mboudou,
Nasser Ngouh Abdou and Georges Emmanuel Ekodeck

Chapter 2 19
Multivariate Pollution in the Coastal Aquifer of Lebna area, Northeastern
Tunisia
by Amira Ziadi, Najla Hariga Tlatli and Jamila Tarhouni

Chapter 3 39
Analytical Study of Environmental Impacts and Their Effects on Groundwater
Hydrology
by Muhammad Salik Javaid, Laila Khalid and Muhammad Zeshan Khalil

Chapter 4 49
The Investigation of the Dorfak Karstic Aquifer
by Maryam Dehban Avan Stakhri, Mohammad Hossien Ghobadi
and Ali Mirarabi

Chapter 5 73
Fluoride Levels in the Groundwater and Prevalence of Dental Fluorosis
in the Municipality of Santana, in Region Karstic of West Bahia, Brazil
by Manuel Vitor Portugal Gonçalves, Rodrigo Alves Santos,
Carlos Alberto Machado Coutinho and Manoel Jerônimo Moreira Cruz

Chapter 6 97
Evaluation of Analytical Methods to Study Aquifer Properties with Pumping
Test in Deccan Basalt Region of the Morna River Basin in Akola District of
Maharashtra in India
by Kanak N. Moharir, Chaitanya B. Pande, Sudhir Kumar Singh
and Rodrigo Abarca Del Rio
 Preface

Geohydrology is an important branch of the hydrology that focuses on the subsurface

geologic aspects of water and rock structure. The movement, transportation,
geobiochemical actions and reactions, and physical behavior of water and other
fluids inside the ground are most fascinating for engineers, researchers, hydrologists,
agriculturists, industrialists, and general consumers. Aquifer maintenance and
management, aquifer conservation, and aquifer resource balance between discharge
and recharge are the areas for study to avoid and mitigate conflicts among the
transboundary stakeholders. The positive contribution by engineers and scientists
not only adds to the development of water and hydrocarbon resources, but also helps
in the just and equitable utilization of these by everybody.

On the one hand, the rapid development of built-up areas, residential and industrial
complexes, and communication infrastructure has grossly reduced the infiltration,
percolation, and groundwater recharge, while on the other hand, extraction has
increased manifold. There is thus a dire need to check the depletion rate and work for
conservation and enhancement of precious liquid resources lying under the ground.
These aspects can form the goals for future research and investment by all nations
of the world. Numerical and computer modeling of groundwater movement and
contaminant transport may help identify the gray areas and also suggest solutions in
concrete terms.

This book contains six chapters that broadly deal with two major aspects of
geohydrology: (1) the physical structure of the aquifer itself, and (2) fluid content,
water, and their characteristics. The first chapter by Bon Andres provides an insight
into the hydrogeological context of shallow hard rock aquifers by compiling and
analyzing field and laboratory studies to obtain hydrometric and piezometric
characteristics data. Chapter 2 by Ziadi Amira describes the economic, agricultural,
and social problems arising from anthropogenic contamination and excessive
water consumption that endanger overexploitation of groundwater, leading to
mineralization in coastal aquifers. Several geological tools and hydrogeological data
used in combination with geochemical and geophysical methods are also discussed.
The third chapter coauthored by myself, Laila Khalid, and Zeshan Sameja presents
an analytical study of environmental impacts and discusses their effects on
groundwater hydrology. Chapter 4 by Dehban Avan appraises hydrogeological
attributes of karst aquifers in Iran. Use of geochemical software and rockware
software to analyze chemical compounds in karst aquifers is also explored. Water
composition of springs and karstification of recharge areas are also discussed.
Chapter 5 by Goncalves Manuel Vitor investigates the relationship between
consumption of water with natural fluoride levels and the prevalence of dental
fluorosis in parts of Brazil. The last chapter by Moharir Kanak evaluates analytical
methods to determine aquifer characteristics.

This book has a broad-based scope due to elaborate coverage on many aspects of
geology, hydrology, and subsurface water. The book aims to serve the needs of
academia and field professionals in groundwater engineering, hydrogeology, water
resource management, environmental sciences, and geotechnical engineering.
The consistent efforts of all persons who contributed directly or indirectly towards
the completion of this book project are thankfully acknowledged. It would not have
been possible to complete this book without the professional contributions of the
eminent authors whose names appear with each chapter title, as well as the ground-
water scientists and engineers the world over. The guidance, advice, and blessings
of my professional colleagues and friends and unwavering support of my family
members (wife Sultana, daughters Humaira and Sumayyah, and son Hammaad)
are fully acknowledged. Therefore, I dedicate this book to my family and colleagues
working in the field of hydrology. Abasyn University, Islamabad, needs a mention
for providing me with a working atmosphere, space, time, and resources at univer-
sity’s cost. Last but not least I would like to thank Ms. Dolores Kuzelj, the author
service manager, whose patience, guidance, and relentless efforts made us all follow
and obey the laid-out timelines.

It is hoped that this book will be well received and found useful by both
hydrogeologists and geohydrologists in academia as well as professional practice.

Dr. Muhammad Salik Javaid

Abasyn University,
Islamabad, Pakistan

XIV
Chapter 1

Hydrogeological Characteristics
of Shallow Hard Rock Aquifers
in Yaounde (Cameroon, Central
Africa)
Jules Rémy Ndam Ngoupayou, André Firmin Bon,
Guillaume Ewodo Mboudou, Nasser Ngouh Abdou
and Georges Emmanuel Ekodeck

Abstract

The groundwater contained in the alterites is one of the main sources of water
supply for many households in the city of Yaounde and its surroundings. Information
from the field and laboratory studies was compiled and analyzed in order to under-
stand the hydrogeological context of this superficial aquifer. Preliminary results
show a staged morphology of the alteration mantle (regolith) of Yaounde migma-
titic representative of the polyphase character of alteration processes observed in
all granito-gneissic formations of the world. This mantle has a multilayer system
whose soil sets could have a different hydrodynamic functioning. The values of
the hydraulic conductivity have a normal distribution and vary over four orders of
magnitude, attesting the variability of the hydraulic conductivity of the soft materi-
als. The hydrometric and piezometric characteristics indicate that the aquifer has
highly heterogeneous zones that would be related to the morphostructural character
of the region. The δ18O mean values of the rain (−2.47‰) and shallow groundwater
(−2.57‰) are not significantly different. They indicate that the recharge of the
shallow aquifer of Yaounde Precambrian basement is recent and is done directly by
infiltration of precipitation without any notable change due to evaporation.

Keywords: hydrological context, polyphase character, hydraulic conductivity,

morphostructural character, recharge, shallow aquifer, Precambrian basement,
Yaounde, Cameroon

1. Introduction

Hard rocks (plutonic and metamorphic rocks) constitute the basement of the con-
tinents and outcrop over more than 40% of the entire African continent [1–3]. About
90% of the Cameroon area is occupied by Precambrian basement rocks and the rest by
sedimentary formations [4]. The former were transformed in the humid tropical zone
into a thick alteration mantle (>20 m) due to the infiltration of rain on the ground sur-
face [5, 6]. The aquifers of these metamorphic formations (gneiss, migmatite, schist,
etc.) are exploited through wells and boreholes for the supply of drinking water to the

1
Groundwater Hydrology

populations of rural and urban areas. In Yaounde, as a little everywhere in sub-Saharan

Africa’s urban areas, exploitation of groundwater is an alternative to the deficit of
surface water resources. It represents, with the exception of the northern part of the
country, the main source of drinking water supply captured and distributed by the
national body in charge of water supply, that is, Camwater. This deficit is generally
due to joint action of population explosion, hydroclimatic conditions, and social
progress. Beyond its alternative character, the efficient exploitation of groundwater
resources, particularly those of basement areas, requires a better understanding of the
characteristics of their reservoir. Thus, two research programs were initiated by the

Figure 1.
Geographic location of the Yaounde region.

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Hydrogeological Characteristics of Shallow Hard Rock Aquifers in Yaounde (Cameroon, Central…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84631

Laboratory of Geology of Engineering and Alterology (LAGIA) of the Department of

Earth Sciences of the University of Yaounde I. These programs relate to (a) “physical,
hydrodynamic, and bacteriological characterizations of groundwater resources in the
sedimentary and basement areas of Cameroon” and (b) “the impact of climate change
and human activities on the water resources of Cameroon.” The activities carried out
within the framework of these programs are more implemented in the alterites of the
geological formations of the South Cameroon Plateau specifically those of the region
of Yaounde and its surroundings [7–12]. In fact, because of the deficit service of the
water distribution network, the groundwater of shallow unconfined aquifer consti-
tutes, for many households in this region, one of the main sources of water supply.
This chapter is a review of the main results obtained during the research carried
out in the aquifers of the Pan-African basement of the Yaounde series in Central
Africa. It is a synthesis of the results of the Theses [4, 13–17], DEA, DESS, and
Master [11, 18, 19] studies focusing on the hydrogeological context of the upper
part of the weathered and cracked basement of the Mfoundi watershed, which
includes 11 sub-basins, Anga’a and Mingosso in Mefou (Figure 1). This compilation
makes it possible to fill the gaps and/or to improve the knowledge of the aquifers
of the weathered mantle in humid tropical zone, particularly in this part of South
Cameroon facing the problems of drinking water supply.

2. Geographical and geological setting

The Yaounde region is located between latitudes 3°45′ and 4°00′ N and longitudes
11°20′ and 11°40′E (Figure 1). It has a humid tropical climate marked by two rainy
seasons (mid-March to mid-June, mid-September to mid-November) alternating
with two dry seasons (mid-November to mid-March, mid-June to mid-September)
unevenly distributed. This region is located in the South Cameroonian Plateau
(average altitude 750 m) and dominated by smooth rocky hills (>800 m) with large

Figure 2.
Geological units of the southern domain of the North-Equatorial Pan-African Chain (modified after [22]).

3
Groundwater Hydrology

convex slopes relayed by large swampy valleys (<700 m) of different widths (ranging
from 50 to 150 m) [5]. The vegetation corresponds to a semi-deciduous forest [19]
that has been degraded and replaced by traditional plants in urban areas.
The region of Yaounde by its rapid extension is drained to the north by the
Foulou tributary of the Sanaga river and to the south by the Mefou, tributary of
the Nyong river. The Mefou drains the urban part of Yaounde and has for tributary
Anga’a to the southeast and Mfoundi in the center of the city (Figure 1). The latter
flows along an oriented fracture N30 at N40 in downstream and N0 at N10 in
upstream [13]. The Yaounde group constitutes a part of the Central African Mobile
Zone (CAMZ) and is Pan-African in age [20, 21]. It is limited in its southern part by
the Congo Craton and includes the series of Mbalmayo-Bengbis-Ayos and Yaounde
(Figure 2) [22]. Metaplutonites and metasediments constitute the migmatitic sets
of the Yaounde series [23] metamorphosed between 911 and 1127 Ma [24]. On these
rocks, two geomorphologically controlled systems developed: (i) a lateritic system
on the hillside and (ii) a hydromorphic swamp system [25].

3. Structure of the alteration mantle (shallow aquifer)

Basement environments have local variations in thickness of weathered mate-

rials (alterites). Their formation depends on the geological facies, the rainfall,
the geomorphology, and the latitude [1]. Several authors [3, 26–29] have realized
descriptions of alteration profiles in various regions of the world. These authors
agree that the geological environment of the basement aquifers comprises two
main stratiform horizons parallel to the paleo-surface contemporaneous with the
weathering processes. From the bottom up, there is a fissured/fractured compart-
ment above the fresh rock and an altered compartment or regolith. In the humid
tropical zone, rock alteration leads to the formation of lateritic profiles [6, 30, 31].
The distinct horizons developed within it depend on short- or long-term altera-
tion processes [5, 6]. The generic model of the weathering mantle of the Yaounde
geological formations belongs to the lateralization regime and is identical to
whatever the lithology is [5, 25, 32]. It is composed of the base toward the top, of a
(Figure 3):

• Weathering set (5 m and more) constituted, from bottom to top, of:

○ Isalterite or coarse saprolite (2 m and over) with preserved parent rock
structure and overlying fresh gneiss at the base; the alteration front is
surmounted by a laminated part; there are relics of the original rock (quartz,
rutile, and disthene) and the development of a fissured system parallel to the
original orientation; and the fissures are millimeter and filled with alteration
products composed of kaolinite and oxyhydroxides of iron and alumina.
○ Alloterite or fine saprolite (1–2 m), consisting of goethite and hematite and
with ghosts of original minerals; this horizon has, in places, small depres-
sions or alveoli which are dry at the edge of the nodular horizon above or
present a water circulation when they seem to mark the transition with
the soft level; these cells are comparable to karst forms described by [33].
They are, respectively, characterized by the rarity or the absence of altera-
tion products at the level of these pseudo karts, and the presence of a water
circulation can explain the departure of the finest materials.

• Glebular set of iron oxyhydroxide accumulation and kaolinitic clay, set of iron
redistribution and deferrugation; he understands, from bottom to top:
4
Hydrogeological Characteristics of Shallow Hard Rock Aquifers in Yaounde (Cameroon, Central…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84631

Figure 3.
Graphic illustrating the macroscopic organization of the alteration profile.

○ A lower nodular material (ferruginous nodule litho-relictual dominant,

irregularly shaped platelet)
○ The iron duricrust blocks with facies varying according to the sites
○ A heterogeneous upper nodular material

• Loose superficial level of variable thickness depending on the site (1–6 m); it is
sandy-clay (predominantly kaolinite, hematite, and goethite) and red in color,
red-brown to red-yellow. It may be absent where the glebular set is developed
or outcrop.

The iron crust hillocks appear between 700 and 800 m of altitude [25]. These
hillocks correspond, at the level of each sub-basin of the Mfoundi, to areas of high
5
Groundwater Hydrology

altitudes (760–800 m) and moderate altitude ridges on the slopes (740–760 m). The
sandy clay-sandy layer has a thickness between 2 and 47 m. Soil profiles are gener-
ally thicker (>20 m) in areas where these topographic shelves are observed and less
thick (<5 m) in areas with high topography (>850 m) where the fissured/fractured
compartment is by places observed. These different regional shelves are the result of
successions of alteration and erosion phases (biostasis and rhexistasia) [5, 6]. These
mounds are separated by flat valleys including the Mfoundi Valley. The distribution
of the shelves with respect to the Mfoundi watercourse shows a predominance of
the highest mounds on the right bank (770–800 m) and the lowest ones on the left
bank (see Figure 1).

4. Hydrodynamic properties of shallow unconfined aquifer

Various techniques, as reported in the literature, are used to determine the

hydrodynamic properties of aquifers in basement areas in general and its superficial
part in particular. They include but are not limited to field methods (pumping test,
slug test and tracer test, Porchet test) [12, 22, 34]; laboratory and mathematical
methods [35], empirical formulas [36], and regional methods [37, 38]. Even though
accurate estimation of hydrodynamic proprieties (effective porosity, permeability,
and transmissivity) may be conducted in the field environment, poor knowledge
of aquifer geometry sometimes limits their potential application [39]. The general
characteristics of the altered compartment of the hard rock show that the alterites are
of sandy-clay nature and have a generally low hydraulic conductivity but significant
water retention capacities [29, 37]. These alterites show a heterogeneity marked by
a range of variation in hydraulic conductivity between 10−8 and 10−5 m/s [28, 35,
40, 41], depending on the clay content which is low in the laminate level (base of
saprolite). The variation of this hydraulic conductivity is related to topography and a
weathering processes [43]; [12, 30] and presents elsewhere a decrease with the depth
of the soil. This decay obeys, depending on the case, a power law or an exponential
function [31, 44–47]. Transmissivity is a function of the thickness of the saturated
zone and varies between 10−6 and 10−2 m2/s [1, 31]. The altered compartment (alter-
ite) ensures, when saturated, a capacitive function, and its porosity is considered an
“interstice” type [34]. The effective porosity depends on the geology and structure of
the alteration profile and varies between 3 and 10% [27, 28, 38, 41].
The work leading to the determination of the hydraulic conductivity (based on
the Porchet tests) in the Yaounde weathering formations is in majority carried out
at depths between 0 and 100 cm. In “classical” soil profiles (with low rhexistasia),
these depths generally correspond to bioturbated soils where the permeabilities
are, in general, higher. In the case of this study, the morphopedological data of the
studied area indicate that the processes of alteration or erosion make appear, in
places, the glebular set or alteration set in surface [5, 11]. The hydraulic conductivi-
ties corresponding to these depths are therefore representative of the whole subsur-
face aquifer. In addition, depth investigation data (beyond 8 m), based on pumping
tests or slug tests, indicating the level/horizon actually investigated, were also taken
into account in the hydraulic description of this aquifer. Hydraulic conductivity
values from infiltration tests range from 10−7 to 10−3 m/s [12, 36]. The normal
distribution (Figure 4) of the hydraulic conductivity values is unimodal and varies
over four orders of magnitude, attesting the variability of this propriety of the loose
materials. At the scale of the soil profile (Figure 3), the hydraulic conductivity
varies between 10−6 and 10−4 m/s in the loose superficial level, 10−5 and 10−4 m/s in
the glebular set, 10−7 and 10−6 m/s in alloterite, and 10−6 and 10−5 m/s in isalterite
horizon [11, 17]. At the well scale (slug test), these values vary from 5.13 × 10−6 m/s

6
Hydrogeological Characteristics of Shallow Hard Rock Aquifers in Yaounde (Cameroon, Central…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84631

Figure 4.
Histogram of hydraulic conductivity distribution determined by Porchet hydraulic tests (constant head).

in the glebular set [36] to 5.8 × 10−5 m/s in saprolite [17] for a transmissivity of
2.3 ± 1.5.10−4 m2/s [8]. The effective porosity determined at the sample scale is 7.4%
[47]. These properties are important for the movement of shallow groundwater,
both in the altered compartment (regolith) and in the underlying bedrock [30, 48].

5. Hydrodynamic of the weathering mantle

5.1 Hydrogeological levels

The hydrodynamics of the alteration mantle in the tropical zones present, glob-
ally, two hydrogeological levels illustrated in Figure 3. These distinctions are based
on the hydraulic characteristics of confining layers.

5.1.1 Perched aquifer of iron crust

The iron crust has alveolar permeability due to its structure and fracture perme-
ability due to its dismantling [48]. It promotes rapid infiltration into areas where
it is preserved from subsequent erosion. The voids present below the indurated
level (Figure 3) can create a strong permeability contrast with the altered level
(alloterite), giving rise to a locally perched aquifer with a few sources that exhibit
an epikarst-type function [3]. In the case of heavy precipitation, the temporary
water table in this aquifer can be loaded under the iron crust and give rise locally to
artesian sources [48].

5.1.2 Aquifer of alterite

Its hydrodynamic properties (high porosity and low permeability) give it the
capacitive function of the aquifer system [3, 17]. Seepage areas may be locally
observed on outcrops of laterites during high water events [48]. Its lower part
(coarse saprolite), composed of very weathered rock and relatively healthy blocks,
facilitates the circulation of water. This gives it a transmissive function, thus feeding
the main resurgences of the slopes and the streams base flow. The rates obtained

7
Groundwater Hydrology

in the aquifer of alterites are of the order of 1 m3 h [49]. The distinction between
different types of aquifers is often difficult. It is necessary to have data about sub-
surface lithology, water levels, and hydraulic parameters of aquifer and confining
layers for identifying a particular type of aquifer.

5.2 Hydrometry and piezometry

The common groundwater structures used to study the hydrodynamic opera-

tion of aquifers are wells, springs, and boreholes. Wells are generally dug to the
base of loose alterite as the springs emerge either between the alloterite and the
overlying horizon or between the isalterite (coarse saprolite) and the upper fis-
sured horizon (saprock). Boreholes most often pick up the basement or basement-
alterite system whose behavior is sometimes comparable to that of a shallow
unconfined aquifer [41]. The data presented in this work relate only to springs
and wells. The discharges of springs vary between 0.04 and 6.2 m3/h against 0.06
and 0.5 m3/h in the wells. The recession coefficients of springs vary between
0.001 and 0.016/d against 0.06 and 0.39 m/month at wells [11]. Springs emerging
on the coarse saprolite-saprock continuum generally have the highest flow rates
[11]. This observation is consistent with that of the other authors [26, 35, 38]
which indicates that it is at fissured horizon that the hard rock aquifers owe their
productivity. At the lithological scale, the order of magnitude of productivity of
the springs is between 0.03 and 3.2 m3/h and between 0.03 and 6.2 m3/h, respec-
tively, in metaplutonites and metasediments. This difference of a factor of 2 is not
significant with the depths of groundwater which vary between 0.0 and 17.7 m,
with an average of 5.7 ± 6.2 m in the whole of the area. In the Mfoundi watershed,
these depths differ by about 4 m between the two banks either between 0.0 and
13.5 m on the right bank or 0.1 and 17.7 m on the left bank. Its hydrodynamic
characteristics indicate that the aquifer has, in places, highly heterogeneous areas.
The ancient tectonic structuring E-W at NW-SE (592 Ma at 658 Ma [24]) controls
the orientation of the hydrographic network. Thus, the landscape form, which is
shaped by the hydrographic network, is at the origin of the upstream-downstream
underground flows conforming to the outline of the topography, namely, NNE,
NS, EW, and ESE to SE [11]. The average piezometric amplitudes corresponding
to this altitudinal distribution range between 1.3 and 3.1 m in the summit zones,
between 0.7 and 1.1 m in the mid-slope zones, and between 0.3 and 0.6 m in the
valleys where the watercourse is generally the imposed potential [11]. The seasonal
dynamics of the Yaounde shallow unconfined aquifer (alterite) are, in general,
similar to those observed in the basement zone, in humid tropical climates [11,
49–51]. The piezometric increases are observed during the great rainy season and
vice versa during the dry season (Figure 5). The discharge of the aquifer evolves
according to an exponential law characteristic of environments with high inertia.
This inertia and/or the continuous/discontinuous nature of the aquifer reservoir
may be at the origin of piezometric anomalies (Figure 6) characterized by a
piezometric increase in the dry season and a decrease in the rainy season [52].
According to [42], these piezometric anomalies indicate areas of high transmis-
sivity. The relationship between well and springs behavior and rainfall has a lag of
about 1 month (Figures 5 and 6) that can be attributed to morphopedological pro-
cesses. Some authors attribute this lagging to delayed drainage between recharge
and drainage areas [50] and the evapotranspiration of one part of the rain, so the
degree of soil moisture during the periods proceeding rainy phases [51]. Some
wells have a rapid response to precipitation (Figure 6). This rapid response of the
water table to rainfall depends on the geological units [53] or the water-level posi-
tion [54]. This position classifies the water table at local, regional, and continental

8
Hydrogeological Characteristics of Shallow Hard Rock Aquifers in Yaounde (Cameroon, Central…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84631

Figure 5.
Graphic illustrating the evolution of the average values of the flow of the sources and the fluctuations of the
piezometric levels in the Olezoa watershed (2010–2011). PE = effective precipitation, RFU = available water
content of the soil.

Figure 6.
Graphic illustrating the evolution of the groundwater depths of some dug wells showing the piezometric
anomaly in the Olezoa watershed (2010–2011).

scales. Indeed, the character of the water table is fundamental to conceptualize

the groundwater flow systems and to examine the connections between ground-
water, surface water, and climate [55]. Unfortunately, studies on the classification
of groundwater at various scales are limited throughout the Mfoundi basin and
surrounding areas.
However, ongoing work in the Olezoa watershed has identified two topographic
scales highlighting the concept of hierarchical groundwater flow systems [56].
Beyond this hierarchy, the two scales nevertheless suggest that the piezometric
surface is much more controlled by the topography than by the recharge. In the first

9
Groundwater Hydrology

case, water table generally coincides with the topographic surface, and the depths of
water table are small. In the second case, the depths are high, and the water table is
totally disconnected from the topography [54].

5.3 Estimation of aquifer recharge

In the humid tropical zones, the fluctuation of groundwater levels in weath-

ered layer (alterites) is controlled to varying degrees by effective rainfall [51],
the streams, topography [11, 57], the thickness of the saturated portion of the
saprolite [58], and pumping extracting [57]. Fluctuations in groundwater levels
are dynamic responses of the system to recharge (input water) and discharge
(loos water) [57]. The evolution of the discharge according to an exponential
law (Figures 5 and 6) is characteristic of a water table fed mainly by vertical
contributions [59]. Several approaches are used to evaluate these input water
(recharge/infiltration) including empirical methods, base flow measurement
methods, water-table fluctuation (WTF) method, chloride balance method,
soil moisture method, isotope method, or mathematical methods [49, 57]; [60].
The application of some of these methods in the Yaounde area indicates that the
recharge of shallow aquifer of Yaounde migmatitic basement is recent and is done
directly by infiltration of precipitation without any notable change due to evapo-
ration [61]. The average isotope contents of 18O of rain and shallow groundwater
are, respectively, −2.47 and −2.57‰ Vs-SMOW [61] with annual and monthly
isotope signature differences in precipitation values [62]. Groundwater recharge
appears to occur in May, October, and November (Figures 5 and 6) and increase
from 30 mm/yr in the lowland to 40 mm/yr in the highland [60]. The infiltra-
tion coefficient varies between 5.7 and 7.5% according to the chlorine balance
method [60, 61], 6% with the WTF [17], and between 5 and 23% according to the
Thornthwaite method with an available water content of the soil (RFUmax) of
100 mm [14, 15, 17].

6. Hydrogeological model of the weathered mantle of Yaounde

migmatitic basement

This model is based on the following observations:

• A thick weathered mantle with two hydrogeological levels within it.

• The iron crust hillocks appearing between 740 and 760, between 760 and 780,
and between 780 and 800 m.

• An altimetric phase shift of the topographic shelves between the two banks of
the Mfoundi watercourse, showing a Miocene flattening surface [63].

• A variation of the piezometric surface related to this altimetric phase shift, but
the piezometric level is close to the ground surface.

• Recharge to groundwater is by direct infiltration of rain into the altered aquifer

to the fractured aquifer. This is more important on the high points where the
piezometric fluctuations are high.

All these observations are summarized in Figure 7.

10
Hydrogeological Characteristics of Shallow Hard Rock Aquifers in Yaounde (Cameroon, Central…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84631

Figure 7.
Conceptual hydrogeological model of the weathered mantle of Yaounde migmatitic basement.

7. Conclusion

Hydrogeological studies in the city of Yaounde and its environs are conducted in a
context where the extension of public drinking water supply does not follow unregu-
lated urbanization, fueled by population growth, and internal migration. The compi-
lation and analysis of the information acquired during these studies allowed to propose
an image of the hydrogeological characteristics of the alteration formations of this city.
The weathered mantle of migmatitics of the Pan-African series of Yaounde presents
the characteristics of a hard rock aquifer in a humid tropical environment. A perched
aquifer is identified, overlying the alterite aquifer and a hydraulic conductivity
decreasing with the depth of the soil. The upper part of the weathered mantle (rego-
lith) is sometimes assimilated to a homogeneous aquitard under which the saprock
aquifer develops. This mantle shows an old alteration resulting from the dismantling
of old lateritic systems on the one hand and, on the other hand, a polyphase alteration
model, with relatively recent alterites developed on a morphology presenting a sig-
nificant relief. If this structure is similar to those of the granito-gneissic formations of
the world (India, France, other African countries), there are nevertheless specificities
that can be related to the local scale to those of limestone environments. Indeed, the
solubility of silicates in a humid tropical environment allows the formation of voids or
microreliefs of weathering. These microreliefs can have a local influence on the hydro-
dynamism of the shallow aquifer (regolith). Hydrodynamic characteristics indicate a
recent recharge by direct infiltration of precipitation without any notable change due
to evaporation. These highlight the effect of several forms of heterogeneities that are
related to the relief model and to the physical and hydraulic properties of the terrain.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank †Dr. H.B. Djeuda Tchapnga for initiating research programs;
some of whose results have been synthesized and presented in this chapter.

11
Groundwater Hydrology

Conflict of interest

No conflict of interest.

Author details

Jules Rémy Ndam Ngoupayou3, André Firmin Bon1,2,3*,

Guillaume Ewodo Mboudou2,3, Nasser Ngouh Abdou3
and Georges Emmanuel Ekodeck3

1 Department of Meteorology, Climatology, Hydrology and Soil Science, National

Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Maroua, Cameroon

2 Department of Hydraulics and Water Control, National Advanced School of

Engineering, University of Maroua, Maroua, Cameroon

3 Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde I,

Yaounde, Cameroon

*Address all correspondence to: bon_andr@yahoo.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

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Hydrogeological Characteristics of Shallow Hard Rock Aquifers in Yaounde (Cameroon, Central…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84631

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17
Chapter 2

Multivariate Pollution in the

Coastal Aquifer of Lebna area,
Northeastern Tunisia
Amira Ziadi, Najla Hariga Tlatli
and Jamila Tarhouni

Abstract

Anthropogenic contamination and excessive water consumption endanger an

overexploitation of groundwater, which causes groundwater mineralization in
coastal aquifer of Lebna area. Consequently, the salinity of groundwater reserves
increases and creates big economic, agricultural, and social problems. Moreover,
agricultural activities are the main source of nitrate, sulfate, and potassium ions and
contribute to groundwater salinization and contamination with increasing chloride
and nitrate concentrations. The objectives of this research are to determine the main
source of groundwater salinization in coastal aquifer of Lebna area to not confuse
between seawater intrusion and fertilizer effects and to determine the salinity
effects on the ecosystem. To reach this goal, several geological tools and hydrogeo-
logical data are used in combination with geochemical and geophysical methods.

Keywords: coastal aquifer, seawater intrusion, agricultural contamination,

multiple approaches, mineralization, vertical electrical soundings, stable isotopes,
molar ratio, ecosystem

1. Introduction

Around the world, the coastal areas contribute most significantly to agriculture,
tourist, and demographic activities. However, coastal aquifer areas are threatened by
many factors such as population growth leading to increased water demand, chang-
ing climatic conditions (longer periods of drought), shoreline retreat, and tidal effect
as well as overexploitation (more agricultural production) and anthropogenic activity
(pollution by fertilizers, return flow of contaminated irrigation water and hydraulic
barriers like dams). All these factors create seawater intrusion, which then contami-
nates groundwater through mineralization, depletion of groundwater storage, and
salinization of soil and crops causing ecosystem changes. Saltwater intrusion is one of
the major environmental problems in coastal areas due to the serious and irreversible
effects on the quality of the water used for drinking and irrigation purposes.
Actually, there exist several processes and natural mechanisms that can procure
the mineralization process in the coastal aquifer; the most important causes are the
seawater intrusion [1, 2], the sea-level-rise effect [3, 4], the up-coming of salt ground-
water from deep underground layers [5–7], the direct and indirect ion exchange [8, 9],
the variable density flow effect [10, 11], and salt water irrigation return flow [12, 13].

19
Groundwater Hydrology

Several authors from the world have used several approaches to study and
manage the mineralization problem in coastal aquifer such as geophysical and geo-
chemical techniques, conceptual and mathematical modeling, and analytical and
numerical methods [1, 2, 14]. Generally, there is confusion between researchers in
the determination of the principal origin of groundwater salinization in the coastal
aquifer where the coastal area recognizes an intensive use of fertilizers.
In North Africa, coastal aquifers serve as major sources of freshwater supply in
many countries, especially in arid and semi-arid zones.
Tunisia, located in eastern North Africa, undergoes the influence of two
types of climate: the Mediterranean in the north and the Saharan in the south.
Tunisia is known by a spatial and temporal variability of water resources and
is menaced by relatively limited renewable water resources. In fact, Tunisia
is one of the countries that are facing the problem of marine intrusion in the
coastal areas where groundwater is intensively used for irrigation. Furthermore,
farming consumes 80% of water resources, especially groundwater resources
in the coastal areas. Numerous studies of the salinization processes in Tunisia
are elaborated based on several approaches and show the phenomenon of
marine invasion may extend over several kilometers inland, jeopardizing coastal
groundwater supplies in these areas such as the coastal aquifer of Nabeul-
Hammamet in northeastern Tunisia [15], the coastal Teboulba aquifer in the
eastern Sahel of Tunisia [16], the shallow coastal aquifer of the Djeffara plain in
southeastern Tunisia [17].
The study area is the coastal aquifer of Lebna plain, located in northeastern
Cap-Bon, Tunisia. It is characterized by very intense agricultural activities (veg-
etables and spices), population growth, and a developing economy, all of which
have greatly increased freshwater demand. Moreover, in recent years, the study area
has seen significant changes in water and land use: some wells have been abandoned
due to salty groundwater; new crops and animals have moved closer to the sea, and
brackish soil and water have surrounded the river. In addition, groundwater deple-
tion and high electrical conductivity values appeared near the coastal part of the
aquifer, suggesting that seawater intrusion may occur [18, 19].
Hence, this work aims to determine the principal sources of groundwater miner-
alization and to identify the salinity effects to ecosystem in the Lebna area.

2. Study area

The study area, Lebna coastal plain, is part of the Lebna watershed located
in northeastern Tunisia (Figure 1). It is near the Korba watershed, within the
eastern coastal plain of Cap-Bon in northeastern Tunisia. It is surrounded by the
Mediterranean Sea along the eastern border, the Djebel Sidi Abdurrahman anticline
in the west, and the cities of Menzel Heur and Tafelloune in the northeast and
southeast, respectively.
The study area is recognized by an important crop production than industrial
production. Consequently, the irrigated areas are extended which increased the
water irrigation demand. In addition, Lebna River is the main hydrology network in
the Lebna plain, where in the upstream of Lebna River, a big dam was implemented
in 1986 with a big water storage capacity to provide water demand. In fact, Lebna
River receives water flux only during Lebna dam spill.
The area is also characterized by a semi-arid climate, an annual mean tempera-
ture of 22°C, and a highly variable annual average precipitation between 400 and
450 mm, thus resulting in the unsustainability of its water resources [20].

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Multivariate Pollution in the Coastal Aquifer of Lebna area, Northeastern Tunisia
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84712

Figure 1.
Geographical location of study area.

The outcropping formations of the coastal area in the Lebna plain contain
Mio-Plio-Quaternary sediments as shown in Figure 2. The first unit, the lower
Miocene, has detrital deposits known as the Fortuna formation. The middle
Miocene is composed of lenticular sandstones and marls with lignite levels called
the Saouaf Formation. In the study area, the Upper Miocene is absent. The sec-
ond unit, the transgressional marine Pliocene, which represents the main aquifer
and has sandstone facies Astian or Porto Farina, whose outcrops are mainly
composed of sandstone-sand-marl alternations topped by sandstone and sand
[21]. Finally, the Quaternary deposits are generally formed by crusts, beaches,
and consolidated dunes and are usually composed of two units: the lower unit
of Quaternary marine facies corresponding to the Tyrrhenian outcrops along
the east coast formed by the superposition of two cycles of marine sandstone
limestone and sandstone dunes [22]. The upper unit is mainly composed of the
Quaternary continental extending along the river which is formed of a crust of
white limestone.
The coastal aquifer of Lebna area is typically unconfined aquifer consisting
of Quaternary deposits whose thickness exceeds 100 meters and Pliocene sands
underlying bedrock, which are composed of marl.

21
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 2.
Geological field of study area.

3. Materials and methods

A total of 38 water samples were collected from the Lebna aquifer as plotted in
Figure 1. The wells were selected to be uniformly distributed throughout the study
area. The groundwater samples are picked from active shallow wells where water
depth ranges between 2 and 35 m (after stabilization of the physical parameters), in
three similar and rinsed polyethylene bottles of 100 ml.
Then, several physical parameters are measured in situ for each groundwater
sample. After that, the samples were filtered using 0.2 μm siring filters while

Parameters Methods

pH, temperature (T °C), electrical conductivity (EC Multiparameter probe

mS/cm), and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP
mV)

Nitrate (NO3), chloride (Cl), and sulfate (SO4) Ion chromatograph analyzer (SHIMADZU Co. Ltd.,
HIC-SP/VP Super)

Bicarbonate (HCO3) The titration method with sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

Magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission
potassium (K) spectrometer ICP-AES (Nippon Jarrel-Ash Co., Ltd.
Model ICAP-757)

Stable isotope oxygen (18O) and deuterium (2H) Mass spectrometry analyzer

Table 1.
Physicochemical analysis method of water samples.

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Multivariate Pollution in the Coastal Aquifer of Lebna area, Northeastern Tunisia
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chemical parameters are analyzed in laboratory as described in Table 1. Moreover,

groundwater samples are kept at 4°C in an ice box with dry ice during the transmis-
sion to the Hydrology Laboratory of Tsukuba University, Japan.
During the survey, the edge (cm) and the depth of water-Table W-T (m) were
determined for each well.
Quality was ensured by taking and analyzing duplicates and blank samples and
by keeping ion balance errors within ±10%.
Meanwhile, geophysical characteristics were investigated in the study area using
the vertical electrical sounding (VES) method by SYSCAL RII equipment based
on 14 vertical electrical soundings carried out in the study area along and around
Lebna River.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Groundwater geochemistry characterization

A statistical analysis of eight ions and EC values are presented in Table 2. At

first, we found that the maximum concentrations of the analyzed ions are decreas-
ing in the order Cl > Na > Ca > SO4 > Mg > NO3 > K > HCO3. Consequently, the
most dominant ion is chloride.
Normally, fresh groundwater is dominated by Ca2+; but under specific condi-
tions, an increase in Cl− concentration was considered as an indicator of a salinity
trend and as a possible seawater intrusion in coastal aquifer [13, 23].
Then, for all groundwater samples, the Cl concentrations exceed the WHO
(World Health Organization) value for drinking water. Else, Na, Ca, SO4, Mg, NO3,
K, and HCO3 ion concentrations in mg/l for most groundwater samples exceed the
WHO value except for some well samples. As a result, the groundwater in Lebna
area is not suitable for drinking and for irrigation purposes especially for piment
and strawberry crops.
Meanwhile, the high NO3, K, and SO4 concentrations indicate the pollution of
groundwater by these ions, which may be due to an increase of agricultural activi-
ties and return flow from water irrigation.
Further, the EC values of the shallow aquifer range between 1.7 and 7.01 mS/cm.
They are heterogeneous and depend on their distance from the sea and the pumping
rate and the depth of wells.

Parameters Average WHO Max Min

−
Cl (mg/l) 1063.4 250 1910.5 316.29

Na+ (mg/l) 436 200 745.99 141.59

2+
Ca (mg/l) 332.35 52 550.57 109.07

SO42+(mg/l) 304.63 250 544.6 86.65

2+
Mg (mg/l) 87.37 0.88 153.25 28.94

NO3− (mg/l) 260.07 50 805.30 33.2

+
K (mg/l) 11.15 10 84.63 0.40

HCO3(mg/l) 4.45 20.5 9.55 1.58

CE (mS/cm) 268 — 7.01 1.70

Table 2.
Statistical analysis of the hydrochemical parameters of 38 groundwater samples from Lebna aquifer.

23
Groundwater Hydrology

In conclusion, we found that for most wells, the water salinity is unsuitable for
drinking and irrigation and we identify several origins of salinity and pollution in
studying aquifer.
In other parts, several correlation coefficients are established to measures how
several parameters can be explained by relationships between themselves and to
determine the main contributing elements to groundwater mineralization as shown
in Figures 3 and 4.
Figure 3 shows that EC has an important correlation coefficient with Na, Cl, Ca,
and Mg. Hence, these ions are the main contributors to groundwater salinization,
while we note a medium correlation coefficient with SO4 and EC and no significant
correlation between EC and NO3, HCO3 and K ions.

Figure 3.
Correlation between EC and eight chemical parameters.

Figure 4.
Correlation between eight chemical parameters.

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Multivariate Pollution in the Coastal Aquifer of Lebna area, Northeastern Tunisia
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Further, Figure 4 shows a high correlation coefficient between Na-Cl, Mg-Cl,

and Ca-Cl, and a moderate correlation between SO4-Ca and Mg-Ca. At this step, the
result proof of the main origin of Cl, Na, Mg, and Ca is the seawater intrusion and
water-rock dissolution by groundwater and/or cation exchange.
Whereas, the presence of K, SO4, and NO3 ions is probably related to the use of
mineral fertilizers.

4.2 Groundwater mineralization processes

There exist several methods and tools to provide the groundwater mineralization
processes but, in this work, we choose to use the Na/Cl molar ratio and the stable
isotope analysis to determine the principal source of groundwater salinization in
coastal aquifer of Lebna area.

4.2.1 Geochemistry analysis

The Na/Cl ratio and Cl concentration (mg/l) diagram is presented in Figure 5.

From this figure, we note that no samples have Cl concentrations lower than 230 mg/l,
which means that all water samples are salinized by several sources. Moreover, the
water samples are divided in two groups: the first is characterized by Na-Cl water type
as well as high Na/Cl ratios above the corresponding seawater dilution ratio R = 0.53
and a higher increase of Na concentrations than Ca. In the literature, these results
reflect a flushing of seawater by fresh water (freshening process). This process is
generated by a reverse cation exchange or/and from anthropogenic contamination
sources like the irrigation by salt or brackish water [1, 24, 9, 25].
The reverse cation exchange indicates that Ca is taken up by the sediment
exchanger and Na is released in the aquifer; X is the soil exchanger. The reverse
cation exchange equation was explained by [9]:

1 Ca 2+ + NaX → _
_ 1 CaX + Na+ (1)
2
2 2

The second group G2 of water samples was located below the seawater dilution
line (R = 0.53) and characterized by Na/Cl ratios lower than 0.53, the existence of

Figure 5.
Diagram plot of Na/Cl (mg/l) ratio and Cl (mg/l) concentrations for groundwater and surface water samples.

25
Groundwater Hydrology

both Ca-Cl, Na-Cl water types, as well as an important increase of Cl concentra-

tions and an increase of Ca and Mg ions. All these indicators proved that a cation
exchange took place while seawater intrusion flushed fresh groundwater. In this
case, sediment in contact with seawater adsorbed Na and released Ca in the aquifer
[9, 26, 1]. These samples of G2 indicated that a large proportion of groundwater was
affected by diluted seawater. The direct cation exchange reaction is demonstrated in
the following equation [9]:

Na + _1 Ca − X2 → Na − X + _1 Ca 2+
+
(2)
2 2

Furthermore, some groundwater samples had an Na/Cl ratio close to the seawa-
ter diluted line, which indicated a recent mixing of groundwater with seawater [13].

4.2.2 Stable isotopes

Stable isotopes of oxygen δ18O and deuterium δ2H are commonly used in the
local groundwater of Lebna Plain studies to identify the sources of recharge and to
describe the mixing process between saline and freshwater.
Fresh groundwater is generally depleted in both 18O and 2H (deuterium) relative
to seawater [1].
The delta diagram of oxygen 18 and hydrogen isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) is plot-
ted in Figure 6. The regional meteoric water line (RMWL) was calculated from
the weighed annual means of precipitation in Tunis-Carthage station, the nearest
global network for isotopes in precipitation (GNIP) station. RMWL follows the
linear regression [27]:

δ 2 Η = 8 ∗ δ 18 Ο + 12.4 (3)

The global meteoric water line (GMWL) equation is described by [28] as:

δ 2 Η = 8 ∗ δ 18 Ο + 10 (4)

From Figure 6, we conclude that stable isotope composition of the analyzed

groundwater samples from the study area revealed a large variability in the

Figure 6.
Delta diagram (δ2H vs. δ18O).

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Multivariate Pollution in the Coastal Aquifer of Lebna area, Northeastern Tunisia
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84712

Plio-Quaternary aquifer, suggesting significant differences in the origin as well as in

the groundwater evolution.
Further, the δ18O and δ2H contents of groundwater of the Plio-quaternary
aquifer in Lebna plain vary from −5.1 to −2.6% and from −26.46 to −12.51%,
respectively. This variation is controlled by local climatic parameters, including the
origin of the vapor mass, the re-evaporation during rainfall and the seasonal and
monthly precipitation [29–31].
In addition, the most important number of groundwater samples was falling
between the regional meteoric water line (RMWL) of Tunis Carthage station and
the global meteoric water line (GMWL) and were characterized by a depletion in
oxygen 18 and deuterium contents. This may confirm the hypothesis of an impor-
tant contribution of the meteoric water to the recharge from recent rains that would
be rapidly infiltrated into the saturated zone in the study aquifer. This rapid infiltra-
tion is consistent with the relatively high hydraulic conductivity that characterizes
the natural recharge zones of the aquifer [31, 32].
Moreover, the Lebna dam sea sample and the Lebna river sample were isotopically
enriched in oxygen 18 and deuterium. The stable isotope contents of the Mediterranean
Sea water were taken from the result published by [33], which was close to the GMWL.
Indeed, some groundwater samples were located under GMWL according to a
trendline with an equation.

δ 2 Η = 6.09 ∗ δ 18 Ο + 3.17 (5)

and R2 = 0.95. This low slope (inferior to 8) in the evaporation equation might be
an indicator of evaporation processes of the infiltrated water [34]. On the other part,
some groundwater samples closer to the Standard Mean Ocean Water SMOW pole
(δ18O SMOW = 0% and δ2H SMOW = 0%) indicated a probable seawater intrusion.
However, other groundwater samples were close to the first group, in which dif-
ferentiating between the mixture with salt water and that with the evaporated water
was difficult.
The plot of δ18O versus Cl− can be used to identify the seawater mixing with the
groundwater [35]. Most of the wells that have a large isotopic composition have high
levels of chloride ion concentrations [30]. Indeed, the 18O isotope provides a direct
means to identify and study the marine intrusion dynamics. Its relation to changes
in salinity is unambiguous.
In fact, the plot of δ18O versus Cl− of groundwater in the Lebna plain is presented
in Figure 7. From this figure, we distinguish four water groups in the study area:

• Samples in the left bottom with chloride concentration less than 1000 mg/l and
δ18O less than −4‰ were interpreted as groundwater recharged from direct
meteoric water.

• Samples in the left top were characterized by an increasing level of Cl concen-

tration in the groundwater with no significant change in δ18O content (still
less than −4‰). It could be attributed to the leaching of surface salt and the
irrigation water return flow.

• Samples in the right bottom with chloride concentration less than 1000 mg/l
and enriched in δ18O more than −4‰ resulted from evaporation processes.

• Samples at the right top of the diagram with enriched contents in δ18O values
(more than −4‰) and high chloride content (more than 1000 mg/l) might be
due to the infiltration of salt water into the wells located along the Lebna River
and in the wells close to the coastal part of the seawater intrusion.

27
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 7.
The plot of δ18O versus Cl−of the groundwater in the Lebna plain.

Consequently, the groundwater in Lebna plain is recharged by seawater intru-

sion and surface water (direct meteoric water, evaporated water and the irrigation
water return flow), which brings fertilizers during infiltration.
The seawater contribution to groundwater mineralization is determined by
the end-member mixing analysis EMMA method and varies between 1 and 10%
[36], while the contribution of fertilizers to groundwater mineralization is not yet
determined.

4.3 The extent of seawater intrusion

The geophysical method is used in this work to determine the freshwater-saltwater

interface and to prove the extent of seawater intrusion from the Mediterranean into
the aquifer. This method is used by several authors from the world [37–39].
In this chapter, 14 vertical electrical soundings (VES) as shown in Figure 8 were
carried out along Lebna River and perpendicular to coastal line. The field measure-
ments were carried out using direct current resistivity meter called SYSCAL R II,

Figure 8.
Geographical location of 14 vertical electrical soundings (VES) in the Lebna area.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84712

using Schlumberger array with AB/2 ranging from 0.5 to 400 m in successive steps.
Moreover, the lithology of the existing boreholes in the study area was collected
and the water table level for closer wells to electrical soundings was measured to
calibrate the geophysical results.

4.3.1 Principle of VES

The principle of the vertical electrical sounding method using SYSCAL RII equip-
ment is schematized in Figure 9. We conclude that the SYSCAL resistivity-meter is
placed in the central part of the sounding. Then, the metallic electrodes have to be
plugged into the ground as deep as possible to decrease the ground resistance, for
both the transmitting electrodes A and B and the receiving electrodes M and N [40].
A current IAB is transmitted between two grounded electrodes A and B, while a
voltage VMN is measured between the other ones: M and N electrodes. Finally, the
apparent resistivity RAB is computed automatically by the SYSCAL RII resistivity-
meter using the following formula and we move the electrodes to the next station
and start a new reading:

R AB = K × V MN / I AB (6)

Where K = 2 ∗ Pi / (1 / AM − 1 / AN − 1 / BM + 1 / BN) (7)

The apparent resistivity values have to be plotted on a logarithmic paper sheet,

to check how the new reading compares with respect to the previous ones, before
moving the A, B electrodes to the next measuring point. This step is done during
the survey. Then, the data are stored in the internal memory of the equipment after
each reading.
The sounding starts by small values of the AB line. For some values of the AB/2,
two readings for different values of MN/2 have to be taken to check the lateral varia-
tions of the resistivity of the surface. Ideally, both resistivity values are identical.
In other part, the depth of investigation varies from about 1/3 to 1/10 of the
length of the AB line. The variation of the depth of investigation is obtained by
increasing the length of the current line AB: small lines: shallow and long lines: deep.
The last step is the data transferred to a PC to process them, and run an inversion
model using PROSYS and Winsev software to interpolate the results and get layer
depths with resistivity. The resistivity values are correlated with the geological layers.

Figure 9.
The vertical electrical sounding principle for Schlumberger disposal.

29
Groundwater Hydrology

4.3.2 The 2D pseudo section

The result of the inverted resistivity values from the vertical electrical sound-
ings method is two 2D longitudinal pseudo-section of resistivity model along the
Lebna River. We focus our attention on one of these profiles as shown in Figure 10.
Further, the interpretation of resistivity profile is according to resistivity-water-
rock converted table, as well as water table level and EC measurement in the nearer
wells and borehole lithostratigraphic and geological fields.
The 2 D longitudinal pseudo section is based on the interpolated results from
seven VES (VES1, VES2, VES 3, VES4, VES5, VES 6, and VES7) and is oriented to
SE-NW from the sea to Lebna dam, perpendicular to the coastal line and parallel to
Lebna River. Figure 10 shows a heterogeneity of resistivity values along the pseudo-
section, which varies from 1 to 95 Ω.m.

• We conclude that for all the VES from VES 1 to VES 7, the resistivity starts
with a resistant layer (R > 25 Ω.m), which corresponds to the unsaturated
zone. Moreover, the variability of values depends on geological formation.
The highest resistivity values in the southeastern part correspond to the
wet Tyrrhenian limestone (from marine Quaternary deposits), and in the
northwestern part, they correspond to the highlighted crust and encrusting
(from continental Quaternary) as well as to the wet sand (from Pliocene
deposits).

• Whereas, more in depth, the resistivity value decreases (R < 15 Ω.m), and we
found a very conductive layer which corresponds to the aquifer.

• The lowest resistivity values varying between 10 and 1 Ω.m are located in the
VES nearer to the coast (500 m distance to the coastal line), especially for
VES1, VES2, VES3, and VES 4. Else, this result is combined with high electrical
conductivity values measured in the nearer wells to these electrical soundings
which prove the intrusion of seawater to the aquifer.

4.4 Mineralization and nitrate pollution effect on ecosystem

The surface water level of the Lebna River decreased as a result of limited rain-
water. Moreover, water quality is deteriorated due to multiple factors: water losses

Figure 10.
Longitudinal pseudo-section along Lebna River of interpolated resistivity values from VES results.

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Multivariate Pollution in the Coastal Aquifer of Lebna area, Northeastern Tunisia
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84712

Figure 11.
The pollution effect by the industrial discharges in the middle part of the Lebna River in winter season.

Figure 12.
The pollution effect by the industrial discharges in the middle part of the Lebna River in summer season.

from the Lebna dam, upstream of the Lebna River, and industrial discharge from
two factories located in the middle part of the Lebna River, as well as tidal effects.
Figures 11 and 12 show the pollution effects on Lebna River by the industrial
discharge in winter and summer seasons, respectively.
The effect of seawater intrusion to the ecosystem appeared in the downstream
part of Lebna River, where the downstream measurements showed an electrical
conductivity value of 45.3 mS/cm as opposed to a value of 54.1 mS/cm in the sea.
Furthermore, the EC value measured in the estuarial zone in 2011 was higher than
the electrical conductivity value of the sea [18]. Moreover, some halophyte crops
and crabs were also depicted in the estuarial zone. Else, crustacean species from
marine origins such as “Gammarus aequicaudata,” “Palaemonetes varians,” and
“Carcinus mediterraneus” were observed during survey [41]. All these indicators
show the salinization effect on ecosystem.
However, the fertilizer pollution effect to the ecosystem appeared also in the
estuarial zone on Lebna River. Furthermore, the runoff brings nitrate, phosphate,
chloride, and some pesticides which create a change in water, in soil quality, and in
ecosystem behavior [42]. Moreover, some new animal species have appeared in the
estuarial zone, such as “oligochaetes,” “Naïs,” and “Paranais” indicating the exis-
tence of nitrate pollution which comes from fertilizers.
The observations and results described above confirm the transformation of the
estuarial zone to a lagoon.

5. Conclusion

The aquifer chapter is very important because it can include several kinds of
aquifers from the world such as ALLUVIAL AQUIFER, karst AQUIFER, coastal

31
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aquifer, etc. Our study is a part of Aquifer chapter, which describes some problems
that can be found and threatened the coastal aquifers in the world.
The study area is a local coastal aquifer of Cap-Bon in the north-east of Tunisia.
The area has witnessed an over-exploitation by the irrigation demand which created
a quantitative and qualitative deterioration of the groundwater resources caused by
the mixing of salt and fresh waters. Furthermore, high chloride content as well as
high electrical conductivity values and low resistivity values have appeared near the
coastal part of the aquifer, suggesting that a seawater intrusion may occur.
Unfortunately, we found that the groundwater in Lebna plain was unsuitable for
drinking and agricultural purposes.
In this study, the use of statistical analysis and correlation between nine chemi-
cal parameters and Na/Cl molar ratio proved that a seawater intrusion as well as a
reverse cation exchange between Ca, Mg, and Na and water-rock dissolution had
influenced the groundwater salinity. Moreover, we showed that the agricultural
activities contributed to the groundwater mineralization in the Lebna area and were
the main source of NO3, SO4, and K ion concentrations.
In addition, the isotopic study showed that the Plio-Quaternary aquifer was
recharged directly by the infiltration of the meteoric water from the Tyrrhenian
consolidated dunes the sand deposits, the return of the water irrigation flow, the
evaporated surface water, and the seawater intrusion from the coast.
Moreover, the existence of crustacean species of marine origins in the down-
stream according to the high EC value of the Lebna River confirmed the transfor-
mation of the estuarial zone to a lagoon.
Moreover, with the geophysical vertical electrical sounding (VES) method, we
could note that the salinization in the coastal aquifer of the Lebna plain was due to
the seawater intrusion.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Regional Commissariat for Agricultural develop-

ment from Nabeul (CRDA) for providing us with borehole information from the
area of investigation. We would like to thank Dr. Maki Tsujimura, and Dr. Atsushi
Kawachi from Tsukuba University-Japan and Mr. Fathi Lachaal, assistant professor
at the Center for Research and Water Technologies (CERTE) for their collaboration.
Special thanks for Miss. Emna Trabelsi, INAT member and laboratory technician
LRSTE for all her efforts.

Notes and thanks

This paper is a part of my thesis research and a part of my research results of

5 years. I would thank my supervisors Professor Najla Hariga Tlatli and Professor
Jamila Tarhouni for their help, scientific advices, and monitoring during the years
of my thesis.

Abbreviations

mg/l milligrams per liter

Ω.m ohm meter
R apparent resistivity
V voltage

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Multivariate Pollution in the Coastal Aquifer of Lebna area, Northeastern Tunisia
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84712

I current
SMOW standard mean ocean water
R2 correlation coefficient
GMWL the global meteoric water line
GNIP global network for isotopes in precipitation
RMWL the regional meteoric water line
R seawater dilution ratio
X the soil exchanger
WHO World Health Organization
2H deuterium
18O stable isotope oxygen
ORP oxidation-reduction potential
mV milli volt
EC electrical conductivity
mS/cm milli siemens per centimeter
T° temperature
VES vertical electrical sounding
W-T water-table
HCO3 bicarbonate
Cl chloride
Ca calcium
Na sodium
Mg magnesium
K potassium
SO4 sulfate
NO3 nitrate

Author details

Amira Ziadi1*, Najla Hariga Tlatli1,2 and Jamila Tarhouni1

1 National Institute of Agronomy of Tunis, Tunisia

2 National School of Engineering of Tunis, Tunisia

*Address all correspondence to: ziediamira@yahoo.fr

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

33
Groundwater Hydrology

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s10040-016-1476-x M, Neal MAO, Mint HAM. Impact of
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[8] Werner AD, Bakker M, Post due to ocean surge inundation. Water
VEA, Vandenbohede A, Lu C, Resources Research. 2016;52(8):

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Multivariate Pollution in the Coastal Aquifer of Lebna, Northeastern Tunisia
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5794-5812. DOI: mensuels. Archive INM pour la période

10.1002/2016WR018814 de 1985-2005. Station Nabeul

[15] Trabelsi F, Ben Mammou A, [21] Ben Salem H. Handbook of Carte

Tarhouni J, Piga C, Ranieri G. Mint: géologique de la Tunisie au 1/50 000,
Delineation of saltwater intrusion zones feuilles Kélibia-Menzel Heurr n°16 et 23,
using the time domain electromagnetic Nabeul-Hammamet n°30 et n°37. 1998
method: The Nabeul-Hammamet
coastal aquifer case study (NE [22] Kchouk F. Handbook of
Tunisia). Hydrological Processes. Contribution à l’étude des formations
2013;27:2004-2020 dunaires de Dar Chichou (Cap Bon).
Notes du service géologique no. 25,
[16] Bouri S, Ben Dhia H. Mint: A thirty- Tunis: 10. 1982
year artificial recharge experiment in
a coastal aquifer in an arid zone: The [23] An TD, Tsujimura M, Phu VL,
Teboulba aquifer system (Tunisian Ha DT, Hai NV. Mint: Isotopic and
Sahel). Comptes Rendus Geoscience. hydrogeochemical signatures in
2010;342(1):60-74 evaluating groundwater quality in
the coastal area of the Mekong Delta,
[17] Trabelsi R, Abid K, Zouari K. Mint: Vietnam. In: Tien Bui D, Ngoc Do A,
Geochemistry processes of the Djeffara Bui HB, Hoang ND, editors. Advances
palaeo-groundwater (south eastern and Applications in Geospatial
Tunisia). Quaternary International. Technology and Earth Resources.
2011;xxx:1-13 International Conference on Geo-Spatial
Technologies and Earth Resources,
[18] Ziadi A, Tarhouni J, Tlatli N, Atsushi GTER 2017. Cham: Springer; 2018. DOI:
K, Mizuho T, Tsujimura M, Trabelsi 10.1007/978-3-319-68240-2_18
E. Salinization Assessment in The
Coastal Aquifer of Lebna Area (Cap- [24] Hsissou Y, Bouchaou L, Krimissa M,
Bon, North Eastern of Tunisia) Using Mudry J. Caractérisation de l’origine de
Geochemical, Isotopic and Geophysical la salinité des eaux de la nappe côtière
Methods. In: Proceedings of the 7th d’Agadir (Maroc). In: Proceeding of
International Conference on Water Première Conférence Internationale sur
Resources in The Mediterranean Basin l’Intrusion d'Eau salée et les Aquifères
(WATMED7); 08-11 October 2014, Côtiers, Contrôle, Modélisation et
Marrakech. Morocco: WATMED 2014; Gestion; 2001; Essaouira. Maroc, 8
p. 11. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4028.0166
[25] Vengosh A, Kloppmann W, Marei
[19] Ziadi A, Tarhouni J, Tlatli A, Livshitz Y, Gutierrez A, Banna M,
N, Tsujimura M, Kawachi et al. Mint: Sources of salinity and boron
A. Conceptualizing of seawater in the Gaza strip: Natural contaminant
intrusion in Lebna plain aquifer: Local flow in the southern Mediterranean
scale of coastal aquifer of Cap Bon using coastal aquifer. Water Resources
geophysical methods. In: Proceeding Research. 2005;41:W01013. DOI:
of 2nd International Conference on 10.1029/2004WR003344
Integrated Environmental Management
for Sustainable Development (2nd [26] Cardona A, Carrillo-Rivera JJ,
ICIEM); 27-30 November 2016; Sousse. Huizar-Alvarez R, Graniel-Castro
Tunisia: Volume 2: Water resources ISSN E. Mint: Salinization in coastal
1737-3638; pp. 752-754 aquifers of arid zones: An example
from Santo Domingo, Baja California
[20] INM Institut National de la Sur, Mexico. Environmental Geology.
Météorologie; Tableaux climatiques 2004;45:350-366

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[27] Zouari K, Chkir N. Mint: La [35] Kanagaraj G, Elango L, Sridhar

mesure du temps par le carbone 14 SGD, Gowrisankar G. Mint:
et par uranium- thorium. Outils Hydrogeochemical processes and
d’investigation dans les sciences de influence of seawater intrusion in
l’univers et de l’environnement. Revue coastal aquifers south of Chennai,
édité par Cité des Sciences. 2002:15 Tamil Nadu, India. Environmental
Science and Pollution Research.
[28] Craig H. Mint: Standards’ for 2018;25:8989. DOI: 10.1007/
reporting concentrations of deuterium s11356-017-0910-5
and oxygen 18 in natural water. Science.
1961;133:1702-1703 [36] Ziadi A, Hariga TN, Tarhouni J.
Mint: Mineralization and pollution
[29] Jouzel J, Koster RD, Suozzo RJ, sources in the coastal aquifer of Lebna,
Russell GL, White JWC, Broecker cap bon, Tunisia. Journal of African
WS. Mint: Simulations of the HDO Earth Sciences. 2019;151:391-402. DOI:
and H218O atmospheric cycles using the 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.01.004
NASA GISS general circulation model:
Sensitivity experiments for present-day [37] Kouzana L, Benassi R, Ben
conditions. Journal of Geophysical Mammoua A, Mint FMS. Geophysical
Research. 1991;96:7495-7507. DOI: and hydrochemical study of the
10.1029/90JD02663 seawater intrusion in Mediterranean
semi-arid zones. Case of the Korba
[30] Clark ID, Fritz P. Handbook coastal aquifer (cap-bon, Tunisia).
of Environmental Isotopes in Journal of African Earth Sciences.
Hydrogeology. New York, USA: Lewis 2010;58:242-254. DOI: 10.1016/j.
Publishers; 1997. ISBN: 1-56670-249-6 jafrearsci.2010.03.005

[31] Hamed Y, Dhahri F. Mint: Hydro- [38] Zouhri L. Mint: Geoelectrical

geochemical and isotopic composition structure and hydrogeological
of groundwater, with emphasis on investigations of the southern Rif
sources of salinity, in the aquifer system cordillera (Morocco). Hydrological
in north western Tunisia. Journal of Processes. 2010;24:1308-1317. DOI:
African Earth Sciences. 2013;83:10-12 10.1002/hyp.7592

[32] Abid K, Hadj Ammar F, Weise S, [39] Ziadi A, Hariga TN, Mint TJ. Use
Zouari K, Chkir N, Rozanski K, et al. of time-domain electromagnetic
Geochemistry and residence time (TDEM) method to investigate
estimation of groundwater from seawater intrusion in the Lebna coastal
Miocenee—Pliocene and upper aquifer of eastern cap bon, Tunisia.
cretaceous aquifers of southern Tunisia. Arabian Journal of Geosciences.
Quaternary International. 2014;xxx:1-12 2017;10:492. DOI: 10.1007/
s12517-017-3265-9
[33] Gat JR, Shemesh A, Tziperman E,
Hecht A, Georgopoulos D, Basturk O. [40] Available from: http://www.iris-
Mint: The stable isotope composition instruments.com/Pdf_file/Syscal_r2.pdf
of waters of the eastern Mediterranean
Sea. Journal of Geophysical Research. [41] Romdhane MS, Missaoui H.
1996;101(C3):6441-6451 Handbook of Rapport de diagnostic
des sites, Partie relative au site zones
[34] Fontes JCH. Mint: Isotopes du humides, Diagnostic hydrobiologique et
milieu dans les eaux naturelles. La Etude des peuplements. MedWetCoast
Houille Blanche. 1976;314:221 Conservation des Zones Humides

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Multivariate Pollution in the Coastal Aquifer of Lebna area, Northeastern Tunisia
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84712

Littorales et des Ecosystèmes côtiers du

Cap-Bon. 2001

[42] Chabbi M. Handbook of Rapport

de diagnostic des sites, Partie relative
à Population, économie locale et
utilisation de l’espace. MedWetCoast
Conservation des Zones Humides
Littorales et des Ecosystèmes côtiers du
Cap-Bon. 2001

37
Chapter 3

Analytical Study of Environmental

Impacts and Their Effects on
Groundwater Hydrology
Muhammad Salik Javaid, Laila Khalid
and Muhammad Zeshan Khalil

Abstract

The hydrology of the groundwater is not just the science of subsurface water
but also encompasses the rock strata and structure matrix in which it is contained.
It also deals with the natural and man-made activities that affect the quality and
quantity of subsurface water and physiology, geology, and minerology of the rock
structure as well as the effects of the environment, climate, and other physical and
natural forces trying to alter the subsurface water source in either way. Strategies
for management and upkeep of groundwater as a resource are also discussed for
sustainable and equitable usage by all stakeholders.

Keywords: hydrology, groundwater, subsurface water, aquifers, variations,

fluctuations, environment, meteorology, geohydrology

1. Introduction

For thousands of years, man has survived living in arid regions of the world
solely by skillfully managing that vital but scarce resource called water [1]. Out
of the two, the surface water and the groundwater, the groundwater has always
been more important for survival due to its intrinsic quality of natural preserva-
tion. Groundwater is a vital source of fresh water for domestic, agricultural, and
industrial use. Currently contribution of groundwater is almost 34% of the total
annual water supply. Water consumption is increasing day by day due to continuous
development of the economy, industrialization, and changes in life patterns, which
cumulatively results in shortage of usable water.
To meet the increasing water demands, reliance on groundwater has been
rapidly increasing, especially in the arid and semiarid regions leading to water
exhaustion and overconsumption of groundwater, causing ecological problems such
as decreased water levels, water pollution, seawater intrusion, and deterioration of
water quality. The recharge of groundwater occurs both naturally and artificially.
The natural recharge occurs through the process of infiltration where water perco-
lates from the surface to the bed of the aquifer. But due to rapid development and
stupendous growth of population in the recent past, the areas for natural infiltra-
tion have been lessening day by day; hence the scope for natural recharge of the
groundwater is also declining [2].

39
Groundwater Hydrology

The combination of decreasing water availability and increasing water demand

can lead to drastic water shortages. Groundwater exploration involves knowledge of
hydrological properties of various geological materials such as porosity, permeabil-
ity, storage coefficient, transmissivity, and specific yield or in other words holding
and discharge capabilities of geological materials.

2. Groundwater variations

In the nature, water resources and water demand are unevenly distributed both
spatially and temporally. It is these uneven distributions that make the groundwater
hydrology more complex and dynamic in its nature and form. Ironing out of the
variations and equitable juxtaposition of haves and have-nots in both demand and
resource is the ultimate goal of all hydrological knowledge.

2.1 Spatial variations

These variations in the groundwater levels are with respect to physical location
and space. Physical properties including type of soil, groundwater depth, porosity of
vadose zone, rainfall patterns, and hydrogeology tend to vary the groundwater recharge
spatially. Fluctuations in the groundwater levels are generally greater in the areas of
low drainage density than those in regions of moderate to high drainage density. The
factors like weathering intensity, presence of fractures, and drainage density control
the quantity of groundwater. In such regions groundwater flow and quantity are not
controlled by highly weathered dykes in shallow unconfined aquifers. The phenomena
like fracturing, weathering, and faulting increase the permeability of rocks and the
recharge which controls the fluctuations in groundwater levels. For the fluctuations
in groundwater levels in terrains of hard rocks, several studies have been carried out.
Fractured and weathered rocks carry the groundwater under unconfined conditions,
and the major source for groundwater recharge is rainfall. Due to downward seepage of
rainfall, the unconfined aquifers are recharged in the unsaturated zone [3].

2.2 Temporal variations

Variations in the phreatic levels, chemical concentration levels, biological con-

centration levels, and fluid properties of the groundwater may be described with
respect to time as seasonal variations and secular variations.

2.2.1 Seasonal variations

Such variations are periodic. The changes in the water level due to some seasonal
happenings such as rainfall, storms, and irrigation pumping are referred to as sea-
sonal variations. Water-level fluctuation in summer and winter is also considered
under the same type. The lowest variations in water levels occur in winter season,
while the highest occur during late spring. At the end of the irrigation season in an
irrigated area, the lowest variations in water levels normally occur where frozen
ground is not a factor. Figure 1 shows the variations in the water levels for frozen
ground areas in winter are periodic [4].

2.2.2 Secular variations

Such variations are nonperiodic and show the change in the water level over
several years, which cover the dry and wet seasons and the related groundwater

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Analytical Study of Environmental Impacts and Their Effects on Groundwater Hydrology
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88002

Figure 1.
Seasonal variations [4].

Figure 2.
Secular variations [4].

fluctuations. Long-term fluctuations in water levels are produced when rainfall is

above or below the mean, during alternating a series of dry and wet years. Figure 2
shows the long records of groundwater levels and rainfall and illustrates that
rainfall is not an accurate indicator of variations in groundwater levels [4].

3. Impacts of human activities

3.1 Urbanization

Groundwater, as the world’s most vital natural resource for the reliable provi-
sion of potable water supply, is affected by urbanization. Due to rapid urbanization
and increasing industrial activities, the need for fresh water has increased in the
past few decades. Almost 50% of the world population lives in urban areas, and

41
Groundwater Hydrology

the proportion is expected to increase in the coming decades. Urbanization brings

many benefits such as increased job and education opportunities, cultural activity,
and economic diversification. However, unplanned urban growth is also leading to
challenges such as the overexploitation of water resources. Furthermore, land-use
changes and anthropogenic activities such as surface sealing due to streets and
buildings, flood control, forest management, and irrigation modify the infiltra-
tion and movement of water. The authors [5] have shown that due to urbanization,
built-up area increased by 271%, water bodies decreased by 46%, and bare land
decreased by 129% in the study area. These modifications linked with urbanization
often lead to groundwater resource deterioration [6].
There are many conditions which interrupt the subsurface water balance, and as
a result groundwater levels are lowered. A few of such conditions are listed below:

a. Groundwater recharge is reduced by paving the surface areas and building the
storm sewers. When the surface area is paved, it stops the surface water entry
into the ground, and as a result the groundwater recharge is reduced. Also
when storm sewers are built, they store the amount of surface water, stop the
water entry into the ground, and result in reduction of recharge.

b. Pumping wells increase the groundwater discharge which results in lowering of

groundwater table.

c. Collection of wastewater in sanitary sewers also decreases the groundwater

recharge.

d.Huge reduction in groundwater recharge occurred nowadays due to excess

plastic wastage.

3.2 Excessive extraction

Groundwater is our major source of water. Due to climate change, rapid urban-
ization, industrial activities, and intensive agricultural practices have put a tremen-
dous pressure on groundwater. Groundwater depletion occurs when the pumping
rates are excessively higher than the rate of replenishment.
The extreme use of groundwater resources can have serious concerns, such
as uplifting and seismic activities, ecological environment deterioration, land
subsidence, vegetation degradation, livelihoods for rural poor, and food security
implications. In view of the shrinking groundwater resources, it is important to
develop effective techniques and methods to study the trend of groundwater storage
(increase/decrease) and its recharge-discharge relationship, which can support the
mitigating measures of overpumping shallow groundwater to ensure the sustainable
utilization of groundwater resources [7].

4. Environmental and natural impacts

4.1 Meteorological phenomena

Fluctuations in groundwater due to meteorological phenomena are caused by

atmospheric pressure, rainfall, wind, and frost. As stated by [8], aquifers are inher-
ently very resilient to atmospheric variations above ground, but climate adversely
alters the aquifer’s groundwater recharge, thus introducing uncertainties in spatial
pattern definitions.

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Analytical Study of Environmental Impacts and Their Effects on Groundwater Hydrology
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88002

4.1.1 Atmospheric pressure

Variations in atmospheric pressure produce fluctuations in wells penetrating

confined aquifers. There is an inverse relationship between atmospheric pressure
and water levels. It means that increase in atmospheric pressure will decrease the
water levels and vice versa. If the changes in the atmospheric pressure are expressed
in terms of a column of water, then the ratio between changes in water levels
and pressure is known as barometric efficiency of an aquifer. This efficiency is
expressed by the following equation:

B = γ ∆h / ∆pa (1)

where B = barometric efficiency of an aquifer, γ = specific weight of water

[981 N/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3], ∆h = change in piezo-metric levels, and ∆pa = change in
atmospheric pressure.
Discussions related to the effect of atmospheric pressure on confined and
unconfined aquifers assume that no delay occurs in the balance of pressure between
the aquifer and well. But in reality, the time required for movement of a finite
volume of water between the surrounding aquifers and well delays the transmis-
sion of atmospheric pressure change between the aquifer and well. This delay in
time depends on the properties of aquifer (i.e., storability and transmissivity) and
conditions of existing boreholes (i.e., well skin effects and well bore storage). Due
to imbalance of pressure between an aquifer and a well, at the instance of pressure
change, previous investigators have observed that these temporary imbalances in
the pressure can be treated as individual step changes in pressure applied at the well
[9]. Due to travel time for percolation and surface and subsurface losses, rainfall is
not considered as an accurate indicator for groundwater recharge. The travel time
for vertical percolation may vary from a few minutes for permeable formations with
shallow water tables to several years for low permeable formations with deep water
tables. The regions that lie between semi-humid and semiarid zones with seasonal
climatic conditions observe zero recharge in the groundwater due to rainfall [4].

4.1.2 Rainfall

In arid and semiarid regions, due to heavy rainfalls, groundwater recharge tends
to occur unlike those regions which are a combination of constant rate and periodic
behavior. Physical properties including type of soil, groundwater depth, porosity
of vadose zone, rainfall patterns, and hydrogeology tend to vary the groundwater
recharge spatially [10].

4.1.3 Wind

Wind blowing over the top of wells generates minor fluctuations in water levels.
It works on the principle of vacuum pump. When wind is blowing over the top of a
well casing, the air pressure within the well lowers down suddenly due to which the
water level rises quickly. Once the wind passes, the air pressure within the well rises
and water level falls [4].

4.1.4 Frost

It has been observed in the regions of extreme frost that shallow water tables
are reduced during the winter season and increased in early spring. These fluctua-
tions are observed due to the presence of frost layer above the water table. Due to

43
Groundwater Hydrology

capillary action and transfer of vapors to the frost layer, water moves upward from
water table during winter. Thermal gradient and the fact that at 0°C vapor pressure
over liquid water is greater than that over ice play an important role in the migration
of vapors. When mean air temperature reaches 0°C in early spring, the frost layer
begins thawing from the bottom due to which meltwater percolates down in the
water table [4].

4.2 Tides and seawater intrusion

Groundwater is an important source of fresh water with high quality for coastal
communities worldwide. These sources of fresh groundwater in the coastal com-
munities are highly affected by intrusion of seawater caused by excessive ground-
water extraction and rises in sea levels. Globally increasing population will lead to
rising demands of fresh water in the coming decades and will result in a decline of
groundwater sources gradually. Coastal flooding will also be increased due to rise in
sea levels, which may lead to seawater intrusion and coastal erosion, and as a result
it will affect the biodiversity and losses of wetland [11].
In response to the tides, sinusoidal fluctuations of groundwater levels occur
in the coastal aquifers which are in contact with the ocean. If a simple harmonic
motion varies the sea levels, a pattern of sinusoidal waves is propagated inland from
the submarine outcrop of the aquifer. The time lag of given maximum increases,
and inland amplitude of waves decreases with respect to distance [4].
In coastal regions, tidal forces acting on an adjacent groundwater are a com-
mon feature and can be important pore water phenomena in tidal and saturated
zones. Near the top of the water table, the entry of saltwater and variations in the
concentration of solutes can be increased due to tidal forces in shallow unconfined
aquifers. Comparative studies between tidal and water-level variations show that
increase in the height of tide will increase the corresponding water levels [12].
Fluctuations produced by the attraction of sun and moon on the crust of the
earth are a result of earth tides. The following observations are analyzed based on
well record:

a. Fluctuations occur twice in a daily cycle due to moon about 50 min later each
day.

b. Retardation of cycle on average daily bases matches with that of moon’s transit
closely.

c. At the lower and upper peaks, the moon’s transits and the troughs of water
levels on daily bases are coincided.

d.Periods of full and new moon coincide with the periods of large regular
fluctuations, while the periods of the first and third quarters of moon coincide
with periods of small irregular fluctuations [4].

Forces of sun and moon which produce tides act in the same direction at the time
of new and full moon, causing ocean tides to be greater than the average range. But
at the time of the first and third quarter of moon, the forces of sun and moon which
produce tides act perpendicular to each other, causing ocean tides to be smaller than
the average range. At the time of coincidence of the moon’s transit with time of low
water, the tidal attraction will be maximum; therefore, the load on the aquifer is
reduced which allows the aquifer to expand slightly [4].

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Analytical Study of Environmental Impacts and Their Effects on Groundwater Hydrology
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88002

4.3 Earthquakes and landslides

History reveals that there are varieties of effects of earthquakes on groundwater.

Fluctuations like sudden rises and falls of water levels in wells, variations in spring
discharges, formation of new springs, and venting of mud and water out of the
ground are observed due to earthquake shocks. Such fluctuations produced due to
earthquake shocks are known as hydroseisms.
Seismic waves generated by earthquakes affect the groundwater in two major
ways. One is that oscillations are produced in the groundwater levels, and second
is that permanent changes occur in the groundwater levels. As groundwater
remains in contact with the surface water, some variations in surface water flows
are also observed. Half to one year long time variations in water level have been
observed due to the response of earthquakes at a great distance from the monitor-
ing locations [13].
Response of groundwater to earthquakes is somehow complex and can be
observed by different processes on varying time scales. The impact of earthquake
on the groundwater is considered in three parts: before, during, and after an
earthquake event. Before an earthquake, in the area of a fault zone, there will be
an increase or decrease in pore pressure due to poroelastic deformation caused by
variations in stresses. Increase in pore pressure will occur in compressional regime,
while decrease in pore pressure will occur in extensional regime. In a confined
aquifer of high permeability or in an unconfined aquifer, the variations in pore

Figure 3.
Relationship between earthquake and groundwater processes.

45
Groundwater Hydrology

pressure will be dissipated quickly, and no significant changes in surface water flow
or groundwater will be observed. Ground deformation resulted from the passage
of seismic waves during an earthquake event will change the pore pressure in an
aquifer. These changes occur at different frequencies, and excess pore pressure is
not allowed through groundwater flow.
The processes involved between an earthquake and groundwater are shaking of
ground, stresses in the crust, mobilization of fines, microfractures, liquefaction,
storability release, pore pressure, change in porosity, and change in permeability.
Summary of relationships between earthquakes and groundwater processes is
described in Figure 3.

5. Conclusion: groundwater management strategies

Groundwater resources are not managed properly in different parts of the world.
For the proper management of groundwater resources, simple and effective rules and
regulation must be adopted. The governing regulations may be based on knowledge and
practical experiences of the local region supported by scientific and field information.
The groundwater management strategies are recommended to be planned such that:

a. Groundwater withdrawal will be adjusted as per forecasted supply and demand

requirements of the future.

b. The renewable character of potential aquifers must be considered with optimum

aquifer pump rates, well locations, and relative priority of each sub-aquifer
unit within the integrated management system of the entire aquifer field.

c. Water quality, effect of urbanization, intensive agricultural practices,

economy, social impact, and local administrative strategies should also be
considered.

d.Recommended groundwater management practices need to scientifically deter-

mine different hydrogeological parameters such as porosity, specific yield, and
hydraulic conductivity for actual water volume calculations. It is preferable to
obtain estimated parameter by field techniques like the aquifer tests and their
proper interpretations.

e. For strategic planning of groundwater reservoirs that may be replenished,

the groundwater quality is significant not only for management but also for
controlling the excessive exploitation possibilities. Naturally existing ground-
water does not have homogenous but heterogeneous properties within the same
storage. Generally, the bottom layers are saline, and, therefore, during pump-
ing operations, the up-coning must be avoided.

f. Private well owners must be convinced to allow for groundwater strategic plan-
ning by avoiding haphazard and unnecessary exploitations.

g. Implementation of artificial recharge system in order to compensate the pre-

sent deficit. Increasing groundwater recharge could counteract the projected
effects of climate changes on the groundwater system.

h.Construction of new management system helps in monitoring the groundwater

system in terms of quantity and quality.

46
Analytical Study of Environmental Impacts and Their Effects on Groundwater Hydrology
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88002

Author details

Muhammad Salik Javaid1*, Laila Khalid2 and Muhammad Zeshan Khalil3

1 Abasyn University, Islamabad, Pakistan

2 Capital University of Science and Technology (CUST), Islamabad, Pakistan

3 University of Engineering and Technology (UET), Taxila, Pakistan

*Address all correspondence to: msalikj@abasynisb.edu.pk

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

47
Groundwater Hydrology

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on groundwater recharge rates in Meets Water-conflicts and Solutions;
Dübendorf, Switzerland. Journal of Freiberg, Germany. 2016. pp. 102-107.
Hydrology. 2018;563:1135-1146. DOI: ISBN: 978-3-86012-533-5
10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.09.058

[7] Liu Y, Jiang X, Zhang G, Xu Y,

Wang X, Qi P. Assessment of shallow
groundwater recharge from extreme
rainfalls in the Sanjiang plain, Northeast
China. Water. 2016;8(10, 10):440. DOI:
10.3390/w8100440

48
Chapter 4

The Investigation of the Dorfak

Karstic Aquifer
Maryam Dehban Avan Stakhri, Mohammad Hossien Ghobadi
and Ali Mirarabi

Abstract

The karstic aquifers were the best source of potable water in the northeast of
Rudbar, Iran. The present study was carried out to appraise the hydrogeological attri-
butes of karst aquifer in this area. For this objective, saturation indices (SI values) are
acquired through using the geochemical PHREEQC software for a number of chemical
compounds existing in the karstic aquifer. Moreover, the sources of the ions and hydro-
geochemical plots were obtained by using AqQA-RockWare software packages. The
water type of all springs is the Ca-HCO3 type which is determined by plotting of Piper
diagram and Durov diagram for spring water samples, that is confirming the calcareous
effects of the region on the quality of groundwater and representing a single source for
the springs. The degree of Karstification of the recharge area of the karst aquifer was
determined to be 5.5 from an analysis of the hydrograph Sefidab Spring. The microbial
contamination can be observed in all samples due to the intense development of karst,
lack of self-purification in the karst system, and lack of an adequate cover layer on
carbonate formation.

Keywords: Dorfak, saturation indices, chloro-alkaline index, cross diagram,

recession curve

1. Introduction

Iran as a dry country with a population of 80 million has faced a water deficit
in recent decades. The unorganized use of groundwater resources is created by
subsidence of many plains in Iran. Guilan, a province situated in the north of Iran,
has wet weather and thus is less subjected to water shortage problems compared
to the southern and central provinces of Iran. The Dorfak karstic area is situated
in the northeast part of the Rudbar city (Figure 1). The highest point of the area
is a Dorfak peak with a height of 2733 m.a.s.l (meters above sea level). The karstic
aquifers (excluding of the evaporating formation) are suitable groundwater
resources for potable water. Dorfak karstic area is the initial well-known karstic
region of Guilan province. The first study in this area was conducted by the Water
Resources Management Company of Iran. In the following, we investigate the
study area in terms of geology, tectonic structures, climate, and quantitative and
qualitative properties of the aquifer by the analysis of water samples from springs
in the region. For this purpose, information about the discharge rates of these
springs and their chemical analysis was provided by the Regional Water Company
of Guilan province. Information about various lithologies in the region was obtained

49
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 1.
Situation map of the study area [1].

using the 1:100,000-scale geological map published by Geological Survey of Iran.

Additionally, a hydrograph analysis method was also used to estimate the degree of
karstification in recharge areas.

2. Topography, climate, and vegetation

The Dorfak karst area, one of the largest karst regions of the north-east of
Rudbar city, is situated in the east of the Guilan province of Iran. The region area
ranges from about 1000 m elevation up to the Dorfak summit at 2733 m.a.s.l.
The whole mountain range covers an area of about 429.59 km2. The study area is
affected by two climates: Csa and Bsk. The majority of the study area is situated
in the Csa climate. The monthly average minimum and maximum temperature
is 0.40°C in February and 18.5°C in August. The mean annual rainfall has been

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The Investigation of the Dorfak Karstic Aquifer
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748 mm in the last 20 years (1993–2013). The most rainfall occurs in November,
December, March, and February, in the order of their appearance. The Csa
Mediterranean climate can be observed in the western continents between
latitude 30–45°. The rainy weather and hot and dry summers are special char-
acteristics of this climate. The climate depends on the high-pressure semitropic
system, except that coastal areas have a cooler summer because of the cold
ocean flow. This cool ocean flow often creates fog and prevents rainfall. Up to an
elevation of approximately 2000 m, vegetation is covered by forests with beech
trees in the west and north-west parts. Above the timberline, grassy vegetation
persists up to the summit, where soil coverage has not been washed out due to
karstification or erosion.

3. Stratigraphy and tectonic structures

The Dorfak karst area is a part of the West Alborz that is situated on the east
of the Sefidrud Valley. The trend of the mountains was east-west (EW). In the
southern slope of the Dorfak summit, one can observe the outcrop of the volcanic

Figure 2.
Geology map of the study area [1].

51
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 3.
Structure geology map of the study area (reproduced with the permission from [2]).

rocks with the Paleogene age. The limestone units in the Dorfak karstic area contain
gray thick to massive bedded fossiliferous limestone, which is locally chert-bearing
(JKL), gray, medium-bedded limestone including Orbitolina fossils (KL1); alter-
nating beds of yellow argillaceous-sandy limestone, marl and sandstone (JKms);
alternating beds of thin- to medium-bedded limestone, marl, sandstone and sandy
limestone (Km2); and thin and well-bedded limestone and argillaceous limestone,
locally with intercalation of andesitic lava (KL2) (Figure 2) [1]. The effects of
the Arabian Plate’s pressure on the Eurasian Plate can be observed in the reported
kinetic axes for the West Alborz that is directed from the northeast to the north. In
the view of structural geology, the Dorfak karstic area was situated in Lahijan fault
shear zone. Safari et al. [2] were reported that the main compression axis for the
Lahijan shear zone is N10E. This result is confirmed due to the former measured
pressure axis in the area and left-lateral movement of Lahijan fault. The pop-up
structure of the Dorfak peak was created by the enclosure between two thrust
faults, which are the Dorfak thrust fault with a slope to the south and the Deylaman
thrust fault with a slope to the north (Figure 3). This structure provides a sui basis for
the karst development through creating of the large fractures in rocks of the area [1].
The trend of these faults was almost perpendicular to in this region. The strike of
faults was N90s–110 and has reverse movement with a left-lateral component [2].

4. Karst features

One of the main properties of karstification is the existence of karst features. In

order to determine the karst extent in the study area, karst features were identified.
The critical features of karstic regions such as the presence of sinkholes, karrens,
shafts, caves, poljes, and springs can be observed in the Dorfak karst area. The
different types of karrens such as grikes, clints, kamenitzas, rinnenkarren, mean-
dering runnels, wall karren, hummocky karren, trittkarren, rainpits, rillenkarren,
rundkarren, and cavernous karren are observed in the study area. Sinkholes are
prevailing features in the karst region. The types of sinkholes are solution and col-
lapsible. Shafts are prevailing features due to the high abundance of joints with an
upright dip in the Dorfak peak. The Dorfak bowl is a polje that its water is supplied
through melting snow and drainage of rainfall into the polje. Figure 4 shows some
karst features.

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Figure 4.
Images of some karst features in the study area (Dorfak peak), A: a shaft (Afraz scaler group of Rasht city),
B: polje, C: Kamenica, D: Dorfak cave, E: Rundkarren, and F: sinkhole.

5. Hydrogeology of the spring

There are several springs in the Dorfak karstic area. The spring’s situation is
shown in Figure 5. In this section, we will investigate Sefidab spring properties
as the most important spring of the Dorfak karst area. Sefidab spring operates as
the permanent drain of the Dorfak karst aquifer. The Sefidab spring is situated in
the west side of the Dorfak peak, in the Sefidab valley, 387 m.a.s.l (Figure 6). The
annual average discharge of Sefidab spring is 500 l/s that the watershed area of
spring was inappreciable against discharge content and it is about 2 km2. The runoff
content of Kharashk watershed is considerably higher than the total content of
precipitation because of the high development of karst in this subbasin; the water
transition through shafts and sinkholes is situated in the upstream subbasin. The
Sefidab spring is a typical fault-bound and limestone karst spring with a dynamic
outflow. Since exact measurements done in June 2011, the highest discharge was
recorded on December 21, 2013, with more than 2534 l/s. The lowest discharge was
recorded on July 14, 2012 with 30 l/s. The mean discharge in this period (2011–2014)
reached 500 l/s. The present study investigates the hydrogeochemical attributes of

53
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 5.
Situation map of springs and sample point in the study area.

Figure 6.
Images of the Sefidab spring in the study area.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85337

the karst aquifer through the analysis of water samples from karst springs in the
area. For achieving this goal, database of the Regional Water Company of Guilan
province about the discharge rates of these springs and their chemical analysis
was used. Information about various lithologies in the region was obtained using
the 1:100,000-scale geological map published by Geological Survey of Iran. A
hydrograph analysis method was also used to estimate the degree of karstification in
recharge areas.

6. Geochemistry investigation

By plotting a Piper diagram [3] of spring water samples, the water type of all
sources of the region was discovered to be the Ca-HCO3 type, demonstrating that
all springs in the region were discharged from a karst aquifer (Figure 7). Plotting
of the Durov diagram of the samples is done to attain an accurate inspection of
the chemical attributes of groundwater (Figure 8). Compared to Piper diagram,
the Durov diagram distinguishes in terms of its ability to showing different types
of water and hydrochemical processes such as water mixing of different qualities
and ion exchange [4]. The chemical composition of springs is bicarbonate type
with the Ca cation being the dominant by using the Durov diagram, which has
also confirmed the effects of limestone formations on the quality of groundwater
in the region. Also, using the Durov diagram has proven that the springs recharge
usually from a single origin. The anionic evolution cycle has more effect on the ion
evolutionary cycle of groundwater than the cationic cycle, which has been obvi-
ously proven due to the increasing total dissolved solids (TDS) in water sample
of springs. The groundwaters of the area are situated into the domain of alkaline
springs due to the plotting of the Durov diagram. The statistical parameters of
chemical analysis results of elective resource can be observed in Tables 1 and 2.

Figure 7.
Piper diagram of water sample.

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Groundwater Hydrology

A Cl-HCO3-SO4 ternary diagram (Figure 9) showed distinct zones of alkaline,

acidic, and chloride-rich water [6]. As shown in Figure 9, all water samples are
located in the soda spring zone.
In order to evaluate the controlling mechanisms of water chemistry, the effect of
host rock lithology on water quality is estimated, and the mechanism of groundwa-
ter flow is determined, and the composition of the main ions in groundwater is
applied as per the Gibbs chart (1970) [7]. The effective mechanisms of water
chemistry and its evolution are separated into three classes by Gibbs: atmospheric
precipitation, rock weathering, and evaporation [8]. Also, he proposed two dia-
grams of and against the TDS to appraise the origin
of dissolved chemical constituents in water.

Figure 8.
Durov diagram of water samples.

Dry season

Parameters Ec (μs/cm) TDS pH meq/l

(mg/l)
HCO3− CO3− Cl −
SO4− NO3− Ca+ Mg2+ Na+ K+
Number of 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29
samples

Average 354.34 222.7 6.99 3.48 0 0.07 0.22 0.09 3.08 0.54 0.29 0.04

Maximum 630 375.8 7.9 6.15 0 0.33 0.75 0.61 5 1.37 0.94 0.18

Minimum 159 140.06 6.2 1.94 0 0.01 0.09 0.01 1.38 0.17 0.06 0.01

Standard 124.78 65.52 0.46 1.13 0 0.08 0.15 0.12 1.02 0.32 0.22 0.04
deviation

Variation 0.35 0.3 0.65 0.32 0 1.14 0.68 1.33 0.33 0.59 0.75 1
coefficient

Table 1.
Statistics parameters of chemical analysis results of elective resource in the dry season [5].

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Wet season

Parameters Ec (μs/cm) TDS pH meq/l

(mg/l)
HCO3− CO3− Cl− SO4− NO3− Ca+ Mg2+ Na+ K+
Number of 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
samples

Average 334.81 203.28 7.48 3.09 0 0.11 0.18 0.13 2.86 0.47 0.25 0.02

Maximum 595 355.65 8.55 5.96 0 0.72 0.61 1.39 4.83 1.12 2.41 0.1

Minimum 69.7 44.35 6.88 0.6 0 0.03 0.07 0.005 0.4 0.17 0.03 0

Standard 140.51 83.26 0.42 1.32 0 0.13 0.1 0.25 1.28 0.25 0.43 0.02
deviation

Variation 0.42 0.41 0.05 0.43 0 1.19 0.56 1.92 0.45 0.53 1.72 1
coefficient

Table 2.
Statistics parameters of chemical analysis results of elective resource in the wet season [5].

Figure 9.
Ternary diagram (Cl-HCO3-SO4) of the water samples.

In samples with a high ratio of or and low

amount of TDS, salts derived from rainfall are likely to have a significant effect on
the chemistry of water in the study area. In contrast, in samples with a low ratio of
or and TDS between 100 and 1000 mg/L, rock
weathering is likely to affect the groundwater quality. Finally, samples with a
higher salinity are likely to be affected by evapotranspiration. Extensive changes in
the ratio of or with an almost constant TDS prob-
ably show that ion exchange affects groundwater quality in the region [1]. During
an ion exchange process, 1 mmol/L of calcium was substituted with 2 mmol/L of

57
Groundwater Hydrology

sodium, which cannot significantly change the amount of TDS in the water,
because the weight of 1 mmol/L of calcium (40 mg/L) was almost two times of
2 mmol/L of sodium (46 = 2 × 23 mg/L) [9]. According to these diagrams
(Figure 10a and b), the water samples were situated in the area with the dominant
rock process, suggesting the presence of a significant interaction between rock
chemistry and water chemistry in infiltration rainwater.

Figure 10.
Gibbs diagram of the spring water samples (a: plots of TDS: Cl-/Cl-+ HCO3-, b: plots of TDS:
Na+/Na++Ca2+).

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7. Saturation indices

To estimate the extent to which groundwater in the karstic aquifer could dis-
solve of precipitate carbonate minerals, saturation indices (SI) of calcite, dolomite,
and CO2 gas are determined to applying the samples the chemical analysis and
PHREEQC software. The water was saturated due to the specified mineral if the
saturation indices are zero, and water is undersaturated with mineral if it was nega-
tive; thus, the more content of mineral can be dissolved in water. When the water is
supersaturated due to the specified mineral, the saturation indices will be positive.
Coetsiers and Walraevens [10] represented that the more positive SI shows a higher
mineral content in the water and appropriate status to precipitate in this SI. The
saturation indices are provided by Eq. (1) as follows [11]:

(1)

where the ion activity product of the dissociated chemical species in solution with
IAP is showed and the equilibrium solubility product of the chemical involved at the
sample temperature with Kt is expressed [12]. The SI values due to the calcite, dolo-
mite, and CO2 gas determined by applying PHREEQC software are shown in Table 3.

Spring name SIc SId SI CO2

Sefidab −0.22 −1.60 −2.49

Polahaki 0.22 −0.97 −2.16

Chopan −0.38 −2.19 −2.10

Stakhr 0.09 −0.55 −2.22

Rajeon 0.04 −0.71 −2.02

Larneh −0.03 −1.01 −2.28

kardemir −0.09 −1.60 −2.60

Noor-Cheshm −0.90 −2.88 −1.92

Sardabkhani −0.19 −1.35 −2.09

Ghordehposhteh −0.48 −2.09 −2.61

Kaiso −1.60 −3.87 −2.39

Boghalamon −0.31 −1.41 −1.36

Arbonaf 0.22 −0.31 −3.02

Naveh −0.19 −1.34 −1.55

Kalami −0.26 −1.75 −1.59

Spahbodan −0.22 −1.42 −2.71

Mirhossieni 0.64 0.21 −2.16

Tochal 0.32 −0.09 −1.76

Stakhrghah 0.27 0.03 −1.89

Khani cheshme 0.62 0.67 −2.90

Rashi river 1.18 1.76 −3.23

Kaiso stream −0.27 −0.84 −2.78

Alokale 0.27 −0.26 −1.85

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Groundwater Hydrology

Spring name SIc SId SI CO2

Siyavash −0.34 −1.57 −1.54

Eshkavari −0.12 −1.13 −1.70

Kordsara 0.76 0.71 −2.89

Bazmiyaneh 0.62 0.61 −2.62

Siyani 0.09 −0.65 −1.85

Dolisara −1.29 −2.57 −2.35

Mina cheshme −1.61 −3.34 −2.51

SIc, saturation index of calcite; SId, saturation index of dolomite; and SI CO 2, saturation index of CO2.

Table 3.
Saturation index values of water samples (wet season).

In accordance with the saturation index values, most water samples are under-
saturated due to calcite, dolomite, and CO2 in the region; hence, carbonate minerals
dissolve to a greater extent. White [13] represented that the springs with nega-
tive saturation index values (in the range from −0.2 to −0.4 or lower) have been
transmitted through open conduit systems in the temperate and northern climates.
A negative saturation index value of CO2 indicates that they have no potential for
travertine formation.

8. Chloro-alkaline indices

The extent to which ion occurs between groundwater and the aquifer matrix is
illustrated through the chloro-alkaline indices (CAI) as suggested by Schoeller [14].
When there is an exchange between Ca and Mg in aquifer rocks with Na and K in
the water (so-called “normal” ion exchange), the CAI value will be positive. When
the CAI value is negative, the ion exchange is a reverse (so-called “reverse” ion
exchange) [15].
The CAI value can be used as a diagnostic tool for the source of bicarbonate ion
in groundwater. If the weathering of silicate minerals is the source of bicarbonate
ions in water, the CAI value will have a positive amount. Conversely, if carbonate
minerals were the source of the bicarbonate ions, a negative value of CAI is visible.
Also, a negative CAI value shows that the source of bicarbonate can be created
from human activities [16]. CAI values are calculated through Eqs. (2) and (3) as
below [17]:

(2)

(3)

The CAI value of spring’s water samples was calculated by Eqs. (2) and (3)
(Figure 11a and b). By determining CAI value, the ion exchange in the samples
and the source of bicarbonate were investigated. The results show that the four
springs (t1, t2, t6, and t8) in this investigation have positive CAI values, sug-
gesting the normal ion exchange and a bicarbonate ion source of silicate miner-
als. However, in other springs, the source of bicarbonate ions was carbonate
minerals.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85337

Figure 11.
The graph of chloro-alkaline index (a: relation 1 and b: relation 2).

9. Sources of ionic constituents in groundwater

By plotting the parameters of the water sample analysis on a bivariate diagram

(known as a cross diagram), it is possible to interpret the processes that have
impressed the chemical quality of groundwater. By plotting cations against anions,
it is possible to detect the source in this method [18–22].
The common origin of the ions has been proven by the high determination
coefficient between two ions. Diagrams of Ca:TDI (total dissolved ions) and
Ca:HCO3, and diagrams of Mg:HCO3 and Mg:TDI are made to achieve this goal
(Figure 12a–d). In order to evaluate the importance of ion exchange and different
weathering process, the binary diagrams Ca + Mg:HCO3 + SO4 and Ca + Mg:TDI
were also plotted (Figure 12e and f). If the dissolution of calcite, dolomite, and
gypsum has provided Ca, Mg, HCO3, and SO4, there would be a 1:1 stoichiometric
relationship available between Ca + Mg and HCO3 + SO4 [23]. The displacement of
points to the right side and below the 1:1 line indicates that the ion exchange has
occurred. Conversely, the displacement of points to the left side and above the 1:1
line shows the reverse ion exchange [24].

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Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 12.
Cross plot of water samples of springs (a: the plot of Ca: HCO3, b: the plot of Ca: TDI, c: the plot of Mg: HCO3,
d: the plot of Mg: TDI, e: the plot of Ca+Mg: HCO3+SO4, f: the plot of Ca+Mg: TDI, g: the plot of Ca+ Mg: HCO3).

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85337

Information about the stoichiometric process existence in groundwater

provides the evaluation of Ca + Mg against HCO3. The evaluation of the water
quality data represents that the main source of Ca and Mg in groundwater was
the dissolution of carbonate minerals, while the source of HCO3 is likely to be
the weathering of both silicate and carbonate minerals [25]. The simple dis-
solution was the very common weathering process for carbonates. Zhang et al.
[26] presented a 1:1 ratio of Ca + Mg:HCO3 or 1:2 molar ratio of Ca:HCO3. As a
result, through the ion exchange process of calcium and magnesium in water by
the sodium in the clay, or by the cationic exchange or HCO3 enrichment from
weathering, the silicates create the low molar ratio of Ca:HCO3 (<0.5) in ground-
water [27], whereas the high ratios (>0.5) indicate the other sources of calcium
and magnesium, such as reverse ion exchange, which is also created in hard rock
formations with increasing salinity.
A high determination coefficient in plotting the Ca against the HCO3 and TDI sug-
gests that the calcium is originated from the dissolution of calcite (Figure 12a and b).
Moreover, the moderate determination coefficient (classification of R2: 0–0.3: low,
0.3–0.6: moderate, 0.6–0.9: high, and 0.9–1: very high) due to plotting the Mg against
HCO3 and TDI implies that magnesium ions may have been derived from the dis-
solution of dolomite (Figure 12c and d). Besides, the binary plot of Ca + Mg versus
HCO3 + SO4 represented that 48.27% of groundwater samples shows a reverse ion
exchange and 51.72% shows the ion exchange process (Figure 12e). The high deter-
mination coefficient due to the plotting of composite diagrams of Ca + Mg against
HCO3 indicates that these two ions have a common source, i.e., dissolution of carbon-
ates and silicate weathering (Figure 12g).

10. Evaluation of the degree of karstification in recharge areas

The multiple hydrodynamic behaviors of karst aquifers were created by the

development of epikarst geomorphology and the existence of sinkholes and
abundant joints in limestones. Factors such as the flow hierarchy, the setting of the
output, and drainage network organization in an unsaturated area have impressed
the flow condition in karst systems, which are determined by the karst system
structure [28]. The hydrographs of springs represent all the physical processes that
have impressed groundwater flow in a karst aquifer [29]. The important method for
determining the hydrological characteristics of karst aquifers is done by the analysis
of hydrograph recession curves [30]. The period between peak discharge and next
peak discharge at the end of the period forms the recession curve [31].
The perpetual drain of the Dorfak karst aquifer is done through the Sefidab
spring, while the temporal spring is the Norcheshme spring. In the western part of
the Dorfak karst area, the Sefidab spring is presented as a fault-bound spring that
is situated in a fracturing zone created due to the faulting of bedded limestone.
That way, the hydrograph plot was made to investigate the characteristics of the
springs that include the extent of the reservoir, discharge rates, and discharge
variability over time. Accordingly, the recession coefficient (α) and dynamic
storage volume (as a determinant agent of aquifer development) were obtained.
The discharge capacity of Sefidab spring was very variable that is related to the
magnitude and duration of a precipitation event. The dynamic storage volume and
recession coefficient (α) of Sefidab spring are determined through the following
equations [32, 33] (Table 4).

(4)

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Coefficient α1 α2 β1 V (m3)

Sefidab spring 0.0771 0.05795 0.11331 2467838.95

Table 4.
Parameters associated with recession curve [1].

where α is the recession coefficient, Q 0 (m3/s) is a previous discharge at t = 0, Q t

3
(m /s) is discharged at t, and t is the period of time between primary and secondary
discharge (day).
(5)

where V is the dynamic storage volume (m3), Q 0n is the primary discharge at

n part of hydrograph plot, and αn is the recession coefficient at n part of hydro-
graph plot.
The karstification degree in the recharge areas of Sefidab spring is determined
through its 1-year hydrograph (due to the data loss in the monthly discharge hydro-
graphs) and information from Malík and Vojtková [31]. Therefore, the degree of karsti-
fication of the spring is estimated to be 5.5 due to the methodology described above.
The results of the investigation are represented that Sefidab spring has a com-
plex discharge regime, with a combination of one subregime with turbulent flow
and two subregimes with the laminar groundwater flow (Figure 13). The impact
rate of the turbulent flow subregime was short time in comparison with overall
groundwater discharge. Usually, such a situation is created when there are many
open medium-sized fissures (both karstified and nonkarstic) in the phreatic zone
of a fissure karst aquifer (according to α1) and with a smaller influence of connected
conduits (groundwater of large karstic channels, according to β1).
The hydrograph of Sefidab spring (the most important spring in terms of
discharge) is compared with a histogram of precipitation over a 4-year period from
2011 to 2014 to investigate the precipitation effects on the karst aquifer in the study
area (Figures 14 and 15). Three peaks can be observed in the hydrograph that the
initial and tertiary peaks have occurred after two maximum rainfall events, while
the second peak occurred after a period of continuous rainfall.

Figure 13.
The 1-year-old hydrograph of Sefidab spring [1].

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Figure 14.
The 1-year period hydrograph of Sefidab spring [1].

Figure 15.
The 4-year period histogram of Sefidab spring (image of Shaheshahidan pasturage) [1].

11. Chemical and microbial spring water quality

Chemical parameters and microbial agents existing on the groundwater can have
a natural and human origin. The nitrate ion (NO3) is the most important chemical
parameter that shows the effect of human activity on the groundwater quality. The
nitrate ion in the groundwater originates from urban wastewater influx, industrial,
fertilizer, and animal excreta. Based on our measurements, the highest value of the
nitrate ion was 1.392 meq/l for Soltankhani spring that is higher for world hygiene
organization’s limit. The high nitrate value was due to the occurrence of some cot-
tage and pasture in the upstream of the Soltankhani spring due to the animal and
human excreta influx. Except for the Soltankhani spring, all appointive samples
of the nitrate values have a favorable value in both wet and dry seasons. The water
microbial contamination is usually determined based on the number and frequency
of the special type of bacteria. The coliforms are the dominant index of microbial
quality of the water resource that is frequently found in the human excreta and

65
Groundwater Hydrology

other endotherm animals. The most prevalent bacteria in the coliform group are
Escherichia coli that are excreta contamination index of the water. The microbial
contamination can be observed in all samples due to the intense development of
karst, lack of self-purification in the karst system, and lack of an adequate cover
layer on carbonate formation. Although the major elective samples have the better
status of microbial contamination in the wet season than the dry season, the accom-
plishment of sanitary preparation and infiltration before consumption (among
boiling of water and surcharge of chlorine) is of great necessity.

12. Contamination hazards in the spring catchment and vulnerability

mapping

Potential hazards to the karst aquifer were created mainly from forestry, pasture,
tourism, and an unnaturally high game population (mainly, chamois and deer)
except airborne pollution. The input from tourism, pasture, and the game popula-
tion was mainly feces with their microbial contaminations [34]. Karst systems with
joints and clefts and without a self-purification inexistence pose a high vulnerability
to human activities. The high hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, and intense
heterogeneity and anisotropy of karst aquifers enhance their vulnerability to dopants.
Various methods can be applied to the vulnerability analysis of karst aquifers. Kardan
Moghadam et al. [35] applied the EPIK vulnerability index that consists of four
parameters: epikarst, the preservative cover layer, permeation condition, and devel-
oped karst system. Preparation, weighing operation, and incorporation of the suitable
parameters map was accomplished in the ArcGIS environment [35]. The Dorfak peak
Polje can enhance the vulnerability level of karst aquifer due to livestock aggregation
in the spring and summer seasons. The risk map is provided through incorporating
this information with vulnerability index [35]. In general, carbonates in the study
area were very well karstified throughout and covering layers were mostly absent, not
protective, and sometimes even increased the point recharge. Vulnerability, according
to the EPIK method (Figure 16), is high in 20% of the area (20% high vulnerability,
35% moderate vulnerabilities, and 45% low vulnerabilities) [35].

Figure 16.
Risk map of the study area (reproduced with the permission from Kardan Moghadam et al. [35]).

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The Investigation of the Dorfak Karstic Aquifer
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85337

Acknowledgements

We would like to show our gratitude to the management of the Regional Water
Company of Guilan province and Mr. Fatehi, the head of the Office of Water
Resources Studies, for the support of this research.

Glossary

m.a.s.l: abbreviation of meters above sea level, elevation

Csa: hot dry-summer” Mediterranean climates
Bsk: cold semiarid Mediterranean climates
TDS (total it is a measurement of the soluble composed of amount of
dissolved solids): all organic and inorganic materials existing in a
liquid in a microgranular (colloidal sol) suspended form,
ionized or molecular.
Karren: these are channels or furrows that were created due to dis
solution on massive bare limestone surfaces; their depth
changes from a few millimeters to more than a meter and
is discredited by ridges.
Shaft: it is a cylindrical tube commonly steep-sided, which is
created due to dissolution and (or) collapse.
Polje: it is a Slavic word for field. They are a very large closed
depression in areas of karst topography; their length and
width vary by several kilometers in some places, having a
flat floor, both covered by alluvium or bare Limestone,
and blockaded generally by steep walls of limestone.
Grike: these are vertical or subvertical fissures in a limestone
pavement that are created through solution along with a
joint. Their synonym is Kluftkarren (in the German language).
Clint: these are slabs of limestone, parallel to the bedding, forming
a pavement. Widened joints, or grikes, are isolated
individual clints. The synonym term is Flachkarren.
Kamenitzas: the form of the kamenitzas (solution pans) looks like a
dish or a plate.
Rinnenkarren: these are the solution grooves named in the German
language and are created where the runoff water has
gathered in streams. If the total surface is wetted, the
content of water increases downward, and in this case,
the grooves were broadened and deepened at their bottom.
Meandering runnel: their cross section were asymmetrical. They are sometimes
meandering and are frequently created as isolated features
on gentle slopes (less than 10°).
Wall karren: these are formed on vertical walls as a result of water
flowing down the walls without any wide-spreading
moistening although wide-spreading wet down
ing occasionally impresses their development.
Hummocky karren: these are constructed due to bulge and depression created
by solution on the rock surface.
Trittkarren: these are best characterized as heel-print karren because
they look like the imprint of a heel. They are linked nearly
with subhorizontal, adjacent, flat plains, and immigrated
upslope by cutting “steps” through the process of retrogres
sive corrosion.

67
Groundwater Hydrology

Rainpit: their depth and diameter vary by several centimeters. The

shape of the rainpit is circular (from above) and spherical
calotte (in lateral view). According to Jennings (1985),
they are formed by raindrops (e.g., falling from leaves).
Rillenkarren: these occur only in places where fresh unspent precipita
tion is active and end where the water attains too
high a content of lime or where water is added.
Rundkarren: these are solution channels or furrows, which are devel
oped beneath a soil cover.
Cavernous karren: these are pitted, rubbly limestone most commonly found
in relatively recent and tertiary limestones of the
humid tropics.

Author details

Maryam Dehban Avan Stakhri1*, Mohammad Hossien Ghobadi2 and Ali Mirarabi3

1 Engineering Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran

2 Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Bu-Ali Sina University,

Hamedan, Iran

3 Hydrogeology, Faculty of Sciences, Shahid Beheshti, Tehran, Iran

*Address all correspondence to: mdehban84@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

68
The Investigation of the Dorfak Karstic Aquifer
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85337

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71
Chapter 5

Fluoride Levels in the

Groundwater and Prevalence
of Dental Fluorosis in the
Municipality of Santana, in Region
Karstic of West Bahia, Brazil
Manuel Vitor Portugal Gonçalves, Rodrigo Alves Santos,
Carlos Alberto Machado Coutinho
and Manoel Jerônimo Moreira Cruz

Abstract

This chapter was aimed to investigate the relationship between the consumption
of water of Bambuí Aquifer with natural fluoride levels and the prevalence of dental
fluorosis in the municipality of Santana, Bahia, Brazil. Hydrochemistry and cluster
analysis indicated that there were two groups differentiable in relation to TDS,
pH, F-, rNa+/rCa2+, and saturation indexes of minerals. The fluoride concentration
varied from 0.05 to 9.16 mg.L−1 in the samples and the prevalence of dental fluo-
rosis was 53%, 17% moderate, or severe, which was associated of the consumption
of groundwater. The toxic levels of fluoride reached 47% of the samples, where the
risk of skeletal fluorosis (20%) and incapacitating fluorosis (20%) was estimated.
The water supply service should include the monitoring of fluoride in ground-
water, the implementation of sanitary and environmental health surveillance of
endemic fluorosis, and the continuing training of professionals for health in this
municipality.

Keywords: medical geology, fluoride-health, drinking water, bambuí aquifer

1. Introduction

The care with water quality should be universal because human dignity and
health public depends on the access to drinking water. The quality of natural waters
can naturally be modified by the enrichment of dissolved ions, such as fluoride,
which may reach adverse amounts to human health [1]. The fluoride-health
relationship has a worldwide relevance because the main route of exposure is the
ingestion of water with toxic levels of fluorine [2].
Dental fluorosis is the first sign of chronic fluoride poisoning; it is related to dis-
coloration and the appearance of blemishes on the enamel of homologous teeth [3].
It is a chronic intoxication from exposure to toxic doses of fluoride, a hypomineral-
ization of the enamel, which has esthetic and morphofunctional repercussions [4].

73
Groundwater Hydrology

The severity of dental fluorosis is dependent on both the dose and time of exposure
to fluoride levels [5]. It refers to the chronic intake of toxic doses of fluoride during
enamel formation, whose critical period extends until 6 years of age, although it
depends on individual differences in amelogenesis [6].
The continuous consumption of water with optimal fluoride content represents
a protection factor against caries or dental fluorosis, whereas the excess represents
a risk factor for fluorosis and the deficiency is a risk factor for dental caries [5]. The
changes in the constitution of the enamel, which cause staining or loss of its struc-
ture, can provide esthetic, functional, and psychological problems [7]. Due to the
epidemiological relevance of fluorosis, consumption with toxic levels of fluoride,
the World Health Organization [8] recommended a maximum limit of 1.5 mg.L−1 of
fluoride in drinking water. Other factors may aggravate the distribution and sever-
ity of fluorosis, such as metabolic disorders [9], nutritional status that accompanies
the socioeconomic context [10], and temperature [11].
Fluorine, very electronegative, reacts easily with cations, for example, calcium
ion. This behavior explains why most of the fluorine in the matrix of bones and
teeth is associated with fluorapatite crystals, Ca5 (PO4)3 F, combined as a solid solu-
tion with hydroxyapatite, Ca5 (PO4)3 OH [12]. The dental enamel is composed of a
prismatic mineral, which in the absence of fluoride (F−) is known as hydroxyapatite
[Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2]. Fluoride in the diet during odontogenesis favors the conver-
sion of part of the hydroxyapatite into fluorapatite [Ca10 (PO4)6 F2] by replacing the
OH− group. Fluorapatite, less soluble in oral acids than hydroxyapatite, gives teeth a
protection against the erosional action of caries.
Chronic ingestion of natural waters containing fluoride levels greater than
3.0 mg.L−1 correlates with the prevalence of dental fluorosis or skeletal fluorosis
and represents a risk of deformities in the hips and incapacitating fluorosis
[13, 14]. In this way, the importance of the epidemiological and environmental
health surveillance of the contents of fluoride in the waters of human consumption
as a preventive measure of endemic fluorosis is evidenced.
Fluoride occurs in natural waters mainly in the form of fluoride (F−), who’s
levels vary from residual amounts up to 2800 mg.L−1 [15]. In the rocks, fluorine
is release mainly from the fluorite mineral phase, occurring also in amphiboles,
micas, fluorapatite, topaz, cryolite, certain clays, and villiaumite [16]. The chemical
weathering of rocks bearing fluorine minerals releases this halogen to the atmo-
sphere, biota, soils, dust, and water [17]. The weathering of the fluorine-containing
minerals promotes the leaching of this halogen, which has high mobility, through
the water-rock interaction [18]. Fluoride levels are high in groundwater where the
source minerals abound in the geological substrate [19].
In this context, the application of hydrochemical methods and techniques can
help the management of water quality. The knowledge about the origin and behav-
ior of major ions (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, CO32−, HCO3−, Cl−, SO42−) in groundwater
allows the elucidation of the hydrogeochemical composition [20]. This varies
depending on the solubility of the chemical elements from the dissolution of the
mineral constituent of the rocks that host the aquifer.
Fluorite deposits and sulfide levels have a widespread occurrence in the carbon-
ate rocks of the Bambuí Group, in the western Bahia, Brazil [21]. These carbonate
rocks shelter the Bambuí Aquifer, whose waters complement the public supply
of several municipalities, including Santana (Figure 1). In turn, information on
hydrochemistry could guide water and health planners.
The chemical composition of the waters of the Bambuí Aquifer varies as a func-
tion of the mineral composition of the rocks of the Bambuí Group [23]. The hydro-
chemical of karstic environments varies according to the climate, water circulation,
residence time, and mineralogy of the rocks of the aquifer [24]. In this perspective,

74
Fluoride Levels in the Groundwater and Prevalence of Dental Fluorosis in the Municipality…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85007

Figure 1.
Map of location of the municipality of Santana, based on the data of IBGE/SEI (2008) [22].

it is expected that the integration of geochemical and statistical techniques helps

elucidate the basic aspects of water-rock interaction, groundwater flow, and hydro-
chemical evolution [25].
In the municipality of Santana, in the karst province of western Bahia (Figure 1),
the prevalence of dental fluorosis could relate to the consumption of groundwater
with toxic levels of fluoride, which complemented the public supply [26]. This
research aimed to investigate the relationship between the consumption of water of
Bambuí Aquifer with natural fluoride levels and the prevalence of dental fluorosis
in the municipality of Santana, Bahia, Brazil.

2. Area of study, climate, and hydrogeology

The Santana municipality is situated in the western Bahia (Figure 1) and has an
area of 1909,352 km2, gross domestic product (GDP) of R$130,550, and a popula-
tion of about 24,750 inhabitants [27]. In 2010, this municipality had a Human
Development Index of the Municipality (HDI-M) of 0.608 [28] ranking 125th in
relation to the other 417 municipalities of Bahia. This municipality occupies 133rd
position in relation to income (economic aspect) and 151rd position in relation
education (socio-cultural aspect), which represent the fundamental conditions to
dealing with health as an individual responsibility. The individual and public power
revealed a municipal profile with inequalities of conditions of human development.
The region presents a subhumid to semiarid climate, with average temperature
of 24.3°C and precipitation between 800 and 1000 mm/year (1961–1990), con-
centrated between November to April and the dry season from May to September
(IMNET, 2016) [29]. It is important to note that from 2011 to 2012, the precipita-
tions fell from 498 to 821 mm/year (Figure 2).
The geology includes pelitic, calcareous, and dolomitic rocks of Neoproterozoic
age belonging to the Bambuí Group [30]. In addition, there are pelitic rocks (silt-
stones, shales, argillites, and slates) with subordinate limestones. This sedimentary

75
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 2.
Distribution of monthly precipitation averages in the stations Carinhanha, Correntina, and Santa Maria da
Vitória (SM) (2011–2012 and 1961–1990), based on the data available by INMET [29].

set was deposit in the gneiss-migmatite complex Arqueano. The Urucuia Group
sandstones and alluvial and detrital coverings were deposit on the Bambuí Aquifer.
The wells drilled in the municipality of Santana cross the rocks of the Bambuí
Group, which hosts the Bambuí Aquifer. The Urucuia Aquifer contributes to the
recharge of the Bambuí Aquifer, in consortium with the infiltration of rains [31].
The main direction of the displacement of the groundwater follows from west to
east, in the direction of the San Francisco River.

3. Materials and methods

3.1 Hydrogeochemical and (geo)statistical

Epidemiological data on dental fluorosis in the municipality of Santana have

been compiled from Coutinho’s master dissertation [32]. The hydrochemical data
have been obtained from of the thesis of Gonçalves [33] and the study of Coutinho
[32]. Data collection included the methodological procedures described below.
Water samples were collected from 41 tubular wells in the years 2011 (rainy
season) and 2012 and 2014 (dry) in the municipality of Santana. In the 2014 sample
campaign, only the fluoride levels have been measured in the locality where epide-
miological information have been obtained. The hydrogenation potential (pH) and
total dissolved solids (STD) were determined in situ, using a multiparameter probe
(Horiba U-50), and aliquots have been taken for laboratory analyses. The aliquots
were stored in polyethylene (0.5 and 1 L), according to APHA [34].
The cation (Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) reading was performed by inductively
coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES 700 Agilent Technologies),
performed in duplicate, counting with 20% in triplicates to improve the analyti-
cal quality. Anion analyzes were performed by titrimetric (HCO3−, Cl−), UV-Vis
spectrophotometric (Varian) (N–NO3−, SO4−2), and colorimetric (SPANSD) (F−)
methods using a fluorometer (LS 4000), in the Plasma Laboratory, Institute of
Geosciences, of the Federal University of Bahia.
The use of the PHREEQC software allowed saturation index (SI) calculations
[35]. These were grouped as subsaturated (IS <−0.5), in chemical equilibrium (SI:
−0.5 and 0.5), and supersaturated (SI > −0.5). Merkel and Planer-Friedrich [36]
recommend the admission of SI values of the interval 0 ± 0.5, due to the uncertain-
ties inherent in the calculation of this or the equilibrium constant of the dissolved
mineral and of the chemical analyses.
The statistic includes a descriptive and using test of normality (Shapiro–
Wilk), with significance of 95%, and cluster analysis, which uses the similarity

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Fluoride Levels in the Groundwater and Prevalence of Dental Fluorosis in the Municipality…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85007

between individuals to classify the samples hierarchically into groups [37]. The
Euclidean distance was chosen as a measure of similarity between the sample
points, along with the Ward method, for the connection between the groups. The
geostatistical was estimated by ordinary kriging by the application of ArcGIS
9.0 program. In addition, it included selected data from the well data from the
Groundwater Water Information System (SIAGAS) of the Geological Survey of
Brazil (CPRM).

3.2 Health research and statistical analysis

The prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis were obtained by cross-sectional

study, whose research had a descriptive design, starting from an epidemiological
survey that included 159 schoolchildren, of both genders, with age of 12, of the
municipal schools of the Santana. Children 12 years old are chosen because they
have the majority of permanent teeth erupted [38]. The schoolchildren were exam-
ined in 2014 by dental surgeon Dr. Carlos Alberto M. Coutinho, who registered
the study by the research ethics committee through the website of Brazil Platform
(Ministry of Health). All the steps for clinical analysis to assess the prevalence and
severity of fluorosis were previously informed those involved in the study by free
informed term of consent (FITC).
The schoolchildren were examined in public or private schools, according to the
criteria of inclusion of sample selection: (i) born and resided in the municipality of
Santana until the date of the tests according to the Department of Education; (ii)
the presence of the person responsible at the time of examination and interview;
and (iii) the sample included only the children whose parents signed the IC, accord-
ing to Resolution 196/96 of the National Health Council [39].
Oral examinations in schools followed recommendations from the Dean index,
advocated by the WHO [40] (Table 1). The oral examinations were performed by den-
tist previously calibrate and trained, using images available through the national oral
health research of SB Brazil 2010 [42], in the school environment with natural light,
aided by spatula and wooden gauze. In the calibration, the agreement of the results
was evaluated by the Kappa statistic [43], until a suitable inter-examiner agreement
was reached (Kappa = 0.85). A sample of 118 individuals was estimated by simple
finite random sample, without repetitions, with proportion estimator (prevalence

Rating Value Diagnostic criteria

Normal 0 Enamel presents usual translucency with semi-vitric structure. The surface is smooth and
polished and has bright cream color

Questionable 1 Enamel reveals little difference from the normal translucency, with occasional white spots.
Use this code when the “normal” classification is not justified

Very light 2 Areas are whitish and opaque; small spots scattered irregularly by the tooth but involving
no more than 25% of the surface. It includes clear opacities with 1 mm to 2 mm at the tip of
the cusps of molars (snowy peaks)

Light 3 The opacity is more extensive but involves no more than 50% of the surface

Moderate 4 All tooth enamel is affected and the areas subject to attrition show up worn. There may be
brown spots or yellowish often disfiguring

Severe 5 Hypoplasia is widespread and the very shape of the tooth may be affected. The most
obvious sign is the presence of depressions in the enamel, which seems eroded.
Generalized brown spots

Table 1.
Criteria and values for fluorotic teeth classification according to Dean index [41], adapted from SB Brazil
Project [42].

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Groundwater Hydrology

or incidence) and a 95% confidence level and prevalence of 0.815, extracted from
Velásquez et al. [44] at the age of 12. The sample was obtained from a population of
±423 adolescents at 12 years of age, according to information of IBGE [27].

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Hydrochemistry, source the fluoride, and cluster analysis

The analysis of Figure 3 revealed that calcium bicarbonated (40%), mixed

calcium (20%), sodium bicarbonated (27%), and sodium chlorinated (13%) hydro-
chemical facies were representative. The uncertainty of ionic balance was at most
20%, based on practical error [46]. For the calcium bicarbonated or calcium mixed
facies, the content of the ions was in decreasing order: rCa2+ > rNa+ > rMg2 + > rK+
and rCO32− - rHCO3− > rCl− > rSO42− > rF− > rN–NO3−. While in the sodium facies,
the cation contents followed in the order rNa+ > rCa2+ > rMg2+ > rK+. There is a clear
relationship between the sodium hydrochemical facies and the fluoride levels above
the optimum limit (0.8 mg.L−1) of the groundwater sample.
Table 2 presents the statistical summary of the hydrochemical variables, whose
calcium levels exceeded the limit recommended by the WHO [47], for 40% of the
wells. These calcium contents have been derived from the interaction between the
water and the rocks of the Bambuí Group. The hydrochemistry of karstic aquifers
reflects the dissolution of the minerals calcite and dolomite, residence time, and
water circulation in the aquifer [48].
The cluster analysis was used to classify the samples into groups (G1 and G2),
with the aid of visual observation of the dendrogram, inserting the hydrochemical
facies (Figure 4). The cut line was marked on the dendrogram at a distance of 80,
whose samples that showed lower bond distance belonged to the same category. In
the samples, the increase of mineralization accompanies the evolution of bicarbon-
ate calcium facies to the bicarbonate or sodium chlorate facies.

Figure 3.
Diagram of Piper [45] for groundwater classification and indication of hydrochemical groups and fluoride contents.

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Parameters VMP* Min. Max. Mean Median EP CV (%) p-valor**

pH 6.5–9.5 7.26 8.93 7.92 7.65 0.15 7.32 0.04**

STD (mg.L−1) 1000.00 440.00 1110.00 625.00 597.00 43.73 27.09 0.001**

Na+ (mg.L−1) 200.00 18.80 238.30 58.05 35.96 19.92 90.71 0.001**
+ −1
K (mg.L ) — 1.30 5.21 2.69 2.70 0.27 39.20 0.15*
2+ −1
Ca (mg.L ) 75.00 5.45 197.27 77.65 93.21 15.23 75.96 0.13*

Mg2+ (mg. 50.00 1.22 16.86 10.74 13.50 1.33 47.82 0.01**
L−1)

Cl− (mg.L−1) 250.00 40.39 300.50 113.74 95.69 16.46 56.05 0.01**

HCO3− (mg. — 178.00 366.00 234.92 232.50 11.60 19.13 0.01**

L−1)

SO42− (mg. 250.00 10.57 85.53 50.09 53.74 6.06 46.84 0.44*
L−1)

N-NO3− (mg. 10.00 0.04 5.40 1.05 0.56 0.36 133.71 0.01**
L−1)

*Non-Gaussian distribution.
**Gaussian distribution.

Table 2.
Statistical summary of the hydrochemical and isotopic variables.

Figure 4.
Dendrogram and hydrochemical classification of the groundwater of Santana.

The formed hydrochemical groups showed differences in TDS values, pH, and
calcite and dolomite saturation indexes (Table 3). This trend was also indicated
by the geochemical reasons rNa+/rCa2+ and rHCO3−/rCa2+, which modeled that the
base-exchange processes and the chemical weathering of pellets could add litho-
genic Na+ and rHCO3− to the groundwater and remove Ca2+ from them.
The values of the rHCO3−/rCa2+ ratio were lower than 1.5 for the G1 group,
reflecting the importance of the water-rock interaction. The values of this ratio
less than 1.5 result from the dissolution of the calcite and solutions subsaturated in
calcite [49]. The values of the rHCO3−/rCa2+ ratio were greater than 1.5 in the G2
group, corroborating the relevance of the water-rock interaction, whose chemical
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Groundwater Hydrology

Well Facies SI Calcite SI Dolomite SI Gypsum SI Fluorite [rCl− − (rNa+ rNa+/rCa2+ rCl−/
+ rK+)]/rCl− (rCl− + HCO3−)

Group 1 (G1): the hydrochemical facies presented fluorine contents lower than 0.8 mg.L−1

P1 Ca-HCO3 0.71 0.96 −1.75 −1.5 0.39 0.13 0.39

P3 Ca-HCO3 0.39 0.25 −1.7 −1.79 0.39 0.26 0.39
P9 Ca-HCO3 0.19 −0.06 −2.02 −0.91 0.39 0.63 0.39
P4 Ca-HCO3 0.67 0.89 −1.83 −2.23 0.22 0.18 0.22
P5 Ca-HCO3 0.91 1.4 −1.6 −1.92 0.24 0.17 0.24
P2 Ca-HCO3 0.57 0.37 −1.44 −1.82 0.31 0.09 0.31
P6 Ca-HCO3-Cl 1.01 1.47 −1.79 −1.46 0.49 0.15 0.49
P7 Ca-HCO3-Cl 0.43 0.35 −1.65 −1.42 0.57 0.26 0.57
P8 Ca-HCO3-Cl 0.33 0.1 −1.9 −2.06 0.58 0.32 0.58
Mean 0.35 0.58 −1.74 −1.68 0.40 0.24 0.40
Median 0.40 0.57 −1.75 −1.79 0.39 0.18 0.39
Group 2 (G2): the hydrochemical facies presented fluorine content higher than 0.8 mg.L−1
P10 Na-HCO3 0.73 1.54 −3.48 −0.5 0.54 5.53 0.54
P11 Na-HCO3 0.15 0.19 −2.83 −0.91 0.42 11.96 0.42
P13 Na-HCO3 0.3 −0.16 −2.72 −0.26 0.29 11.27 0.29
P14 Na-HCO3 0.37 0.3 −3.06 −0.46 0.39 4.59 0.39
P12 Na-Cl 1.02 2.12 −2.94 −0.06 0.68 10.04 0.68
P15 Na-Cl 0.07 0.18 −3.48 −0.75 0.60 28.36 0.60
Mean 0.54 0.44 −3.09 −0.49 0.49 11.96 0.49
Median 0.60 0.34 −3.00 −0.48 0.48 10.66 0.48

Table 3.
Values of the saturation indexes (SI) and the geochemical ratios of the samples.

weathering of the minerals of the pelitic lithophytes would supply bicarbonate and
sodium ions to the solution.
The analysis of Table 3 allows the proposition that part of the samples of G1
group are located under the influence areas of the meteoric recharge zones of the
aquifer, presenting a shorter transit time. The higher ionic contents and values
of the geochemical ratios rNa+/rCa2+ and rHCO3−/rCa2+ related to the G2 group
were verified, which were attributed to the influence of the water-rock interaction
processes and the action of the base-exchange reactions. The hydrogeochemistry of
karstic aquifers reflects the dissolution of calcite and dolomite minerals, the transit
time, and the water circulation in the aquifer [50].
In the G2 group, related to the fluorine content higher than 0.8 mg.L−1, most
alkaline and sodium geochemical conditions favor the addition of alkalinity and the
dissolution of fluorite, a hypothesis corroborated by the saturation conditions of
fluorite, calcite, and dolomite revealed in Figure 5. These hydrochemical conditions
explain the relationship between sodium waters and fluoride levels above 0.8 mg.
L−1 as was as shown in Piper’s diagram in Figure 3.
In the natural waters, the saturation of the solution in calcite controls the solu-
bility and the precipitation of the fluorite [51]. In the karstic province of western
Bahia, Brazil, the fluorite is the main source of fluorine for groundwater. Gonçalves
et al. [33] have shown that the Handa [41] model can be adapted for geochemical
investigation of the Bambuí Aquifer. This model elucidates the relationship between
F−, Ca2+, and HCO3− ions relatively constant for pH conditions.

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Figure 5.
Dispersion of saturation indices (SI) of calcite and fluorite minerals.

Handa [52] proposed a model for the hydrogeochemistry of fluorine, synthe-

sized in Eq. (1), which covers the solubility constant (K) and ionic activity (α). It
predicts that the precipitation of the calcite in consortium with the base-exchange
reactions adds Na+ and HCO3− to the solution, a condition that favors the solubility
of the fluorite. This model has been applied to the hydrogeochemical investigation
of crystalline aquifers [52]:

KCaF 2 ↔ CaCO 3 = [α(HCO 3 )] / [α (H ).(F ) 2]

− + −
(1)

Costa [53] proposed that the plagioclase mineral phases would provide litho-
genic Na+ to the waters of the Bambuí Aquifer in the north of Minas Gerais. The
interaction of the waters with the clay minerals (M), due to the weathering of
impure carbonates and pelitos, removes Ca2+ and provides Na+ to the solution by the
base-exchange reactions (Eqs. (2)–(5)). The ionic activity of sodium interferes with
the alkalinity, saturation, and calcification conditions of the precipitation and the
solubility of the fluorite [15]:
−
(M) SiO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O ↔ M 2+ + SiO 2 + 2HCO 3 (2)

+
Na (M)(S) + Ca+2 ↔ Ca(M)(S) + 2Na (3)

− +
CaF 2 + Na2 CO 3 ↔ CaCO 3 + 2F + 2Na (4)

+ −
CaF 2 + 2NaHCO 3 ↔ CaCO 3 + 2Na + 2F + H 2 O + CO 2 (5)

Figure 6 shows the Gibbs diagram and indicates basic processes for hydrogeochem-
ical evolution. The samples reported the influence of the water-rock interaction. The
increase in the ratio rCl−/(rCl− + rHCO3−) accompanies the hydrochemical composition

81
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 6.
Diagram of Gibbs [54] indicating the controls the hydrochemistry.

of the local flow to the regional (Ca–HCO3 → Ca–Cl–HCO3 → Na–HCO3 → Na–Cl).

The transition from calcium to sodium facies also reflects the action of base exchange
and weathering of the pellets. These processes add lithogenic sodium and bicarbonate
to groundwater while removing calcium.
Miranda et al. [55] and Conceição Filho et al. [56] studied the fluorite in the
carbonates of the Bambuí Group, in Bahia (BR). Conceição Filho et al. [57] con-
ducted a statistical analysis of the physical-chemical data of current sediments of
the Bambuí Geochemical Projects (PGB) [58] and São Francisco Basin (PBSF) [56].
Fluoride contents were 25–6500 mg.L−1, with geometric means of 235.78 (PGB) and
303.85 mg.L−1 (PBSF), whose pH values were predominantly alkaline. The anoma-
lous content ranged from 900 to 1600 mg.L−1 (PGB). In these sediments, the pH
values were predominantly alkaline.
Costa [54] analyzed fluoride in rocks of the Bambuí Group in northern Minas
Gerais (BR). The mean values of fluoride in pelitic rocks ranged from 120 to
620 mg.L−1 and in carbonate rocks ranged from 320 to 508 mg.L−1. The fluoride
values of the rocks of the Bambuí Group were higher than the average level of this
element in carbonate rocks (300 mg.L−1) [59]. The rocks of the Bambuí Group may
represent relevant geogenic sources of fluorine for groundwater.

4.2 Fluoride levels, epidemiology, and medical geology

The optimum content of fluoride (C) in solution for public water supply in the
region was obtained according to Galagan and Vermilion [60] (Eqs. (6) and (7)),
as a function of the regional average air temperature (T). This optimum limit was
recommended by Ordinances n°. 2,914/11 [61] and WHO. [47]. From this premise,
fluoride content of 0.78 mg.L−1 as optimum limit for water of human consumption
of Santana and of the neighboring municipalities can be proposed:

€(T) = 10.3 + 0.725T (6)

C = 22.2 / € (7)

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Table 4 presented a statistical summary for the fluoride values obtained in the
current research in the municipality of Santana and the SIAGAS data. The fluoride
contents varied between 0.05 and 9.16 mg.L−1, which could be compared to the
levels of the groundwater of the Canápolis, Serra Dourada, and Sítio do Mato.
Gonçalves et al. [62] found fluorine levels of 0.11–2.15 mg.L−1 in the groundwater of
the Bambuí Aquifer in municipality of Serra do Ramalho, Bahia.
Velásquez et al. [44] analyzed the contents of fluorine in waters of 78 wells
drilled in the Bambuí Aquifer, in the municipality of São Francisco, northern Minas
Gerais, Brazil. Fluoride contents ranged from 0 to 3.9 mg.L−1, with 13 wells (17%)
exceeding the local optimum limit (0.8 mg.L−1). The municipalities of Santana
(Bahia) and São Francisco (Minas Gerais) have similar geological, climatic, and
precipitation index. The municipalities of Santana and São Francisco represent
endemic areas of dental fluorosis, which require the identification of sources and
understanding of hydrogeochemistry.
The samples were classified according to fluoride levels and risk for oral health
and with the SIAGAS well data for a regional perspective (Figure 7). The ground-
water classified in the protection factor category may assist in the promotion of oral
health, which included only 20% of the samples in Santana. The municipalities of
Canápolis, Santa Maria da Vitória, and Serra Dourada have a higher percentage of
groundwater samples with optimal natural fluorine content, which may represent a
viable alternative to public water supply.
The risk category of dental fluorosis comprised 47% of the groundwater samples
of the municipality of Santana, being equable only to the percentages found in the
municipalities of Serra Dourada and Sítio do Mato (Figure 7). The chronic exposure
of children up to 6 years of age at high fluoride levels during tooth germ formation
has epidemiological relevance and health surveillance [63].
A portion of the samples (40%) had fluoride contents higher than 3.0 mg.L−1,
whose prolonged consumption represents a risk of bone fluorosis or deformities in
the hips and incapacitating fluorosis (Table 5). This risk also includes the munici-
palities of Canápolis, Serra Dourada, and Sítio do Mato. The chronic ingestion of
natural waters containing fluoride levels greater than 3 mg.L−1 correlates with the
prevalence of dental fluorosis or skeletal fluorosis [14].
The fluoride levels in the groundwater of the municipality of Santana presented
epidemiological relevance. Rouquayrol [64] defined epidemiology as the science
that studies the health-disease process, population distribution, and determinants of
diseases and damage to health and events associated with public health, proposing
specific measures to prevent, control, or eradicate diseases and provide indicators that
support the planning, administration, and evaluation of health actions. This obser-
vational science is based on the concept of risk (incidence and prevalence), defined
as the probability of members of a given population developing a specific disease or

Municipality Size (n) Minimum Maximum Mean Median CV (%)

Santana (current) 41 0.05 9.16 1.41 0.54 135

Canápolis (SIAGAS) 21 0.15 7.0 1.02 0.66 141

Santa Maria da Vitória (SIAGAS) 39 0.02 3.5 0.73 0.53 89

Serra do Dourada (SIAGAS) 28 0.17 5.20 1.43 0.95 87

Serra do Ramalho (SIAGAS) 08 0.11 1.95 0.52 0.13 127

Sítio do Mato (SIAGAS) 10 0.16 6.12 2.39 1.46 96

Table 4.
Statistical summary of fluorine levels in the groundwater of Santana (current) and neighboring municipalities
(SIAGAS).

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Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 7.
Classification of samples according to fluoride values and health risk.

health-related event at a time interval. The prevalence of fluorosis is an epidemiological

indicator that represents the number of cumulative cases over a period (new and old),
and the incidence quantifies the number of people who lost health over a period [65].
Table 6 presents the descriptive analysis of the fluorosis condition in 159
12-year-old schoolchildren (87% resided in rural); 53% had dental fluorosis (Dean
index) and 17% in moderate to severe forms. It obtained 60% of the examined in
the female gender and was observed (interviews or clinical examination) that the
male students were less likely to be examined, which configured a bias to obtain
the sample. The prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis in this study are in
disagreement with the national oral health survey of the SB Brazil Project [42].
This national survey found a prevalence of dental fluorosis at 12 years of age of 17%
(Dean index), with 15% very light or light and 1.5% moderate or severe.
Clinical examination revealed that moderate to severe forms of dental fluorosis
were the most relevant, with clinical aspects presented in Figure 8D. The clinical
aspect of the dental fluorosis includes emergence opaque spots on the enamel,
teeth counterparts, to yellowish or brown areas in cases of severe changes [38].
In the most severe forms, the detachment of the enamel portions can occur, after
eruption. This leads to the appearance of dental surface depressions observed in

Meenakshi and WHO [8] Risk to health %

Maheshwari [12]
Santana
A* B* C* D*
(current)
<0.40 <0.50 Caries risk 24 14 28 3.5 20

0.4–0.8 0.5–1.5 Local optimal limit 29 52 39 39 30

0.8–3.0 1.5–3.0 Risk of dental fluorosis 10 29 31 47 0

3.0–4.0 >3.0 Bone and joint Problems 17 0 2 3.5 10

4.0–6.0 (or >6.0) — Deformities in the knees and hips and 20 5 0 7 40

disabling fluorosis

*Hydrochemical data of the Bambuí Aquifer, Bahia (BR), from SIAGAS wells: (A) Canápolis; (B) Santa Maria da
Vitória; (C) Serra Dourada; and (D) Sítio do Mato.

Table 5.
Fluoride (F−) (mg.L−1) levels in drinking water and risks related to human health.

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Fluorosis Male Female Total

N % N % N %
Absent (0) 35 22 38 24 79 46

Contestable (1) 4 2.5 5 3 9 5.5

Very light (2) 11 7 17 11 28 18

Light (3) 5 3 17 11 22 14

Moderate (4) 5 3 10 6 15 9

Severe (5) 4 2.5 8 5 12 7.5

Total 64 40 95 60 159 100

Table 6.
Absolute and relative frequency of the gender and categories indicated by the Dean index in a sample of
12-year-old schoolchildren from the municipality of Santana.

severe forms (Figure 8D). The several degrees of fluorosis can be related to whitish,
yellow, and brownish spots (severe) [4]. Severe fluorosis often produces painful
hypersensitivity to the teeth and esthetic disharmony, compromising the indi-
vidual’s quality of life [26], [66–67].
Figure 9 showed a correlation between the prevalence and severity of dental
fluorosis in schoolchildren at 12 years of age examined and the consumption of
groundwater with toxic levels of fluoride from the Bambuí Aquifer, in the munici-
pality of Santana. The proportions of the prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis

Figure 8.
Clinical aspects of dental fluorosis, obtained in the municipality of Santana by Coutinho, 2014, according to
Dean’s classification [44]. A: Enamel presents usual translucency with semi-vitric structure, with surface is
smooth, polished and has bright cream color. B: The opacity is more extensive but involves no more than 50%
of the surface. C: All tooth enamel is affected and the areas subject to attrition show up worn, with may be
associate the brown spots or yellowish often disfiguring. D: Hypoplasia and brown spots are widespread, the
shape of the tooth may be affected and the most obvious sign is the presence of depressions in the enamel.

85
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 9.
Prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis versus fluoride contents.

increase significantly from fluoride values in the range of 1.2–1.6 mg.L−1. The
propagation of severe fluorosis, grade 5 (Figure 10D), increases sharply from the
range of fluoride values greater than 2 mg.L−1 (>2).
Figure 10 shows the map of spatial distribution of fluoride levels in groundwater
of the municipality of Santana, based on data from the field survey or selected
from the SIAGAS registry. This figure also spatializes the risk categories of fluorosis
and indicates the locations where the epidemiological information was obtained.
The fluoride contents of the groundwater collected in tubular wells drilled in the
localities of Areão, Cachoeira, Canabrava, Caracol, Olhos d’Água, Pedra Preta,
Sossego, and Várzea do Mourão presented epidemiological relevance for children up
to 6 years of age, since they ingest these waters for a chronic exposure.

Figure 10.
Map of distribution of fluoride levels in groundwater and indication the spatial information of the dental
fluorosis. The categories of epidemiological risk were protection factor (0.4-0.8 mg.L-1) and risk of fluorosis
dental (> 0.8 mg.L-1).

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The spatial analysis of fluoride isoteores revealed epidemiological relevance and

allowed the indication of Santana as an endemic area of dental fluorosis, whose con-
sumption of water with toxic and natural levels of fluoride is the main risk factor.
It is expected that water resource managers in city of Santana could apply viable
cost-benefit technologies for defluoroating in groundwater with toxic levels of
fluoride used in public water supply. The technical-scientific literature offers several
technologies for the natural deflowering of water [68–78], which cover the use of
activated alumina, activated carbon, ion exchange resins, reverse osmosis systems,
electrodialysis and nanotechnology.
Table 7 presents the prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis and fluoride
levels of groundwater used in the public supply of endemic areas. Churchill [85],
in a study conducted in the United States, observed a direct correlation between
permanent tooth enamel patches or dental fluorosis and the presence of high levels
of fluoride in the water supply. Dean et al. [86] discussed the correlation between
the prevalence of dental caries or fluorosis and fluoride values in the water supply
of four cities in the United States. The proportions of dental fluorosis in the moder-
ate or severe forms are higher in the endemic areas, attributed to the consumption
of natural waters with toxic levels of fluoride [87].
In this context, it is imperative to emphasize that the presence of dental fluorosis
and its influence on the self-esteem of the people may not affect equally the popula-
tion of the municipality, because the access to drinking water and the socioeconomic
conditions to individually deal with the dental fluorosis impacts in esthetics and self-
esteem are unequal. Funtowicz et al. [88] call attention to the complexity dimension
in epidemiology and other health sciences, as well as to the technical, method-
ological, and epistemological uncertainties that accompany the risk assessments.

Author/year Study area Prevalence (%) Severity F− (mg.L−1)

B
Costa et al. [75] São Francisco, Minas 56–67 35% moderate/severe 0–3.9
Gerais, Brazil

Cruz et al. [26] Santana, Bahia, Brazil 53 18% moderate/severeB 0.1–6.20

Azcurra et al. [3] Sampacho, Córdoba, 78 25% moderate/severeA 9.0

Argentina

Loyola-Rodríguez San Luis Potosí, Mexico 78 46% moderate/severeA 0.7–3.1

et al. [76]

Dozal et al. [77] Chihuahua, Mexico 82 41% moderate/severeA 0.7–8.6

A
Yadav et al. [78] Distrito de Haryana, India 45–60 22–39% moderate/severe 1.52–4.0

Vazquez-Alvarado San Miguel Vindhó, 85 41% moderate/severeA 0.7–2.0

et al. [79] Mexico

Ding et al. [80] Inner Mongolia, China 42.6 20% moderateA 0.24–2.84

Gallará et al. [5] Córdoba, Argentina 76–87 17–22% moderate/severeA 1.4–7.0

A
Jarquín-Yañez et al. Hidalgo, Mexico 100 95% severe 4.1
[81]

Larquin et al. [82] Camagüey (Cuba) 51 47% moderate/severeA 1.7–2.0

A
Haritash et al. [83] Haryana, India 23–32 29–44 moderate/severe 0.5–2.40
A
Chaudhry et al. [84] Uttar Pradesh, India 14–24 30% moderate/severe 0.20–25.0
A
Dean index.
B
Index of Thylstrup and index of Fejerskov.

Table 7.
Epidemiology of dental fluorosis and fluoride contents in waters of endemic areas.

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Groundwater Hydrology

The collective health paradigm expands the health-environment relationship and

contemplates the biomedical and sanitation paradigms, as well as the political,
cultural, economic and ecological dimensions of health [89].
The integrated analysis of the hydrochemical research and multivariate and
epidemiological statistics indicated that the chemical weathering of the rocks of the
Bambuí Group and the leaching of its constituent mineral phases provide fluorine
to the groundwater in the municipality of Santana. In this way, the minerals that
make up the rocks provide fluorine and other chemicals for the biogeochemical
cycles, which if conducted by natural waters can influence human health. This
perspective, according to Selinus [90], defines medical geology, an interdisciplinary
science that gathers professionals of geosciences, health, and biosciences around
the understanding of the interaction between environmental geological factors and
the geographical distribution of diseases, such as fluorosis.
An environmental health and education program would provide information
for the population and for municipal accountability regarding the identification
and reception of those affected by endemic fluorosis. Future research would help
promote health in this municipality and encourage collaboration between geosci-
entists, ecologists, and health professionals to develop studies that relate geological
processes to the ecosystem and human health. In addition, it would guide water
quality managers, public health planners, and educators.

5. Conclusions

The groundwater samples were predominantly alkaline. The hydrochemi-

cal characterization indicated that there were two aquifers, with different levels
of sodium, calcium, and fluoride. The most representative aquifer covered the
bicarbonated calcium and mixed calcium waters (66%) and the lower levels of
fluoride. The pelito-carbonático aquifer contemplated the sodium bicarbonated
and sodium chlorinated waters, whose fluoride levels exceeded the local optimum
limit. Analysis of clusters also indicated that there were two hydrochemical groups
(G1 and G2) that differed in STD, pH, F−, rNa+/rCa2+ ratio, and saturation indexes
of the mineral phases calcite, dolomite, and fluorite minerals.
The risk category for dental fluorosis comprised 47% of the samples. A por-
tion of the samples presented fluoride levels representative of the category of risk
of skeletal fluorosis (20%) or associated with the risk of incapacitating fluorosis
(20%). The descriptive analysis of the dental fluorosis condition in the sample
universe revealed a prevalence of dental fluorosis of 53%, with a 17% prevalence of
moderate to severe forms. These proportions were associated to the consumption of
groundwater with high toxic levels of fluoride.
The monitoring of fluoride levels in groundwater, application of defluoridation
techniques, and environmental health surveillance and sensitization programs for
endemic fluorosis in the municipalities of Santana and neighboring (Canápolis,
Serra Dourada and Sítio do Mato) are recommended. Future research in medical
geology would help encourage studies that link geological processes to the ecosys-
tem and human health. They would also guide the management of water quality
and the decisions of municipal public health managers.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank to the National Council for Scientific and Technological
Development (CNPq) for granting the scholarship (doctorate) and funding of the

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85007

hydrogeochemical research project of Irecê and Serra do Ramalho, Bahia, in the

Universal Announcement of CNPq n° 14/2011. This study’s authors are also thank-
ful to the Interface Geology Group (UFBA).

Author details

Manuel Vitor Portugal Gonçalves*, Rodrigo Alves Santos,

Carlos Alberto Machado Coutinho and Manoel Jerônimo Moreira Cruz
Geochemical Group of Interfaces, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil

*Address all correspondence to: hidrovitor81@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

89
Groundwater Hydrology

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e saúde coletiva: Interfaces para a

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Chapter 6

Evaluation of Analytical Methods

to Study Aquifer Properties with
Pumping Test in Deccan Basalt
Region of the Morna River Basin in
Akola District of Maharashtra in
India
Kanak N. Moharir, Chaitanya B. Pande,
Sudhir Kumar Singh and Rodrigo Abarca Del Rio

Abstract

Fifteen pumping tests were performed in the Deccan basalt region of the Morna
river basin in Akola district of Maharashtra in India. It is an artesian well as it is in the
discharge zone of this coastal aquifer. Transmissivity (T) and storage coefficient (S)
must be considered as aquifer parameters and used in groundwater recharge analysis.
During the analysis of time-drawdown, the graphs were developed using pumping
test methods and most of the pumps’ water initially comes from the well storage.
Analysis of the well in tapping aquifer in Deccan basalt shows the existing relation-
ship between porosity and specific yield. All of the aquifer testing methods have
suggested ground recharge structures such as open well, bore well, and reservoir in
hard rock terrains. The data and information are very helpful for hydraulic condi-
tions, aquifer zones, and open wells development and management. The aquifer’s
parameters are identified as important factors for groundwater resources evaluation,
numerical simulation, development and protection as well as scientific management.
The results are optimized, hence these aquifer parameters are important for scientific
planning and engineering practices.

Keywords: pumping test, aquifer, Hantush method, Theis with Jocob method

1. Introduction

The basaltic hard rock has limited fresh water resources. Groundwater planning
and management is a difficult issue for the current scenario [1, 2]. The observation
wells have been storage and pumps and drawdown stages in the aquifer parameters.
The aquifer characteristics were estimated using scientific methods.
The study area data like geological, hydrological, and geochemical data and labo-
ratory results were combined to study water sustainability in the basaltic hard rocks
[3]. The aquifer parameters were estimated through various pumping tests, while

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Groundwater Hydrology

groundwater has withdrawn and discharged from the open wells and bore wells,
whose result is inserted into the well-flow equation and the hydraulic features [4].
The different curves matching and numerical methods are widely used to estimate
aquifer parameters and plot graphs through pumping test data. In this study, two
types of methods namely analytical and numerical were used for interpretation of
pumping data in the aquifer software and mathematical equation [5]. Hence the
present investigation has used numerical methods to achieve accurate results for
aquifer characteristics conditions in the regions of Maharashtra [6].

2. Study area

The study area is located in the Akola district. The Morna river basin area covers
941 km2 and is located between 76°470 54″ and 76°60 44″ E longitude and 20°530 26″ and
20°220 22″ N latitude (Figure 1). The major crops are pigeon pea, cotton, and soybean.

Figure 1.
Location map of the Morna river basin.

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Evaluation of Analytical Methods to Study Aquifer Properties with Pumping Test in Deccan…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84632

99
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 2.
Time and drawdown graph of (i) Andura, (ii) Antri, (iii) Ural, (iv) Phal, (v) Sawarpati, (vi) Morgaon,
(vii) Sangavi, (vii) Dhudhala, (viii) Hatrun, (ix) Kanchanpur, (x) Agar, (xi) Manjari, (xii) Badalapur,
(xiii) Morjhadi, (xiv) Gotra, and (xv) Sangavi pumping test.

100
Evaluation of Analytical Methods to Study Aquifer Properties with Pumping Test in Deccan…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84632

The large area is under basaltic rock and alluvium patches with reference to
geological map. The average annual rainfall of the Akola district is 750–950 mm.
The river originates from the southwest part of the Patur tahsil, Washim district.
The Morna river basin is 90 km long; however, there are no main tributaries of this
basin, with few small tributaries pouring into the river [7, 9].

3. Methodology

Fifteen observation wells were established for the analysis of pumping test data
using GPS and field verification of the Morna river basin. The 15 observation wells’
data were collected from study area after the time drawn graphs of these wells were
prepared with the help of Aquifer software. They are particularly calculated for the
graphical presentation and for obtaining detailed information about pumping test data.
Therefore, two methods such as a pumping test and slug test are included in the aquifer
software. These results were calculated and plotted in graphs using different aquifer
parameters with five techniques, namely Papadopulos and Cooper method, Theis
method, Theis with Jocob correlation, Hantush, and z time drawn method (Figure 2).

4. Result and discussion

Pumping tests were performed on large-diameter observation wells in basaltic

rock in the Washim and Akola districts of Maharashtra, India. All observation wells
were in the basaltic rock and alluvium zones. The alluvium groundwater has high
salt content in the wells. The normal value of transmissivity in the Deccan trap is
30–100 sq.mt/day [10]. The analysis of the effect of the 15 pumping test wells
was carried out using five aquifer methods to categorize the wells as excellent,
moderate, and low productivity wells. The results show that observation wells in the
basaltic hard rock regions display excellent prospective for sustainable groundwater
exploration with increase of protected yields. Some observation wells in the allu-
vium zone displays moderate due to groundwater’s high range of pH with medium
safe yield to very low protected yield and poor recovery. The outcome of pumping
test data is the understanding of the transmissivity and permeability values. These
values can be calculated based on the pumping test data and aquifer graphs [11].
All of this analysis of aquifer properties may also be used for further groundwater
development and planning of the basin area. The result of study area shows an
inadequate groundwater during pumping test data and graphs (Table 1).

5. Geology

The study of classification of basalt rocks deciphers as main group of rock

formation and lava flows. The basaltic rock is deposited around the southern part of
Deccan rocks belonging to the Cretaceous age. These basalt rocks are divided into
primary and secondary openings with regard to fractures and joints [12].

6. Pumping test

The groundwater was monitored and water level variations of wells were recorded
with help of aquifer graphs and convention methods of pumping test analysis [13].
In past years, many different methods were proposed on the aquifer mapping by few

101
102
Manjari Badalapur Morjhadi Gotra Sangavik Andura Antri village Ural village Saarpati Morgaon Sangavi Dhudhala Hatrun Kanchanpur Agar village
village village village village village village village village village village village village

Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water Time Water
level level level level level level level level level level level level level level level

1 4.1 1 3.8 1 4.5 1 5.5 1 4.2 1 4.5 1 5.8 1 6 1 8.7 1 11.38 1 5.3 1 4.8 1 5.2 1 4.8 1 5.6
Groundwater Hydrology

5 6.1 4 5.11 2 8.4 4 6.8 3 5.2 3 6.1 3 13 2 8.7 2 8.9 3 7.2 2 7.8 3 8.4 2 8.9 5 8.4 2 6.12

6 8.8 9 8.11 3 6.2 6 8.10 5 4.38 5 7.10 4 15 3 9.2 3 9.4 5 12.8 4 10.5 4 7.2 3 7.8 8 7.6 3 8.4

8 8.5 18 6.8 5 9.3 12 9.5 10 5.6 8 8.4 6 15.15 5 7.1 7 11.14 10 5.8 8 13.6 6 5.11 5 6.3 10 6.12 4 7.2

15 10.2 28 7.4 8 9.3 15 9.8 15 8.4 15 9.12 10 8.8 10 5.4 11 12.3 30 12 10 15.4 8 6.8 10 8.12 15 7.2 8 9.2

25 10.5 40 4.2 15 10.2 20 10.12 18 6.4 25 10.1 20 9.10 30 10.2 30 10.4 50 6.1 40 13.1 15 11.2 15 9.6 25 10.11 15 10.5

30 11.1 60 10.8 25 9.7 80 10.32 25 8.8 30 11.8 40 8.18 50 8.74 50 5.6 100 11.5 80 12.2 20 13.2 20 12.4 40 8.14 25 9.6

100 9.3 150 9.12 30 8.6 170 11.55 40 7.8 50 9.20 50 7.4 60 11.24 100 8.63 300 8.18 100 10.4 50 12.9 45 11.8 60 10.11 40 12.8

180 7.6 500 11.14 40 11.12 250 10.4 85 8.12 80 11.2 70 10.5 80 9.5 200 4.9 500 11.88 400 13.55 100 11.3 60 13.4 100 9.2 100 10.11

300 11.5 1000 12.8 150 10.11 400 12.3 100 10.18 100 10.12 100 10.3 100 8.2 250 9.12 900 12.2 700 10.75 500 9.6 100 13.2 250 10.5 200 11.2

800 12.12 1500 10.5 200 12.6 800 13.5 250 9.4 200 9.30 400 5.14 200 6.3 350 5.9 1000 8.15 900 12.1 800 12.9 1200 12.12 300 9.4 500 13.2

1000 10.4 2000 12.8 300 13.2 1000 10.30 500 10.11 500 12.4 500 7.3 600 5.2 400 12.4 1500 15.5 1500 14.48 1000 11.10 2000 10.11 900 11.2 1000 11.4

1800 11.15 2500 13.2 500 12.8 1800 13.8 1000 11.5 1000 10.15 600 6.6 800 9.1 1000 9.75 2000 9.8 1900 13.6 1500 13.4 2500 12.4 1000 11.14 2500 7.2

2000 12.12 3000 13.11 1000 11.6 2500 15.20 1500 12.5 1500 13.8 800 8.9 1000 8.6 1500 10.3 3000 12.10 2000 7.8 2500 15.20 3500 9.6 1500 13.2 3000 9.8

3000 13.5 4000 14.8 1500 14.2 3200 16.0 2000 12.8 2000 10.8 1000 7.6 1500 15 2000 8.63 3500 5.8 3000 10.80 3500 17.21 4000 12.8 2000 8.6 4000 14.14

Note: Time (min) and water level (ft).

Table 1.
Details pumping test data of Morna river basin.
Evaluation of Analytical Methods to Study Aquifer Properties with Pumping Test in Deccan…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84632

researchers to study the pumping test data and aquifer parameters. The output of the
study area may be utilized for the analysis of groundwater flow in unconfined and
confined aquifer of the Deccan trap rock especially in Maharashtra, India [14].

7. Theis with Jocob correlation method

Aquifer parameters are determined by easy methods; for example Cooper and
Jacob [15] modified the Theis method and suggested it for better understanding of
groundwater flow in the basalt rocks [15, 16]. The method does not require curve
matching. The semi-log papers can be used for plotting time-drawdown data (time on
log axis and drawdown on linear axis). The wells values should be less than 0.01
because the test should be conducted. From 15 observation wells, data have been
correlated in Theis with Jacob equations of aquifer method using Aquifer software.
The maximum wells’ recharge time is very low due to the availability of groundwater
flow in the region and remaining wells is good but the recharge is so much large show
in the Theis with Jacob correlated graph (Figure 3). Theis type curve is one of the
presented type curves, which has the plotted values of W (u) and 1/u on a log-log
sheet. On a similar log-log sheet, field values of drawdown and time are plotted. In the
matched position, a match point is selected. The values of W (u) and l/u for this
match point is read from the type curve (Eq. (1) and (2)).
The Theis (log-log) graph shows the maximum observation wells of water level
ranges in between 4 and 12 m and the recharge time is very less as compared to
other wells of the study area (Figure 4).
The aquifer parameters are calculated by the following formulas:

Q
T ¼ 2:3 , (1)
ð4πΔsÞ
Tt0
S ¼ 2:25 (2)
r:r

Figure 3.
Drawdown versus time plot using Theis with Jacob correlation.

103
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 4.
Drawdown versus time plot using the Theis log-log method.

8. Hantush’s method

The groundwater flow of observation wells under the leaky aquifer which is a
horizontal plane may be analyzed with the aquifer technique. The Hantush method
is used for confined aquifers on the straight flat surface. From the pumping test,
data have been analyzed using the Hantush log-log method by the aquifer software
(Eq. (3)) (Figure 5). There is a single additional unidentified parameter mixed up,
the leakage feature L, which is specified [17–19]

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi c
Ln ¼ ðKDÞn (3)

Figure 5.
Drawdown versus time plot using the Hantush method (log-log).

104
Evaluation of Analytical Methods to Study Aquifer Properties with Pumping Test in Deccan…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84632

Figure 6.
Drawdown versus time plot using Papadopulos and Cooper log-log method.

9. The Papadopulos and Cooper method

Papadopulos and Cooper [20] have given a theoretical solution for analyzing the
pumping test data from large diameter wells taking into account the storage capac-
ity of the wells. Papadopulos and Cooper equation is totally dependent on the
assumption that the aquifer is confined, isotropic, and extensive; the entire thick-
ness of the aquifer is penetrated by the well, unstudied state of flow at constant
discharge date and negligible well losses [21]. The general flow equation is given by
Papadopulos and Cooper for a well of large diameter as follows (Eq. (4) and (5)):

T ¼ Q :F ðUwÞ=4 (4)
SS ¼ ð4TtÞ=ð1=Uw rw2Þ (5)

The field data are plotted on a transparent bio logarithmic paper (of modules
equivalent to that of type curve) with “s,” the drawdown on Y-axis, and “t,” the
time since pumping started on Y-axis. In this method, the groundwater flow is
shown using log-log methods using Aquifer software (Cooper and Jacob)
(Figure 6).

10. Discussion and conclusion

Many aquifer mapping project implementers have observed problems and

knowledge gaps that require to be focused or would be cooperative to know at
different stages in a setup to handle aquifer or groundwater recharge projects. The
issue of study area, every graph and pumping data, as discussed above, makes an
input to the area of information that helps block these breaks, as shown in results.
These tables of pumping data can be used as guidelines to help discover information
on problems most essential to developers and supervisors of future and current projects.

105
Groundwater Hydrology

Figure 7.
Time drawn method using aquifer software 2014; Jacob’s semi-log (slope) method.

The area is very high runoff found on the surface and this since all area is need
water conservation structures in the ground of confined and unconfined layers. The
analysis of Theis with Jacob correlation, Jacob’s semi-log, Hantush, and Papadopulos
and Cooper methods systematically shows groundwater recharge and their level in
the basaltic rock area. The results can be used by local village society and govern-
ment agency to approach the sustainable use of groundwater (Figure 7).

Author details

Kanak N. Moharir1*, Chaitanya B. Pande1, Sudhir Kumar Singh2

and Rodrigo Abarca Del Rio3

1 Department of Geology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati, India

2 K. Banerjee Centre of Atmospheric and Ocean Studies, IIDS, Nehru Science

Centre, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India

3 Departamento de Geofísica, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile

*Address all correspondence to: kanak.moharir1@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

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Evaluation of Analytical Methods to Study Aquifer Properties with Pumping Test in Deccan…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84632

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 Edited by Muhammad Salik Javaid

The two fields of knowledge “geology” and “hydrology” always go hand in hand, often
giving rise to the terms “geohydrology” and “hydrogeology.” The importance of the
science of water, commonly called “hydrologic science,” is always complemented by
the “science of the interior of the earth.” Whereas hydrology is concerned with the
quality and quantity of underground water, its movement, extraction, and recharge,
geology talks of the rock matrix and the structure in which this water is contained,
stored, and moved around.In recent times, the knowledge of geohydrology or the
hydrology of groundwater has gained an impetus many times its original scale; and
with that, acquisition, expansion, research, advancement, and dissemination of this
knowledge have become more significant. With so many dimensions of geohydrology
available for exploration, research, and technological advancement, any work
contributing to any dimension of geohydrology and groundwater will find its right
place. This compilation of chapters is going to play a very important part in furthering
the knowledge of geohydrology and may prove an interesting and useful read for
various cross-sections of academia, researchers, engineers, hydrologists, and all
categories of water consumers.

ISBN 978-1-83880-623-1
978-1-83880-621-7

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