Superconductivity

❖ Introduction to superconductivity.
❖ Types of superconductivity.
❖ Properties of superconductivity.
❖ Meissner Effect.
❖ Josepson Effect.
❖ Isotope effect.
❖ Flux quantization.
❖ Critical Magnetic Field.
❖ London’s Theory and London’s Equation.
❖ BCS Theory and superconductivity.
❖ Advantage and disadvantage of BCS Theory.
 Introduction to Superconductivity
There are two types of materials like metals as well as insulators. Metals allow the flow of electrons and carry electric
charge with them like silver, copper ,etc. whereas insulators hold electrons and they will not allow the flow of
electrons like wood, rubber, etc. In the 20th century, new laboratory methods were developed by physicists to cool
materials to zero temperature. He began investigating on some elements to know how the electricity will be changed
in such conditions like lead & mercury, as they conduct electricity under a certain temperature without
resistance. They have discovered the same behavior in several compounds like from ceramics to carbon nanotubes.
This article discusses an overview of the superconductor.

What is Superconductor?
Definition: A material that can conduct electricity without resistance is known as a superconductor. In most of the
cases, in some materials like compounds otherwise metallic elements offers some amount of resistance at room
temperature, although they offer low resistance at a temperature is called its critical temperature.

The electrons flow from atom to atom is frequently done using certain materials once attaining the critical
temperature; therefore the material can be called superconductive material. These are employed in numerous fields
like magnetic resonance imaging & medical science. Most of the materials available in the market are not
superconductive. So they must be in a very low energy state to turn into superconductive. Current research is
focusing on compounds development to develop into superconductive at high temperatures.
 Introduction to Superconductivity
Superconductivity : The Phenomenon in which the electrical resistance of a given specimen of Metal or alloy Falls
suddenly to zero , on cooling it to extremely low temperature is called superconductivity.
Superconductors:
The substance Which show superconductivity at low temperature are called superconductors.
Types of Superconductors
Superconductors are classified into two types namely type-I & type-II.
Types of Superconductors

Type – I superconductors Types-II Superconductors

 Types of superconductors
Depending upon the behavior of super conductors in the external Magnetic field, They have been classified into two
categories:
I. Type-I (Soft Superconductors).
II. Type-II ( Hard Superconductor).
Type-I Superconductor
This kind of superconductor includes basic conductive parts and these are utilized in different fields from electrical
cabling to microchips on the computer. These types of superconductors lose their superconductivity very simply when
it is placed in the magnetic field at the critical magnetic field (Hc). After that, it will become like a conductor. These
types of semiconductors are also named as soft superconductors due to the reason of loss of superconductivity. These
superconductors obey the Meissner effect completely. The superconductor examples are Zinc and Aluminum.
Type-II Superconductor
This kind of superconductor will lose their superconductivity slowly but not simply as it is arranged within the
exterior magnetic field. When we observe the graphical representation between magnetization vs. the magnetic field,
when the second type semiconductor is placed within a magnetic field, then it will lose its superconductivity slowly.
This kind of semiconductors will start to lose their superconductivity on the less significant magnetic field &
totally drop their superconductivity at the higher critical magnetic field. The condition between the slighter critical
magnetic field & higher critical magnetic field is called an intermediate state otherwise vortex state. This type of
semiconductor is also named as hard superconductors due to the reason they lose their superconductivity slowly but
not simply. These semiconductors will obey the effect of Meissner but not totally. The best examples of these are NbN
and Babi3. These superconductors are applicable for strong field superconducting magnets.
 Difference between Type I and Type II Superconductors

Type I Type II
 Difference between Type I and Type II Superconductors
Type I Type II

➢ They do not follow the Meissner Effect Strictly.

➢They are Perfectly Diamagnetic. ➢ They Don’t Jump Abruptly To normal State like
➢They follow Meissner effect strictly Type 1 Semiconductors as field is increased.
➢The value of Magnetic field strength ➢ They show perfect diamagnetism for fields less
than HC1.
is very low (0.1T)
➢ Since large Magnetic field is required to destroy
➢These Superconductors find very the superconducting properties . So they are
limited applications because of their called Hard superconductors .
lower HC ➢ They have many practical Applications.
 Properties of Superconductors
The superconducting materials show some amazing properties which are essential for current technology. The
research on these properties is still going on to recognize and utilize these properties in various fields which are
listed below.

• Infinite Conductivity/ Zero Electric Resistance

• Meissner Effect
• Transition Temperature/Critical Temperature
• Josephson Currents
• Critical Current
• Persistent Currents

Infinite Conductivity/ Zero Electric Resistance

In the Superconducting condition, the superconducting material illustrates the zero electric resistance. When the
material is cooled under its transition temperature, then its resistance will be reduced to zero suddenly. For
instance, Mercury shows zero resistance under 4k.
 Meissner Effect
Meissner Effect

When a superconductor is cooled under the critical temperature, then it doesn’t permit the magnetic field to go
through in it. This occurrence in superconductors is known as the Meissner effect.
 Meissner Effect
Meissner Effect Proved That the Superconductor is Perfectly Diamagnetic .
Give the Evidence That Superconductor is Diamagnetic ?
The Flux Density (B )in a Magnetic Material is related to the strength of Applied Field (H).
B = µo(H+M) Where M is the Intensity of Magnetization , H =The Applied Strength . , B = Magnetic Flux Density .
According to Meissner Effect At T<Tc , B=0
So, 0 = µo(H+M)
 (H+M) = 0
 H = -M ----------(1)
As Magnetic Susceptibility ,
χ = M /H = M /-M = -1
For diamagnetic Material The value of Magnetic Susceptibility is -1. so, The Superconductor is diamagnetic (Proved).
Meissner Effect States That
“ If a superconductor is cooled in a magnetic field down to critical Temperature (TC). Then the Magnetic Field Lines
are pushed out of the body of superconductor”
This is Known as Meissner Effect or Flux Exclusion.
 Josepson Effect

Josephson effect is very important effect related to superconductivity Phenomenon B.D Josephson in 1962 observed
that when a very thin layer 1 nm is sandwiched between 2 superconductors then a super current flow across the
junction without developing any voltage . This phenomenon is called Josephson effect. Here, insulating layer forms
weak link between superconductors . This weak link is called josephson Junction.
A current is made to flow in a bar of superconductor . A voltmeter is connected across the ends of the bar. The
voltmeter reading is Zero in this case suppose bar is cut into 2 pieces and voltmeter show reading equal to open
current voltage of cell .
Now distance between 2 pieces is reduced to 1nm , voltmeter again show Zero reading indicating that a current
flows across the gap. This is called josephson effect.
 Isotope Effect
sj
The Isotope Effect was discovered in 1950 by Maxwell and Raynolds, While were obtaining
critical temperature of different isotopes of mercury (Hg). According to isotopic effect .
“ The Critical Temperature (TC) of superconductors varies with isotope Mass (M) according to
following Relation:
TC ∞ 1 / Mα Where α is a number called isotope co-efficient.
TC = Constant / Mα

Log(TC)

Log(M)
 Flux quantization

Consider a Metallic Ring, Placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to its plane. If we lower the
temperature of ring and make it superconducting ,the magnetic flux in the hole of ring will be
trapped even when the magnetic field is withdrawn as magnetic field lines can’t pass through the
Material of the superconducting ring London Predicted that Magnetic Flux Ф Trapped must be
quantized.
The values that Ф can have are,
Ф = n (h / 2e) n= 1,2,3…
Ф = n Фo where , Фo = h/2e = 2.068 × 10-15 Tm2
This is Known as Quantum of Flux .
 Critical Magnetic Field (Hc)

when a sufficiently strong Magnetic Field is applied to a superconductor Then it

looses it’s superconductivity. The value of Magnetic Field at which the
superconductor looses it’s superconductivity is called Critical Magnetic Field (HC).
The relation between critical magnetic field (HC) and critical Temperature (TC) is
given by ,
HC= Ho ( 1 – T / TC) --------(1)
Where, Ho = Magnetic field strength at T =0 .
TC = critical temperature of specimen When there is no Magnetic Field HC = 0.
0 = Ho ( 1 – T / TC)
=>( 1 – T / TC) = 0
T / TC = 1
T = TC
 Properties of Superconductors
Transition Temperature:
This temperature is also known as critical temperature. When the critical temperature of a superconducting material is
changing the conducting state from normal to superconducting.
“The Temperature at which resistance of specimen becomes Zero and it enters in superconducting state , is called
critical or transition Temperature. For Example The Value of TC for Hg is 4.2 k .
Josephson Current
If the two superconductors are divided with the help of thin-film in insulating material, then it forms a junction of low resistance
to found the electrons with copper pair. It can tunnel from one surface of the junction to the other surface. So the current because
of the flow of cooper pairs is known as Josephson Current.
Critical Current
When the current supplied through a conductor under the condition of superconducting, then a magnetic field can be developed. If
the current flow increases beyond a certain rate then the magnetic field can be enhanced, which is equivalent tothe critical value
of the conductor at which this returns to its usual condition. The flow of current value is known as the critical current.
Persistent Currents
If a superconductor ring is arranged in a magnetic field above its critical temperature, at the present cool the superconductor ring
under its critical temperature. If we eliminate this field, then the flow of current can be induced within the ring because of its self-
inductance. From Lenz law, the induced current opposes the change within flux that flows through the ring. When the ring is
placed in a superconducting condition, then the flow of current will be induced to continue the flow of current is named as the
persistent current.
This current generates a magnetic flux to make the flux flowing throughout the
constant ring.
 London’s Theory and London Equation
The First Theory to explain the occurrence of superconductivity in Metallic Superconductors was given by London
Brothers (Fritz London and Heinz London ) in 1935. London brothers started with the logic that if the electron in
superconductor do not encounter resistance they will continue to accelerate in the applied electric field E. According
to London theory superconductor contains Two Types of electrons 1) Normal electrons 2) Super Electrons . When
temperature of super conductor increases and the number of super electrons decreases . When temperature in
superconductor is decreased , no of normal electrons decreases number of super electrons increases at 0 k, At o k all
the electrons in super conductors are super electrons.
E
+ -
e e e e
e e e e

E = F / q = F/ -q
=> F = -eE
 London’s Theory and London Equation
Let n be the no of super electrons present in the volume of specimen of superconducting Material . At Constant
Electric Field E is applied across the ends of the superconductor. Then the Equations of Motions For super electrons
is given by ,
F = -eE = Ma
 -eE = m dvS/dt -------(1)
 dvS/dt = -eE / m ------(2)
Current density J = - nS vS e -----(3)
Differentiating (3) with respect to t Then ,
djS / dt = -nS e dvS / dt ---------(4)
Using (2) in (4) =>
djS /dt = -nS e (-eE/m)
 djS / dt = e2nS E/m --------(5)
This equation is known as London 1st Equation .
London First Equation Describe Superconductivity in such a way that,
If E = 0 then,
djS / dt = e2nS E/m
 djS / dt = 0
 JS = constant .
For Normal Conductor , J ∞ E , J = σ E , J = 0 .
 London’s Theory and London Equation
Super electrons or super current flow through the super conductor per unit area at a constant rate . There is no parameter to
resist the flow of super electron.
From 5 =>
E = m / e2nS × djS / dt ---------(6)
From Maxwell Equation ,
× E =-dB/dt -------(7)
× (m / e2nS × djS / dt ) = -dB/dt
 m / e2nS × djS / dt = -dB/dt
Intrigrating both side ,
B
m/ e2n Sʃ × djS / dt .dt = - ʃ dB/dt .dt
Bo
B
=> m / e2nS ×J = - [B] B
o
 m / e2nS × J = - (B – BO
According to Miesser Effect ,
B0 = 0
 m / e2nS × J = -B
 × J = -B n e /m -----(8)
 London’s Theory and London Equation

Equation (8) is Known as the London 2nd Equation .

This Equation States That a Magnetic field applied to superconductor creates a screening Current ,
Such that Curl of that current is oppositely directed to the field . It says that dc currents are
controlled by Magnetic Fields , As opposed to normal metals Where they are controlled by
Electric field J = σE.
 BCS Theory and Superconductivity

BCS

BARDEEN COOPER SHRIEFFER

Scientist Name
Superconductivity was discovered by Kamerlingh onnes in 1911. He is also known as father of
superconductivity. Many Theories for The Explanation of Phenomenon of super conductivity
were proposed like London theory etc. But BCS Theory Which is named after initials of Three
Physicists Bardeen , Cooper , Shrieffer is most successful and most widely Accepted Theory to
explain phenomenon of superconductivity. For this Theory Bardeen , Cooper, and shriffer got
Nobel prize of physics in 1972. BCS Theory superconductivity phenomenon by involving Two
Terms :
❖Electron – Phonon – Electron Interaction.
❖Cooper Pair
 Electron – Phonon – Interaction

Electron – Phonon- Electron interaction is the basis of BCS Theory. Thus Type of interaction was
originally suggested by Foohlich in 1950 but he could not Explain Superconductivity .
According to BCS Theory lattice Vibrations play an important role in superconductivity
Phenomenon.
Consider a lattice consists of positive ions When an electron passes through the lattice in interacts
with positive ions electrostatically coulomb Attraction takes place between electrons and positive
ions.
 Electron – Phonon – Interaction

As a result lattice get distorted and create a region of high positive charge Density which is called
Phonon . When another electrons enters the lattice it will attracted by this region of high positive
charge density. Phonon and two electrons will form a weak link between them instead of
Columbian Repulsion between them. In this way 2nd electron has interacted with First electron
through phonon . This Type of Interaction is called Electron – phonon – Electron Interaction.
we consider first electron have wave vector K and it emits a phonon q which is absorbed by
second electron with wave vector K’.
 Cooper Pairs

A Cooper pair is formed when electrons interact with each other through phonon attractively and
by overcoming the coulombs repulsive forces. The binding energy of cooper pair is of the order of
10-3 ev . Which is very small . As the superconductivity Phenomenon is due to these Cooper pairs
Thus superconductivity is low temperature Phenomenon. The electrons in cooper pair have
opposite spin and hence total spin of cooper pair is Zero. As total spin of a cooper pair is Zero so
they behave as a bosons and hence they follow Bose – Einstein statistics. As temperature greater
than critical temperature TC Cooper pairs are broken resulting in transition of superconducting
state into normal state.
 ❖Advantage and disadvantage of BCS Theory.

Advantages:
• Provides an explanation of the superconductivity of Type I
superconductors.
• Explains superconductivity within the realms of classical mechanics.
• Explains the relative difference in superconductivity between metals,
better conductors at normal temperatures are terrible superconductors.
Disadvantages:
• Does not explain the superconductivity of Type II superconductors.
• Does not predict the effects of superconductivity.