Data Communications

and Networking
 Chapter 1
Data Communications and
Networking

Data Communications and Networking 2

1.1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
• The term telecommunication means communication at a distance.
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
• Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable or
wireless.
• The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery → Correct destination
2. Accuracy → Accurate data
3. Timelines → Real-time transmission
4. Jitter → Uneven delay
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Topics discussed in this section:
Components
Data Représentation
Data Flow

Components
Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

5
1

2 3
4

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Data Représentation
1. Text
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Audio
5. Video

Data flow
 Simplex
 Half-duplex
 Full-duplex

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1.2 NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by communication
links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes
on the network.
Topics discussed in this section:
Distributed Processing
Network Criteria (performance, reliability, and security)
Physical Structures ( type of connections and topologies)
Network Models
Categories of Networks ( LAN, MAN and WAN)
Interconnection of Networks: Internet
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Network Criteria
1. Performance → transit time and response time.
2. Reliability → the time it takes a link to recover from a failure.
3. Security → protecting data from unauthorized access.

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Types of connections

 Point to point
 A dedicated link is provided
between two devices

 Multipoint
 More than two specific devices
share a single link

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Physical Topology

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MESH Topology
• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other devices
• Dedicated
• Link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects
• A fully connected mesh network has n(n-1)/2
physical channels to link n devices
• Every device on the network must have n-1
input/output (I/O) ports
• Advantage
• Less traffic, robust, secure, easy to maintain
• Disadvantage n(n-1)/2 physical duplex links
• Need more resource (cable and ports),
expensive

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STAR Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link
only to a central controller, usually called a hub.

• No direct traffic and link between devices

• Advantages

• Less expensive

• Easy to install and reconfigure

• Robustness

• Disadvantage

• Single point of failure

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BUS Topology
 A multipoint topology
 All devices are linked through a backbone cable
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
 Drop line
• A connection running between the device and the main cable
 Tap
• Ato connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable
create a contact with the metallic core
 Advantage:
 Ease of installation
 Disadvantages:
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
• Broken or fault of the bus cable stops all transmission

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RING Topology
 Each device is dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two devices on either side of it
 A signal is passed along the ring in the direction, from device to device, until it reaches its
destination
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater

 Advantages
• Relatively easy to install and reconfigure
• Fault isolation (deattach) is simplified
 Disadvantage
• Unidirectional traffic

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Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple topologies together.
Example: Tree topology integrates multiple star topologies together
onto a bus.

 Advantages:
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software venders.
 Disadvantages:
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling
used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
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Hybrid Topology
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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Categories of Networks
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

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WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

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Interconnection of Networks: internet
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

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1.3 THE INTERNET
The Internet has changed many aspects of our daily lives. It has
affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend our
leisure time. The Internet is a communication system that has
brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it
for our use.
A Brief History → ARPANET
• 1967 ACM
• 1969 UCLA, UCSB, SRI, UoU
• 1972 TCP
The Internet Today (ISPs)

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Hierarchical organization of the Internet

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1.4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
• Protocol is synonymous with rule, It is a set of rules that govern
data communication.
• It determines:
• What is communicated?
• How it is communicated?
• When it is communicated?
• Standards are agreed-upon rules, It provides guidelines to
manufactures or vendors to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
nessaccery in todays market place and in international
communication.
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PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Topics discussed in this section:

Protocols
Standards
Standards Organisations
Internet Standards

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PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Key Element of Protocols

• Syntax → format of the data
• Semantics → meaning of each section means which field define what
action.
• Timing → when data should be sent and how fast.

• Categories of Standards
• De facto → by fact (not approved as a standard)
• De jure → by Law (approved)

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PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
Standards Organizations
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication Standards
(ITU-T)

• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

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 Network Models
Lecture 2

OSI Model
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Tasks involved in sending a letter

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 THE OSI MODEL

• Established in 1947, the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards.

• The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework

that explains the process of transmitting data between computers.

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 ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

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Layered Architecture

Layers
Seven layers of the OSI model
Layer 7. Application

Layer 6. Presentation
Layer 5. Session

Receiver
Layer 4. Transport

Sender
Layer 3. Network

Layer 2. Data Link

Layer 1. Physical

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Application Layer – Layer 7

• These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the
network.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP, HTTP, FTP, TELNET …

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Functions of the Application Layer
• Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
• FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user
to access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services : Provide email service.

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Presentation Layer – Layer 6
• The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as
per the required format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on
the network.

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Session Layer – Layer 5
• This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.
Functions of the Session Layer
• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the
two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends
of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication
with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
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Transport Layer – Layer 4
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful
data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from
the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow &
Error control to ensure proper data transmission.
• It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards
the segmented data to the Network Layer.

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Transport Layer – Layer 4 …
Note:The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically
uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web
applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side:Transport Layer reads the port number from its header
and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

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Functions of the Transport Layer
• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at
the destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process,
the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer
makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
• Services Provided by Transport Layer
• Connection-Oriented Service
• Connectionless Service

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1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
Connection Establishment
Data Transfer
Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a
packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much
faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.
Note:
Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the
Application Layer by making system calls.
The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP

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Network Layer – Layer 3

• The network layer works for the transmission of data from one
host to the other located in different networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest
path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by
the network layer.

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Functions of the Network Layer
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are
placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each
device uniquely and universally.
Note:
1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

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Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of
the message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the
DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
• DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the
header.

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Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender
to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each
frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which
it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent
before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device
has control over the channel at a given time.

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Note:
1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

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Physical Layer – Layer 1

• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.

• It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer,
which will put the frame back together.

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Functions of the Physical Layer
• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the
two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-
duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
1) Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
2) Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.

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 .

THE END
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