STUDY OF

COMPONENTS
ANDCIRCUITS
Poonam Hingmire 1
INTRODUCTION
• Electronic components are designed to function in specific ways. By adding
components to each other, we can modify the way electricity flows through an
electronic device and how it operates.

• In the designing of any electronic circuit, three most important considerations

are:

1. Circuit components like resistors,Capacitors, Transistors and Diodes.

2. Power sourceslike dc power supplies and signal generators.
3 . M easurement and analysis instruments like multimeters and
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).

Poonam Hingmire 2
BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Electronic elements that make up a circuit are connected together by conductors to

form a complete circuit.

a) Passive components: Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to

operate. They can not generate energy and Passive components cannot amplify or generate

an electrical signal. Examples are Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors.

b) Active components: An active component is an electronic component which

supplies energy to a circuit. Examples are Tube Devices and Semiconductor
Devices.

Poonam Hingmire 3
RESISTORS
• A Resistor is an electronic component that resists the flow of
electrical current.
• A resistor is typically used to control the amount of current that is
flowing in a circuit.
• Resistance is the property of materials to resist the flow of
electricity, and it is governed by Ohm's Law.
• The component which offers Resistance is called Resistor.
• Resistance is measured in units of ohms, which is indicated by
(Ω) omega .

Poonam Hingmire 4
RESISTOR SYMBOL

Poonam Hingmire 5
RESISTORS TYPES:
1. Fixed Resistor : Fixed resistors have a constant resistance value.
Different resistor materials are used for fixed resistors. For all
resistor types the used materials has influence on the resistor
properties like the tolerance, cost and noise.

2. Variable Resistor : their general property is that the resistance

value is adjustable. Most variable resistors are adjusted by
mechanical movement (linear or rotary).

Poonam Hingmire 6
FIXED RESISTORS :
1. Most fixed resistors are carbon resistors.
2. These are low wattage resistors.
3. The resistive material is carbon-clay composition. The leads are made up
of tinned copper.
4. Available in values ranging from few ohms to 100MΩ, having tolerance
5 to 20%.
5. The size of resistors change with their wattages(power ratings).

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Resistors: Size Comparison

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RESISTORS COLORCODE:
1. Resistors are usually very tiny, and it is challenging to print
resistance values on them.
2. So, color bands are printed on them to represent the electrical
resistance. These color bands are known as Resistor color code.
3. Color coding is used to calculate value of Resistor.
4. Color bands are printed on the outer body of resistor.
5. resistors have standard colors for the purpose of identification
of their resistance.

Poonam Hingmire 9
 COLORCODE CHART:
Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance Resistor color code Mnemonic:
0
Black 0 10 = 1 B. B. RO Y of Great Britain had
Brown 1 10 = 10
1
a Very Good W ife who
Red 2 10 = 100
2 wore Gold and Silver Necklace
3
Orange 3 10 = 1000
4
Yellow 4 10 = 10000
5
Green 5 10 = 100000
6
Blue 6 10 = 1000000
7
Violet 7 10 = 10000000
8
Grey 8 10 = 100000000
9
White 9 10 = 1000000000
-1
Gold - 10 = 0.1 ± 5%
-2
Silver - 10 = 0.01 ± 10%

No Color - - ±Po2ona
0%m Hing mire 10
COLORBANDS OFRESISTOR:

Poonam Hingmire 11
DETERMINING THE VALUE
OFTHE COLORCODED RESISTOR
• Hold the resistor.
• Look for the 3 colors which they are near on each other.
• Place it on your left side.

Correct

Poonam Hingmire 12
RESISTORCOLORCODE:

Copy the digit Copy the digit N umber of zero/s M inimum &
M aximum value

ACTUAL VALU
PooE
nam Hingmire 13
 COLORCODE FOR4 BAND RESISTOR:

• coded bands being read from left-to-right as follows:

1st Digit, 2 nd Digit, M ultiplier, Tolerance = Color, Color x 10 color Tolerance in O hm’s (Ω)

Yellow Violet Red = 4 7 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700Ω or 4.7 kΩ ± 5%

Poonam Hingmire 14
THE COLORCODED RESISTOR
• The Forth band is used to determine the percentage tolerance of
the resistor.
• Tolerance (Gold) = ± 5%
• Tolerance of the resistor is also an important property to
consider.
• A 100Ω resistor with 10% tolerance, means its value can be any
fixed value between 90 to 110 ohms.
• If resistor has no fourth tolerance band (N o Color) then the
default tolerance would be ± 20%.
Poonam Hingmire 15
Example 1:

Band colorsin
order RED RED BLACK GOLD
Digit 0
representation 10

Min : = Ω
Value
Max : = Ω

Poonam Hingmire 16
Example 1:

Band colors in
order RED RED BLACK GOLD

Digit 0
representation
2 2 10 = 1 ±5%
= 22 X 1± 5 % Min : 22- 1.1= 20.9 Ω
Value = 22 Ω ± 5 % Max : 22+ 1.1= 23.1 Ω

Tolerance= Value of resistor × v alue of tolerance band = 22 Ω × 5% = 1.1 Ω

The 22 Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 1.1 Ω could range from the actual value as much as 23.1 Ω
to as little as 20.9 Ω.
Poonam Hingmire 16
Example 2:

Band colors in
order RED GREEN RED GOLD

Digit
representation

Min :
Value
Max :

Poonam Hingmire 17
Example 2:

Band colors in
order RED GREEN RED GOLD

Digit 2
representation 2 5 10 = 100 ±5%

= 25 X 100 ± 5 % Min : 2.375 KΩ

Value
= 2500 Ω ± 5 % = 2.5K Ω ± 5 % Max : 2.625 KΩ

Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band = 2.5K Ω × 5% = 1.25 Ω

The 2.5K Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 1.25 Ω could range from the actual value as much
as 2.625 KΩ to as little as 2.375 KΩ.

Poonam Hingmire 17
Example 3:

Band colors
in order BROWN BLACK RED GOLD

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 20
Example 3:

Band colors in
order BR OWN BLACK RED GOLD

2
Digit representation 1 0 10 = 100 ±5%
= 10 X 100 ± 5 % Min : 950 Ω
Value
= 1000 Ω ± 5 % = 1K Ω ± 5 % Max : 1050 Ω

Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band = 1000 Ω × 5% = 50 Ω

The 1000 Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 50 Ω could range from the actual value as much
as 1050 Ω to as little as 950 Ω Poonam Hingmire 21
Example 4:

V IO LET G REEN YELLO W G O LD

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 22
Example 4:

V IO LET G REEN YELLO W G O LD

Band colors in
VIOLET GREEN YELLOW GOLD
order

Digit
7 5 104 = 10000 ±5%
representation

= 75 X 10000 ± 5 % Min : 712.5 K Ω

Value
= 750000 Ω ± 5 % = 750 K Ω ± 5 % Max : 787.5 K Ω

Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band = 750 KΩ × 5% = 37.5 K Ω

The 750 K Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 37.5K Ω could range from the actual value as
much as 787.5 K Ω to as little as 712.5 K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 23
Example 5:

O RA NGE BRO W N SILVER G O LD

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 20
Example 5:

O RA NGE BRO W N SILVER G O LD

Band colors in
ORANGE BROWN SILVER GOLD
order

Digit 3 1
-2
10 = 0.01 ±5%
representation

Value = 31 X 0.01 ± 5 % Min : 0.2945 Ω

= 0.31 Ω ± 5 % (0.0155) Max : 0.3255 Ω

Poonam Hingmire 20
Example 6:

O RA NGE ORANGE BR OWN G O LD

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 26
Example 6:

O RA NGE ORANGE BR OWN G O LD

Band colors in
order
ORANGE ORANGE BROWN GOLD

Digit 1
3 3 10 = 10 ±5%
representation

Value = 33 X 10 ± 5 % Min : 313.5 Ω

= 330 Ω ± 5 % (16.5) Max : 346.5 Ω
Poonam Hingmire 27
Example 7:

YELLO W ORANGE ORANGE GOLD

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 28
Example 7:

YELLO W ORANGE ORANGE GOLD

Band colors in
order YELLOW ORANGE ORANGE GOLD

Digit 3
4 3 10 = 1000 ±5%
representation

= 43 X 1000 ± 5 % Min : 40.85K Ω

Value = 43000 Ω ± 5 % = 43KΩ ± 5 % (2.15) Max : 45.15K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 29
Example 8:

BRO W N RED G REEN G O LD

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 30
Example 8:

BRO W N RED G REEN G O LD

Band colors in
order BROWN RED GREEN GOLD

Digit 5
1 2 10 = 100000 ±5%
representation

= 12 X 100000 ± 5 % Min : 1140 K Ω

Value = 1200000 Ω ± 5 % = 1200KΩ ± 5 % (60) Max : 1260 K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 31
Example 9:

G REEN BLUE YELLO W SILVER

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 32
Example 9:

G REEN BLUE YELLO W SILVER

Band colors in
order GREEN BLUE YELLOW SILVER

Digit 4
5 6 10 = 10000 ± 10%
representation

= 56 X 10000 ± 10 % Min : 504 K Ω

Value = 560000 Ω ± 10 % = 560KΩ ± 10 % (56) Max : 616 K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 33
Example 10:

O RA NGE W H ITE BRO W N G O LD

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value
Poonam Hingmire 34
Example 10:

O RA NGE W H ITE BRO W N G O LD

Band colors in
order ORANGE WHITE BROWN GOLD

Digit 1
3 9 10 = 10 ± 5%
representation

= 39 X 10 ± 5 % Min : 370.5 Ω
Value = 390 Ω ± 5 % (19.5) Max : 409.5 K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 35
 Resistor color code:
• REVERSE
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS
Example 1 :

350 OHMS ±5% = 350 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
3 5 0 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =1
order ORANGE GREEN BROWN GOLD
Poonam Hingmire 36
 Resistor color code:
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS

Example 2 :

10 Ω ± 5% = 10 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
1 0 1 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 37
 Resistor color code:
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS

Example 2 :

10 Ω ± 5% = 10 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
1 0 1 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =0
order Brown Black Black gold
Poonam Hingmire 38
 Resistor color code:
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS

Example 3 :

850,000 Ω ± 10%= 850 K Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
8 5 10000 ± 10%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 39
 Resistor color code:
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS

Example 3 :

850,000 Ω ± 10%= 850 K Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
8 5 10000 ± 10%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =4
order gray green yellow silver
Poonam Hingmire 40
 Resistor color code:
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS

Example 4 :

6500 Ω ± 5%= 6.5 K Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
6 5 100 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 41
 Resistor color code:
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS

Example 4 :

6500 Ω ± 5%= 6.5 K Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
6 5 100 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =2
order Blue Green red gold
Poonam Hingmire 42
 Resistor color code:
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS

Example 5 :

5.3 Ω ± 5%= 5.3 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
5 3 0.1 ±5%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 43
 Resistor color code:
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS

Example 5 :

5.3 Ω ± 5%= 5.3 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
5 3 0.1 ±5%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 44
 Resistor color code:
VA LU E CO LO R BA N DS

Example 6 :

230 Ω ± 5%= 230 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
2 3 10 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =1
order Red orange Brown gold
Poonam Hingmire 45
 FIXED RESISTOR: WIREWOUND RESISTOR
• It uses a resistance wire, such as nichrome.
• These resistors are created by winding a
length of resistive wire such as nichrome
on to a round, hollow porcelain or
ceramic core.
• The ends of the winding are attached to
metal terminals inserted in the core.
• This assembly is coated with enamel
containing powdered glass. It is then
heated.
Poonam Hingmire 46
 FIXED RESISTOR: WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

• This coating is very smooth and gives

mechanical protection to the winding.
• It also helps in conducting heat away
from the unit quickly.
• The wattage of wire wound resistor is
high, it can be about 200w.
• The range of these resistors are from 1Ω
to 100 KΩ.

Poonam Hingmire 47
VARIABLE RESISTOR

Symbol of Variable Resistor

• A resistor whose resistance value can be adjusted as per

requirement is called as Variable Resistor.
• The device, which not only restricts the flow of electric current
but also control (increase and decrease) the flow of electric
current is called variable resistor.
• When we vary the resistance of a variable resistor to a higher
resistance value, the electric current flowing through the variable
resistor will decrease and vice a versa.
Poonam Hingmire 48
VARIABLE RESISTOR

Symbol of Variable Resistor

• The variable resistor is a resistor that controls (increase or

decrease) the flow of electric current when we vary or change its
resistance.
• In other words, when we vary the resistance of the variable
resistor, the electric current flowing through it will increase or
decrease.
• The two most common used variable resistors
are Rheostat and Potentiometer.
Poonam Hingmire 49
VARIABLE RESISTOR: POTENTIOMETER
• A potentiometer (also known as a POT)
is defined as a 3 terminal variable resistor
in which the resistance is manually varied
to control the flow of electric current.
• A potentiometer acts as an adjustable Symbol
voltage divider. Potentiometer Resistor
• A potentiometer is a manually adjustable
variable resistor with 3 terminals.
• Two terminals are connected to both
ends of a resistive element, and the third
terminal connects to a sliding contact,
called a wiper, moving over the resistive
element.
• The position of the wiper determines the
output voltage of the potentiometer.
Poonam Hingmire 50
Poonam Hingmire 51
VARIABLE RESISTOR: RHEOSTATS
• A rheostat is a variable resistor which is
used to control current flowing in a
circuit. Symbol

• They are able to vary the resistance in a

circuit without interruption.
• The construction is very similar to the
construction of a potentiometers. Rotary Rheostat
• It uses only two connections, even when
3 terminals (as in a potentiometer) are
present.
• The first connection is made to one end
of the resistive element and the other
connection to the wiper (sliding contact). Linear Rheostat

Poonam Hingmire 3
8
VARIABLE RESISTOR: RHEOSTATS
• These rheostats have a linear resistive
path.
Linear Rheostat
• The sliding terminal slides over this path.
• There are two fixed terminals however
only one of the two is used.
• The other terminal is connected to the
slider.
• These are mostly used in laboratory
applications.
• M ostly wire-wound resistive path along a
linear cylinder shaped material, is used.

Poonam Hingmire 53
CAPACITOR
• Capacitor is basically meant to store
electrons (or electrical energy) and
release them whenever desired.
• Capacitors are simple passive device that
can store an electrical charge on their
plates when connected to a voltage
source. CAPACITOR
• A component which has the ability or
“capacity” to store energy in the form of
an electrical charge producing a potential
difference (Static Voltage) across its plates,
much like a small rechargeable battery.

Poonam Hingmire 54
 The Capacitance of a Capacitor
• Capacitance is the electrical property of a
capacitor and is the measure of a capacitors
ability to store an electrical charge onto its
two plates.
• Unit of capacitance being
the Farad (abbreviated to F).
• Note that capacitance, C is always positive in C
value and has no negative units.
• By applying a voltage to a capacitor and
measuring the charge on the plates, the ratio
of the charge Q to the voltage V will give
the capacitance value of the capacitor and is
therefore given as: C = Q/V
• quantity of charge on the plates as: CAPACITOR WORKING

Q =CxV Poona mHingmire 41

 CAPACITOR
• A capacitor consists of tw o or more parallel
conductive (metal) plates which are not
connected or touching each other, but are
electrically separated either by air or by some
form of a good insulating material such as waxed
paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a
liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors.
• The insulating layer between a capacitors plates
is commonly called the Dielectric.
• There are two types of electrical charge, a
positive charge in the form of Protons and a
negative charge in the form of Electrons.
• When a DC voltage is placed across a capacitor,
the positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on
one plate while a corresponding and opposite
negative (-ve) charge accumulates on the other CAPACITOR WORKING
plate. Poona mHingmire 56
 CAPACITORUNIT
• Farad is a very large unit of measurement to use on its own so sub-
multiples of the Farad are generally used such as micro-farads, nano-
farads and pico-farads.

• Standard U nits of Capacitance

• Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

• Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001= 10-9 F

• Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

Poona mHingmire 57
TYPES OFCAPACITOR

• WHAT AFFECTS THE CAPACITORS ABITY TO STORE

CHARGES?

1. AREA

2. DISTAN CE BETW EEN TH E PLATES

3. DIELECTRIC
Poona mHingmire 58
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITOR
1. AREA

Poona mHingmire 59
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITOR
2. DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PLATES

Poona mHingmire 60
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITOR
3. DIELECTRIC

• The presence of the dielectric

material weakens the electric
field between the plates.

• So V is reduced.
• Since C= Q/V and Q=CV
• C is increased for fixed Q.
Poona mHingmire 61
TYPES OFCAPACITOR

1. MICA CAPACITOR
2. CERAMIC CAPACITOR
3. PAPER CAPACITOR
4. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR
5. VARIABLE CAPACITOR

Poona mHingmire 62
MICA CAPACITOR

Poona mHingmire 63
CERAMIC CAPACITOR

Poona mHingmire 64
PAPERCAPACITOR

Poona mHingmire 65
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR

Poona mHingmire 66
VARIABLE CAPACITOR

Poona mHingmire 67
 INDUCTOR
• An Inductor is a passive electrical component.
• It is a two terminal component which stores energy in its
magnetic fields.
• It is also referred as coil or choke.
• It blocks any changes in current flowing through it.
• The inductor is characterized by the value of inductance
which is the ratio of voltage (EMF) and current change
inside the coil. L
• If an electric current flows through this coil of wire it symbol
produces a magnetic field around it.
• The strength of the magnetic field induced by the electric
current flowing around the central core depends on the
type of material of the core, the number of coils of the
wire, and the cross-sectional area and length of the coil.
• The unit of inductance is Henry and it is indicated by the
symbol L . Poona mHingmire 54
 INDUCTOR WORKING
• when current is applied through an Inductor,
it develops magnetic field around it.
• Energy applied to an Inductor is stored in the
form of M agnetic field.
• The direction of Magnetic field developed
will be in opposite to the direction of flow of
current.
• Therefore Inductors resist sudden change in
current flowing through it.
• This ability of Inductor is termed as
Inductance and every Inductor will have some
inductance in it.
• This is given by the symbol L and measured in
Henry.
• The inductance of an Inductor is given by
Poona mHingmire
 TYPES OFINDUCTOR
1. A ir Core Inductors

• In this type of inductor, core is completely absent .

• These inductors offer high reluctance path for the
magnetic field, hence less inductance.
Air core Inductor Symbol
• The air core inductors have larger coils to produce
higher field densities.
• These are used in high frequency applications
including TV and radio receivers.

Poona mHingmire Air core Inductor

 TYPES OFINDUCTOR
1. Iron-Core Inductors
• These Inductors have Ferromagnetic materials,
such as ferrite or iron, as the core material.

• The usage of such core materials helps in the

increase of inductance, due to their high magnetic Iron-core Inductor Symbol

permeability.
• Permeability measures the ability of supporting
the formation of magnetic fields within the
materials
Poona mHingmire
Iron-core Inductor
 TRANSFORMERS
• A transformer is an electrical device which, by
the principles of electromagnetic induction,
transfers electrical energy from one electric
circuit to another, without changing the
frequency.
• The energy transfer usually takes place with a
change of voltage and current.
• Transformers either increases or decreases AC
voltage.
• It consists of a pair of insulated wire wound
around a magnetic core.
• The winding to which we connect the voltage
or current to be converted is called the primary
winding and the output winding is called the
secondary winding. Poonam Hingmire
SYMBOL
72
 TRANSFORMERS
• The transformer consists of two windings
wound on a magnetic core.
• The purpose of having a core is because air is
not a very good supporter of magnetic fields,
so having a magnetic core increases the
magnetic field for a given amount of current
flowing through one winding, which in turn
creates a stronger current in the other,
increasing the overall efficiency of the device.
• When a current passes through the primary, a
magnetic field is set up in the core and is
confined mostly to the core.
• This magnetic field passes through the middle
of the secondary and hence induces a current
in the other by the law of mutual induction. WORKING
Poonam Hingmire 73
Types of Transformers
• When constructing a transformer, it becomes very important to
specify the type of transformer as either step up or step down as this
determines the number of turns that will exist in the primary or
secondary coil.

• Majorly there are two types of voltage transformers;

1. Step D own Transformers

2 . S t e p U p T r a nsfor me rs

Poonam Hingmire 74
 STEPDOWN TRANSFORMERS

• A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is less than its input (primary)
voltage is called a step-down transformer.
• The number of turns on the primary of the transformer is greater than the turn on the secondary
of the transformer, i.e., T2 < T1.
• It is made up of two or more coil wound on the iron core of the transformer.
• It works on the principle of magnetic induction between the coils.
• The voltage applied to the primary of the coil magnetize the iron core which induces the
secondary windings of the transformer.
• Thus the voltage transforms from primary to the secondary winding of the transformer.
Poonam Hingmire 75
 STEPUPTRANSFORMERS

• A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is greater than its input (primary)
voltage is called a step-up transformer.
• It decreases the output current for keeping the input and output power of the system equal.
• The E1 and E2 are the voltages, and T1 and T2 are the number of turns on the primary and
secondary winding of the transformer.
• The number of turns on the secondary of the transformer is greater than that of the primary, i.e.,
T2 > T1.
• The primary winding of the step-up transformer is made up of thick insulated copper wire because
the low magnitude current flows through it.
Poonam Hingmire 76
Semi Conductor Components
Definations:
⚫Semi-Conductor: is a device that has the resistance of an insulator and the conduction of
a conductor. Most devices are made up of Silicon or Germanium.

⚫Doping: the process of adding impurities to the device to increase the number of free

current carriers.

⚫Current carriers:Majority carriers are the predominate carriers in the semi-conductor

material.

⚫If it is N -Typematerial (Arsenic) then it is electronsand negative.

⚫If it is P-Typematerial (Aluminum) then it is holes and positive.

⚫Recombination: Excess electronics fall back into their perspective orbits and limit current
flow. Poonam Hingmire 77
Semi Conductor Components
• Semiconductors are tetravalent atoms known as Intrinsic semiconductors.
• Their conductivity lies between conductors and insulators.
• They are prepared by adding impurity atoms to form P-type and N-type
semiconductors. The process of adding impurity is known as doping.
• The doped semiconductors are known as Extrinsic semiconductors.
• In semiconductors current flows due to motion of two types of charges i.e.
Electrons and Holes.
N-TYPE & P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
 Diode
• Diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a
one-way switch for current.
• It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but
severely restricts current from flowing in the opposite
direction.
• Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change
alternating current (ac) into pulsating direct current (dc).
• Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and
current capacity.
• One side is the positive terminal, called the Anode.
• The other terminal is the negative end, called the Cathode.
• Current can only move in from the anode to the cathode,
never the other way around.
• A simple way to remember which way current flows in a
diode is to follow the direction of the arrow.

Poonam Hingmire 80
Diode
PN JUNCTION DIODE

• If we join a piece of P type material to a piece of N

type material such that the crystal structure
remains continuous at the boundary….. A PN
JUNCTION is formed.
• PN junction is a device formed by joining p-type with n-type
semiconductors and separated by a thin junction is called PN
Junction diode.
• In PN junction diode, N is at right and P is at left.
• Majority carriers
• N region -- electrons
• P region -- holes

Poonam Hingmire 82
Formation of depletion layer

• The excess electrons in the N region cross the junction and combine with the excess holes in
the P region.
• N region loses its electrons … … becomes + vly charged
• P region accepts the electrons ……becomes - vly charged
• At one point , the migratory action is stopped.
• An additional electrons from the N region are repelled by the net negative charge of the p
region.
• An additional holes from the P region are repelled by the net positive charge of the n region.
• A creation of a thin layer of each side of the junction which is depleted (emptied) of mobile
charge carriers. This is known as D EPLETIO N LAYER.
• Thickness is of the order of 10-6meter
Poonam Hingmire 83
Formation of depletion layer

• The depletion layer contains no free and mobile charge carriers but only fixed and
immobile ions. Its width depends upon the doping level..
• Heavy doped……..thin depletion layer
• lightly doped……..thick depletion layer
Potential Barrier:
• The electrons in the N region have to climb the potential hill in order to reach the P region
• Electrons trying to cross from the N region to P region experience a retarding field of the
battery and therefore repelled. Similarly for holes from P region. Potential thus produced
are called potential barrier Poonam Hingmire 67
Modes of PN junction Diode:
• P-type semiconductor is joined with N -type
semiconductor so it forms a P -N junction diode.
• PN junction can basically work in two modes, (A battery is
connected to the diode )
• Bias: It means to apply voltage across P-N junction.

• Forw ard Bias mode

positive terminal connected to p-region and negative
terminal connected to n region.

• Reverse Bias mo de
negative terminal connected toHingmire
Poonam p-region and positive 85
Forward & Reverse Bias
Forward biased PN junction

• It forces the majority charge carriers to move across the junction decreasing the width of the
depletion layer.
• Once the junction is crossed, a number of electrons and the holes will recombine .
• For each hole in the P section that combines with an electron from the N section, a covalent bond
breaks and an electron is liberated which enters the positive terminal. Thus creating an electron
hole pair.
• Current in the N region is carried by ….electrons
• Current in the P region is carried by …. Holes
Poonam Hingmire 87
Reversebiased PN junction

If the +ve of the battery is connected to the n-type and the -ve terminal
to the p-type, then it is called as "Reverse bias". the free electrons and
free holes are attracted back towards the battery, hence back from the
depletion layer, hence the depletion layer grows.
Thus a reverse biased pn junction does not conduct current.
Poonam Hingmire 88
ZENER DIODE
• It is designed to get stable voltage and it is
operated in Reverse bias only.
• The Zener diode is a special diode, that enables
the current to flow not only from positive terminal
(anode) to the negative terminal (cathode), but
also in the opposite direction.
• The doping of the Zener diode is more than the
conventional diode, so its depletion part has less
area.
• Zener diode is mostly used in types of electronic
devices like computers, laptops etc, it is the basic
component of the electronic circuitries.
• It used for power stabilizer circuitries to
maintain the voltage level for a particular device.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device
that emits light when an electric current flows through
it.
• When current passes through an LED, the electrons
recombine with holes emitting light in the process.
• LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward direction
and blocks the current in the reverse direction.
• Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped P-N junctions.
• Based on the semiconductor material used and the
amount of doping, an LED will emit a colored light at a
particular spectral wavelength when forward biased.
• As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a
transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.
Photo Diode
• Photo diode is function opposite to LED.
• When light incident on it , it conducts.
• The current through photodiode depends
on the light intensity.
• Photodiode is normally operated in
Reverse Bias.
• When it is exposed to light due to energy
of light , electron-hole pairs are generated
therefore current flows through it.
• Applications: In computer Punch card,
light detectors, sound reproduction of film
projector and light operated switches
COMPARISON
TRANSISTOR
• It transfers the resistance from one value to other value
depending on its bias.(transfer-of-resistor)
• The current through transistor is controlled by the bias.
• Holes and electrons take part in carrying the current through
transistor therefore they are called Bipolar transistors.
• The transistor also is a P-N device but with 2 P-N junctions
and 3 terminals:
1. Emitter - that emits electrons
2. Base - which controls this electron flow.
3. Collector - that collects these electrons.
TYPES OF BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
1. NPN Transistor
2. PNP Transistor
TRANSISTOR
• The function of emitter is to emit electrons into base (holes in
case of PNP).
• the base passes most of electrons to collector (holes in case
of PNP) from the base.
• the transistor is like 2 PN junction diodes connected back to
back.
• The symbol of transistor shows an arrow for emitter. The
arrow points in the direction of conventional emitter current.
Transistor

1.Transistor as a Switch : Cutoff & Saturation​

2.Transistor as an Amplifier : Active
Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
Logic Families (ICs)
Parameters of Logic Families:
1. Propagation Delay (Speed of operation)
Time required to change the output from one logic state to
other logic state after input is applied.
2. Power Dissipation
The amount of power in mW dissipated by a gate in an IC.
3. Fan In – Fan Out
Fan In- No of inputs to a gate.
Fan Out- the max no of gates (loads) from the same family
which can be driven by gates (loading factor)
4. Sensitivity to high Voltage
Comparison between TTL & CMOS Logic