} Eror clo Crue. .faroute Foul fl: | Me MERIT | cea RTE REVIEW Prope A Thermodynamic Glossary The thermodynamic state of a system is the collec- tion of all its thermodynamic properties at a given instant. Thermddynamic State |- condition of a system as described by its thermodynamic properties Definition of processes Process That which brings about change of state Quasi-equilibrium process (system passes through equilibrium states) Cyclic process (identical end states); Non-flow process (fixed mass), Flow process (for open sys- tem); Path (Exists only for quasi-equilibrium process) Process | + achange from one state to another 1 A thermodynamic process occurs when the state of a system changes. Thermal Processes:When a substance changes from one state of equilibrium to another state of | equilibrium, the steps or path between the initial and final thermodynamic states is called a | process. Quasi-Equilibriumi Processes:* Quasi-equilibrium Process Quasiequilibrium Process 2 ‘Aseach mass is removed, | | * All states through which a system | a system Is momentarity passes are equilibrium states. . disturbed from equilibrium. * Anew equiibdum ls: Equilibrium States established. aa | + ff masses are infinitesimally. wd ie | small, we have a quasioqultbrium process. a Fora quasloittaum process, th s the pressure ofthe ene voli Aprocess is called a quasi-equilibrium process if the intermediate steps in the process are alll cle to equilibrium. In this way we can characterize the intermediate states of the process using state variables (such as temperature, pressure, volume, entropy, etc. -Polytropic Process | Many processes can be approximated by the law: Pyn=c where, P= Pressure, v= Volume, n= an index depending on the process type. \ Polytropic processes are internally reversible. Some examples are vapors and perfect gases in many non-flow processes, such as: 1n=0, results in P=constant i.e. isobaric process. n=infinity, resutts in v=constant i.e. isometric process, =1, results in P v=constant, which is an isothermal process for a perfect gas. n= k, which is a reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas. i Some polytropic processes are shown in figure below: The initial state of working fluid is shown kt point 0 on the P-V diagram. The polytropic State changes are: | | 0 to 1= constant pressure heating, 0 to 2= constant volume heating, Oto reversible adiabatic compression Oto isothermal compression, 0 to 5= constant pressure cooling, 0 to 6= constant volume cooling, 0 to 7= reversible adiabatic expansion, 0 to 8= isothermal expansion. | \sobaric Process Isometric (isoghoric)Process + Constant volume process + Constant pressure process W,- [ray -Pfav «Py, vy 2 we jeav-o 2 us te Polytropic Process Isothermal Process PV" =constant 19> pommel > Isothermal — constant temperature one + actual path depends upon substance nme GaomevicyWork + Thermodynamic Definition — Work is done by a system on its . Work surroundings if the sole effect on the = JPa Vv surroundings could have been the raising| : of a weight. Workis the area under the ewe » If there is energy crossing the system boundary and it is not due to a temperature difference, it is work. + Work is not a property. jaw Br . 4 a : Polytropic Process Pyuk PV" = constant = K en Wa= [Pav ARE - etn = ancy 1 fone a zara Heat + When a system is not in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, heat = aaa'| gamma poosenal can flow across the system boundary. , 2 + Heat is a means of enérgy transfer. It is ee neemectne eran abet not energy. . QQ 2 2 » Driving potential must bea temperature ieee difference. 7 + Heatis not accompanied vy mass ‘| transfer 2 fsa, 4@,-2, 1 This has no moaning » Heat is not a property of state. ae For properties j ‘oT -T, + Amount of heat transferred depends upon path of process. a - + A property can be assigned a value + SIGN CONVENTION: heat is positive without knowledge of the history of the when it Is transferred into the system system.State Variables are Path Independent: meaning that the change in the value of the state variable will be the ‘same no matter what path you take between the two states. This is not true of either the work W or the heat Q. Examples of State Variables: State Variable f Initial State Process ‘Temperature Pressure Volume Entropy Enthalpy Internal Energy : Mass : Density FinalState State Variable 2 Reversible Processes: A process is reversible when the successive states of the process are infinitesimally close to Equilibrium States. i.e. the process is quasi-equi- librium. With a reversible process it is possible to restore the system to its origi- nal state without needing an external agent or changing its surroundings. Reversible processes are an abstraction that aids the analysis of real processes. Areversible process is a standard of comparison for an actuat system. * Truly reversible thermal processes would require an infinite amount of time for completion Irreversible Processes: * All Natural processes are Irreversible, * The path of an irreversible process is indeterminate and cannot be drawn on a thermodynamic diagram. (We use a hashed line to indicate the path because the intermediate states are in non- equilibrium.) * The Entropy of the universe always increases during an irreversible process. * itis always possible to restore an irreversible process to its original state by a reversible process, but the Entropy of the universe can never be restored. * An irreversible process always requires an external agent to restore it to its original state. Examples of Irreversible Processes:FrictionHeat lowUnrestrained Expansion Melting/Boiling —Mixinginelastic DeformationChemical Reactions Current Flow House Getting Dirty Equilibrium:* A System is in Equilibrium if its Properties/Variables do not change with time. ‘Thermal Equilibrium No Temperature or Pressure Gradients in the System. Thermal equilibrium + If {wo systems are in contact and no Mechanical Equilibrium No Unbalanced Forces or heat flows between them, they are in Torques in the System. thermal equilibrium. Chemical Equilibrium No tendency of the System to undergo Chemical Reaction or Diffusion. Electrical Equilibrium No Electrical Potential Gradients in the System.PROCESS ANALYSIS OBJECTIVES TOOLS Questions Asked Answers 1 PVT Relations PV=mRT P4V4/T4= PoVofT TaITy = (PalP 4) (1 = (yyy 2 Heat ,Q AreaunderTS = J Tds mepAT (except T=C) 3 Non-Flow Work, WNF Area under the PV diagram = f° pdVv 4 AU Mey AT (except T=C) 5 AH Mep AT (except T=C) 64S fF dat mcpIn( To/Ty ) (except T=C) 7 Shaft Work Area at the back of the PV diagram WSF ~f vdp OTHER TOOLS 1.0 NFEE: Q-Wye =AU 2.0 SFEE: Q-WSF=AH [AKE=0; APE= 0] 3.0 PERFECT GAS PROPERTIES SI USCS. Cp ty=R= RW Cplcy =k Bee Cn 5 cy [(k-n)i(4-n)]* P41 An ideal gas having a mass of 2 kg at 465 K and 415 kPa expands in a reversible adiabatic process to 138 kPa. The ideal gas constant is 242 J/kg.K and k= 1.4. Determine a) The final temperature b) The change in internal energy ©) The work d) Cp; e) Cv a) 339.5 K b)-151.855 kd ©) 151.855 kK) | ~ 4) 0.847 ¢) 0.605 (82 A scuba tank contains 1.6 kg of air. The air in the tank is initially at 145°C. The tank is left near an engine exhaust ine, andthe tank's pressure doubles. Determing (a) the fil temperature; (6) the change in internal energy; (c) the heat added. A)SHK @./ SIO wHlt ok} fog @=ou P3A group of 60 persons attend a secret meeting in a room which is 12 m ‘wide by 10 m long and “A ceiling height of 3 m. The room is completely sealed off and insulated. Each person gives off 460 kcal per hour of heat and occupies a volume of 0.2 cu. m. The room has an initial pressure of *.3 kPa and temperature of 160C. Caloulate the temperature after 10 minutes. ans» 334C P4 A vessel of 0.058 m® capacity is well insulated and Is divided equally by a rigid conducting diaphragm. initially both halves contain air at pressure of 137.8 kPa and 413.4 kPa and tempera- ture of 27°C and 177°C respectively. What is the increase of entropy of the system in kc? A) 1.002 B.) 0.5080 C.)0.00173 D,) 0.1080 P§ Ammonia weighing 22 kgs is confined inside a cylinder equipped with a piston and has an initial pressure of 413 kPa at 38 °C. if 2900 kJ of heat is added to the ammonia until its final pressure € and temperature are 413 kPa and 100°C, respectively, what is the amount of work done by the fluid in kJ a 670 B. 304 C. 420 D, 502 ‘Agas having a molecular weight of 36 and initially at 60 psta and 1600°F is expanded adiabat- Cally in a turbine to a pressure of 15 psia. The specific heat ratio K of the gas is 1.25, and the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 0.70. The gas Is expanded at a steady rate of 1 Ib/sec, and caas velocity is low at both the inlet and the exhaust from the turbine, What is the horsepower ‘eloped by the turbine? 470 B. 120 ye D. 180 ByAir is compressed polytropically from 101 kPa and 23°C and delivered to a tank at 1500 kPa and 175°C. Determine per kg of air the heat removed during compression; Anozzle is designed to expand air from 689 kPa and 32°C to 138 kPa. Assume an isentropic expansion and negligible approach velocity. The airfiow rate is 1.36 kg/s. Calculate: a) The exit velocity Ans. 474 m/s b) The proper exit cross - sectional area Ans. 1150 sq.mm #8 An air bubble rises from the bottom of a well where the temperature is 25 deg C, to the surface where the temperature is 27 deg C. Find the percent increase in the volume of the bubble if the depth of the well is 5 m. Atmospheric pressure is 101 528 pascals A. 49.3, B. 41.3. C. 56.7 D. 38.6P10 Air undergoes an isentropic compression from 14.7 psia to 180.6 psia. If the initial temperatun is 58°F, and the final fluid temperature is 621.59F, calculate the work done by the gas: A, -138.2 Btufbm B. -94.8 Bulbm C. 0 Btu/lbm D. 94.8. Btulbm P11 Nitrogen is expanded isentropically. If the temperature change, from 620°F to 60°F. The volumetric ratio is Vo/V4 = 6.22, what is the work done by the gas? A. -1112.7 B. -99.22 C.1112.7 . D. 99,22 P12 0.200 kg of water is heated from 5°C to 100°C and vaporized at a constant pressure. The | heat of vaporization of water at 100°C is 539.2 kcal/kg. The heat capacity at constant pressure, cp is 1.0 kcal/kg K. Determine the total change in entropy. | A.0.248 kca/K B. 0.298 kcaliC. 0.348 kcal/K 0.448 kcallK P2 The pressure drop across a turbine. is 30 psi. The flow rate is 60 gpm. Calculate the power output of the turbine. A.041HP = B.4.05HP ° C.2.54HP D630 HHP A pump has an efficiency of 65%. It is driven by-a 0.75 HP motor. The pump produces a sssure rise of 120 Pa in the water. What is the required flow rate? (A 3.03 mis B.4.04TM/s = C. 4.52 mAs ——D. 4.66 m2/s P14 A cylindrical oxygen bottle has one flat end and one hemispherical end, the diameter is 240 mn and the over-all length is 1.24 m, Calculate the mass of oxygen drawn off when the pressure falls to 500 kPa gauge from an initial pressure of 700 kPa gauge and the temperature from 20°C to 15° P16 In a reversible adiabatic manner, 17.6 m/min of air are compressed from 277 K and 101 kPa to 700 kPa. Determine (a) the final temperature; (b) the change in enthalpy;(c) the mass flow rate; (@) the power required. P17 One kg per second of air initially at 101 kPa and 300 K is compressed polytropically according | | the process PV1-3=C.Calculate the power necessary to compress the alr to 1380 kPa, eee —® @A centrifugal air compressor of a gas turbine receive air from the-ambient atmosphere where tt Pressure is 1 bar and the temperature is 300 K. At the discharge of the compressor the pressure | is 4 bar the temperature is 480 K, and the velocity is 100 m/s. The mass rate of flow into the | compressor is 15 kg/s. Determine the power required to drive the compressor in kw. . | A. 27.89 B. 2600 c. 2900 D, 3000. P18 pneumatic lift system is being demonstrated at a sales show. The total load is 70 kg and lift piston 15.2 cm. In diameter and has 20.2 om stroke, A portable bottle with an initial pressure of 20 MPa and temperature of 20°C Is to be used as the pneumatic supply. A regulator reduces the Pressure from the bottle to the lift system. Neglecting all volume in the lines from the bottle to the Piston, determine the number of times the piston can operates per air bottle if the air in the bottle remains at 23 C and the volume of the bottle is 0.05 m3- A. 1951 B. 2000 C. 1800 D. 1300 P 19 An air reservolr contains 20 kg of air at 3200 kNm2gage and 16°C. Calculate the heat energy transfer if air is heated to 35°C. Atmosphere is at 1 bar.CHANGES IN THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 1 SYSTEMS ‘A thermodynamic system is defined as the matter enclosed ‘within an arbitrary but precisely defined control volume. Everything extemal to the system is defined a the sur roundings, environment, or universe. The environment ad System are separated by the systemt boundaries, "he sur- face of the control volume is known as the control surface. ‘The control surface can be real (¢., piston and cylinder ‘walls) or imaginary. 1f mass flows through the system across system boundaries, the system is an open system. Examples are pumps, heat exchangers, and jet engines. An important type of open system is the sleadyffow open system, in which matter en ters and leaves at the same rate. Pumps, turbines, heat exchangers, and boilers are all steady-flow open systems. If no mass crosses the system boundaries, the system is said to be # closed system The matter in a closed system ‘may be referred to as & contro! mass. Closed systems can have variable volumes. The gas compressed by 2 piston in ‘cylinder is an example of a closed system with a variable control volume. In most cases, energy in the form of heat, work, or electrical energy can enter or leave any open or closed system. Sys- tems closed (6 both matter and energy transfer are known as isolated systems. 2. TYPES OF PROCESSES in thermodynamic properties of a system often depend on the type of process experienced. This is partic- ‘larly true of gaseous systems, Several common types of processes are listed here, along with their heat, energy, and ‘work relationships.” © adiabatic process—a process in which no, heat or ther energy crosses the system boundary.” Adia- patie processes include isentropic and throiting pro- cesses. 21 22.2 ‘constant pressure process—also known as an iso- baric process 23 224 Ap=0 Q=AH © constant temperature process—also known as an isothermal process Aar=0 25 w 26 ‘© constant velume process—also known as an is0- ‘choric or isometric process av=0 227 Q= aU 228, w=o ng «s isentropic process—an adiabatic process in. which there is no change in system entropy (ie. itis re- versible. 22.10 221 As Q= ‘+ throuling process—an adiabatic process in which there is no change in system enthalpy but for which there is a significant pressure drop. 212 213 AH=0 ms ‘A system that is in equilibrium at the start and finish of fa process may of may not be in equilibrium during the process. A quasistatic process (quasiequllbrium process) JS one which can be divided into a series of infinitesimal This sign convent tion takes the system (aot the environment) asthe refe ‘Forexample, a net eat gain would mean the system gaed energy and the environment lost energy.) © Heat, Q, is postive if heat flows into the system, «© Work, W, is positive if the system does work on the surroundings. ‘* Changes in enthalpy, entropy, and intemal energy (AH, AS, and AU) are positive if these propertc, inerease within the system, & FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR ‘CLOSED SYSTEMS ‘There isa asic principle that undetles all property changes 45 a system experiences a process: all energy mUst bes counted for, Energy that enters a system must ether leave the system or be stored in some manner, and energy canna be created or destroyed. These statements a the primary manifestations ofthe first law of thermodynamics: the wor, done in an adiabatic process depends solely on the system's ‘end-point conditions, aot on the nature of the process. For closed systems, the first law can be writen in differen. tial form.§7 Since Q and Ware not properties, infinitesimal ‘changes are designated as 5. bQ= dU +8W nn ‘Most simple thermodynamic problems can be solved with- ‘Out resorting to differential calculus. ‘The first law can thea be writen in finite terms. Q=au+W nes Equation 22.23 says that the heat (@) entering a closed sys- tem can either increase the temperature (ie, increase U) ‘oF be used to perform work (increase W/) on the surround ings. Ina non-adiabatic closed system, heat energy entering the system also can leak to the surroundings. However, in Bq, 22.23, the Q term is understood 10 be the net heat centering the system, exclusive of the loss, {In accordance with the standard sign convention given in See. 7, Q will be negative if the net heat exchange to the system is a loss. AU will be negative i ergy of the system decreases. W’ will be negative if the surroundings do work on the system (e.g. a piston com pressing gas in a cylinder) This sgn convention is aviomaticlly Followed ithe fra in ts shaper ae wed. ‘Tis formuition ofthe conservation of energy imply asumes dat etc and potential ener are nerligile 7Q.U, and W” must all have the same us. This les of « probiem io {he St system than with Exglish unis. Fo example, iQ and U arin [BTU/lom and W iin fbr, Joule’ contin! mut be Incorpo into the ict lav. Q= AU 4 WH (US)Depending on the value of the polytropic exponent, the polytropic equation of state can also be used for other pro. cesses, Constant pressure process Constant temperature process isentropic process ‘constant volume process ‘The polytropic specific heat, éq is defined as re ie THROTTLING PROCESSES fe teal gases, toting processes ae constant tempe- ye pocsses. Some real gues at nomnal temperate = decrease in temperature when throttled Others ‘in temperature. Whether or not an increase or a ¢ in temperature occurs depends on the temperature “pd pressure at which the throttling occurs, any given set of inal condos, teres one temper. fare a which no temperature change occurs when tcl sis trotled, This is called the inversion temperature ot iverson point. The inversion temperature ts dependent on fe ntl gas conditions ‘Table 22.1 Approximate Maximum Inversion Temperatures substance “R kK toss 603 301 m3 carbon dioxide 2700 1500 helium &T wd0 hydrogen 364 202, nitrogen rug ea (Multiply K by 1.8 10 obtain °R.) Te Joule-Thomson coeficient 1 (also known as the Jeale-Kelvin coefcient, 8 defined as the ratio of the change intemperate 10 the change in pressure when a teal ass throtded. The Joule Thomson coefficient sere (5), ‘The Jovle-Thomson coefficient can be calculated from the specific heat, cp, and other properties. hs 22.17 1[ (av 2 wed lr(®) 4) 2 rp- b 2 frGh), | Zere-4 @), {This tendency’ can be used co liquefy gases and vapors (eg. sthgerans) ‘9 easing them through an expansion sale 1 is convenient to plot lines of constant enthalpy (ser ttalpic curves) on a T-p diagram. The varius curves { Fig. 22.1 represent different sets of stating conditions (@ and T)). The slope of a curve represents the Joule-Thomso ceficient, which can be zero, positive, or negative atthe Point. The points where the slope is zero are known a itversion points. The locus of inversion points Is known & ives to the sight of an inversion point will have negative etle-Thomson coefficients. States to the left of an iver ‘on point will have positive Joule-Thomson coefficients invesion curve mn Curve ‘Throttling totaly within the region bounded by the temper- ‘ture ani and the inversion curve will, of cours, always esult-in a decrease in temperature, Similarly, throttling totally outside of the inversion curve will always produce an increase in temperature, Theotling across the inver ‘curve may produce a higher or lower final temperature, de- Pending on initial and final conditions. Figure 22.1. Inver 5. REVERSIBLE PROCESSES - Processes can be categorized as reversible and imreversible. A reversible process is one that is performed in such a Way that atthe conclusion of the process, both the system and the local surroundings can be restored to their initial States. A process that does not meet these requirements, fan irreversible process. A reversible adixbatic process is implicitly isentropic. Although all real-world processes result in an overall in crease in entropy, it is possible to conceptualize processes that have zero entropy change, For a reversible process, A Processes that contain friction are never reversible. Other Processes which are ireversible are listed here stirring a vise fiuid # shang dow. moving fluid ‘* untestrained ¢spansion of gas © throwing & changes of pnase (e.g, freezing, condens # chemical res-tion © diffusior current flow through electrical resistance «= clectricat polatization Magnetization 1h hysteresis releasing a stretched spring © inelastic deformation 22.1922.60 2261 T(sz— 4) nay = H wmmn(2) ma ne (2) nid 22.64 a { =RT in (2) 255, 22.65, : 1 ee a 2.66 a RP in (@) ee 2.67 wm =0 nn nds Weg 2.93 =nmin(2) ns B. Constant Volume, Closed Systems =rmin(2) ns ~ a map (2) 2.69 =Rrin(2) 2a % nan (2) 22:70 a PA By 294 Bay 220 Pe ¢=m-u nn ee =a(h-N) 22.13 2% 2274 : (Pe) 2.95 na 7 i sels pi) 22.16 | ee] vr —m) om ee 2.77 a i ge mt ! B= ji w=o 22.78 3 oa a () 22.79 ' =aln 2) 2.80 Pi : hg = hy = (TT) 2.81 oe (2) a0 kul.-P) i hn 22.82 7\Et t C. Constant Temperature, Closed Systems : ee (2) 22.83 ket i 2 a - ) aaddifferentials of this form, it can be shown that following relationship is vali: OM) _ (ON Oy ),~ de), fs possible (0 relate many of the thermodynamic prop- es of simple compressible substances. Four of these aionships are colletvely known as Maawell relations. 22.36 (= (2), (2)-(@) = (@)--@) Bu the Maxwell relations are useful in defining macroscopic properties (e.g, temperature) in terms of microscopic con- siderations and in designing experiments to measure ther- modynamic properties. In particular, the relations show that pressure, temperature, and specific volume can be de- ‘termined experimentally, but entropy must be derived from the other properties ee” (3) G).-(), 2 a) = (o on-(@) =-(8) ne ‘Oh Ow r-(%)<(2) ma nat -@-@) 13. PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GASES For real solids, liquids, and vapors, changes in most prop- erties can be determined only. by subtracting the inital Droperty value from the final property value. For simple compressible substances (ie, ideal gases), however, many changes in properties ean be ound iret, without know ‘ng the initial and final property values Some of the relations for determining property changes do ‘not depend on the type ef process. For example, a general ‘clationship that applies to-any ideal gas experiencing any process is easily derived from the equation of state. Vi _ ral avi _ mle 22.45 1B When temperature is held constant, Eq. 22.45 reduces 19 Boyle's law, riVi= mM 22.46 When pressure is held constant, Bq, 2245 reduces. to Charles’ taw. Y_w Th 22.47 ‘Similarly, the changes in enthalpy, intemal energy, and en- tropy are independent of the process. Ah= Gar nas Au=6P 22.49 T +] As=ein(2)-ain(2 - @) @ 250 -sa(B)om(@) Enthalpy and intemal energy are. point functions, so Eqs. 22.48 and 22.49 are valid for all processes, even ‘though the specific heats at constant pressure and volume are part of the calculation. These equations should not be confused withthe heat transfer relations, which have a sim= ilar form. Heat (Q) is a path function and depends on the path taken, 251 2.52 Relationships between the properties follow for ideal gases ‘experiencing specific processes. (The standard thermody. samic sign convention is automaticaly followed.) All re- lations can be written in slighty different forms, including pper-unit mass and per-mole bases. For compactness, only the per-unit mass equations are listed. However, all equa- tions can be converted to a molar basis by substituting H for hy V for v, R for R, etc. Other formis can be derived by substituting the equation of state where appropriate A. Constant Pressure, Closed Systems a ns Re m4 ° Th =u(2 mss ooa() gen 22.56 -n) 231 (h-T)+0ea-u) 72.58 For example, RP ean be whed myer po appa_ tan — i) R _ Peay ; eee Wau-wy (Ti ~ Ta) E. Polytropic, Closed Systems 22.106 22.107 22.108 22.109 22.110 en 222 22.413 22.114 2241s 22.116 pair 22.118 22.u19 22.120 22421 22422 22.18 22.124 22.126 22427 22.128 aa =H AG -B) oe pin! Pie n= on, Pav 1 [-@) cama) ha — hy = 6(T, -Th) = Hota Pm) <1 F._Isentrople, Steady. Flow Systems ‘Pata, and Tp are the same as for isentropi, closed systems. Wah, t= tg~hy a0 =Bh Ww a hy tb-@* -(@)"| nT) =~) = Hes = pin) Fe 2~4=0 T “G._ Polytrople, Steady-Flow Systems Pay, and T, are the séme as for polytropic, closed systems. reo [- (2) Ds ~ Ty Ww Ts —Ti ) ) = Maan) <1 a(n) nal @)] 22,129 22.130 22.131 22.132 22,133 22.134 22.135 22136 22.137 22.138 224139 22.140 2441 22.142 22.143 22.144 22.145 22.146 22.147 22.48 22.149 22.150 THERMO. is] =19 AVAILABILITY ‘The maximum possible work that can be obtained from # cycleisknownas the availability. Availablity is independent ofthe device but is dependent on the temperature ofthe local environment. Both the first and second law must be applied to determine availabi environment |, Figure 22.7 A Typical Heat Engine In Fig. 227, the heat engine is surrounded by an environ- ‘ment at absolute temperature T, The net heal available for ‘onversion to useful work is @ = Qyr ~ Qr. Work (W) is performed at s constant rate on the environment by the ‘engine.!? Assuming steady flow, and neglecting kinetic and potential energies, the first law can be writen a mh +Q = mha+W 22474 Entropy isnot a part of the fist law. ‘The leaving entropy, however, can be ealeulated from te entering entropy and the entropy production. may = may + 2 227 T ‘Since Eqs. 22.174 and 22.175 both contain Q, they can be ‘combined. Wem(h—Tha-h+Tin) 2.1% ‘This equation can be simplified by introducing the steady. flow availability furcion, ®. The maximum work ouipy (availability) is zn 22478 the equality in Eq.22.177 holds, both the process within the contro volume and the energy transfers between the system and the environment must be reversible. Maximum work ‘output, therefore, will be obtained in a reversible process, ‘The difference between the maximum and the actual wotk ‘output is known as the process irreversibility. Example 22.5 ‘What isthe maximum useful work that ean be produced per pound (per kilogram) of steam that enters a steady flow sys- {em st 800 psia (5.0 MPa) saturated and leaves in equilibrivns. th the environment ‘at 70°F and 14.7 psia (20°C and 109, Kray? (SI sotution) From the saturated steam table, hy = 2794 kl/kgand 51 =i 5.9726 kifkg K. : ‘The final properties are obtained from the saturated steam: table for water at 20°C, fy = 83.9. = wien ta = 83.9 kJ/kg and 22 = The a 20-4273 = 203K. Wonax = 1 [hey — he ~ Tes 3 tho [24 —en9 (uo pot aaa s2)] ey — 293K (5.9726 - 0.2965 ( oases zl = 1047K (customary US, solution) From the saturated sleam table, hy = 11993 and s1= 14160 BTU/lbm- Re fe Tho final properties are obtained from the saturated steam {able for water at 70°F, hz = 38.09 BTU, = 0.07463 BTU/Ibm-"R, deena be availablity is calcul " avalible elelated om Ba, 22.176 using Ty = Wwe = malty — ha — Te(s1 ~ 03) = (thm) [1199.3 —3, aru Tham ~ssoe (1 = 450387 {Biss te padtonal development ofthe avlabilty concept. Actaly, the symbols mana P (power) shoold be used w represen the ine re 3 { u 2968} | lly is calculated fom Eq: 22.176 wing Ty, =f¢ACTICE PROBLEMS The First Law 1.10 BTU (10 K)) are transferred in a process where 9 piston compresses a spring and in so doing does 1500 ft. [Bf (2000 3) of work. Find the change in intemal energy of the system, “2. A001 1-Abmn (5-g) bullets propelled by a powder charge producing 2 BTU (500 cal) of usable energy. What is the bullet muzzle velocity? Neglect all frictional losses. 473. What isthe rise in water temperature of water droppi ‘ves 2 200-foot (60-in) watecall and seling in basin Below? Neglect all friction and assume the intial velocity i seplgibe 4. A05-tom (200g) glass jar (cp = 0.2 BTUNom-“F (540 eg) contains 5 Tom (2000 g} of 70°F (20°C) water. A W/30-yp motor drives a stiver for 15 minvies. What is the ‘oa water temperature neglecting other losses? 5. A seady-flow hydroelectric plant drops wates 40 fet (12m). The water enters at 10 fi/see (3 m/s) and exits a 30 fi/sce (9 m/s). What isthe maximum electrical omput et pound (kg) of water assuming a 100% efficient turbine? | Fiction is negligible and the water temperature is Constant 6. The turbine of a jet engine operates adiabatically and re tives 9 steady flow of gases at 114 psia (786 kPa), 1340°F (730°C), and 540 fefsec (160 m/s). It discharges at 30.6 sia (21) kPa), 820°F (440°C), and 1000 fi/see (300 m/s). Find the work output per pound (kg) of gas. 1. A turbine uses 100,000 Iban /b (50.000 kg/h) of steam, that enters with an enthalpy of 1400 BTU /lbm (3300.1) /kg) and essenilly zero entrance velocity. 10,000 horsepower (75 MW) ate developed. The exit velocity of the steam is $00 f/see (150 m/s). Expansion is adiabatic. Wha isthe exit enthalpy? 8. A steady flow of 275 Ibm/min (125 kg/min) of steam Gevelops 1000 hp (750 kW) with the conditions below, ‘What is the heat transfer in BTU/hr (Wis)? initial conditions final conditions > 160 psia 2 psia (10 MPa) 5 Ps) T 400F 126.1°F (200°C) 623°C) v 3.008 f/lbm 156 f0/fom (0.1878 m/kg) (9.74 m/kg) A 1217.6 BTU/bm 10125 BTU/Ibm (2832.1 1S/kg) (2355.1 Ri fkg) ¥ 70 R/see 400 fife (20 m/s) (020 m/s) 12 102 elevation 1.8 ft elevation G1m) (06 m) 9. The entrance enthalpy, velocity, and height of an ope System receiving mass a the rate of 5 omc (2 kgs) 1000 BTU/tom (2300 1/43), 100 fi/axe 30 m/s), and 10 feet (30 m), respectively. 50 BTU/see (S01U/s) are lost, the surroundings. The exit enthalpy, velcty, and beig) are 1020 BTU/Tbm (2370 13 /kg), 50 fiscc (15 m/s), an O feet (0 m) respectively. What is the input power? (Closed Ideal Gas Processes 10, What is the heat Bow when 3 Ibm (15 kg) of nitro igen undergo a closed isothermal process a 300°F (150°C. from on initial volume of 40 eubie fee! (1-10 m’) 0 2 fisal volume of 225 cubic fect (0.64 m)? 11. The combustion process occuming afer ep dead cent fa piston engine behaves polytropeally Wh neo} 2 A the start ofthe proces the volume ls 00 f° (0.6 doa) She pressure is 200 pa (140 MPs), ad the temperature i 3GOO°F (870°C) Find he work don if he al volume is 0.028 #8 (08 ae) 12. How many BTU (joules) are needed to isothermally ‘compress 4 Tom (2 kg) of 240°F (120°C) air to twice the original pressure? 13. A quantity of air at 180°F (80°C) originally occupies 20 f? (0.5 m) 2130 psig (200 kPa, gage). The gas is com Pressed reversibly and adiabatically to 180 psig (1.20 MPa, age). What is the heat flow? Open Ideal Gas Processes 14. Air is compressed in steady How from 14.7 psia (101 XP) and 70°F (20°C) to one-tenth of its original volume. il volume; (b) final volume, (c) final tem- perature, and (4) compression work per pound (kg) of air if the isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 90%, 15, Air expands in steady flow from 60°F (15°C) and 500 psia (3.00 MPa) 10 14.7 psia (101 KPa) and —100°F (-73°O). Find the change in entropy and the work ootput. 16, 3 Ybmnoles (1500 moles) of an ideal gas ae throttled per second from 9.2 psa o 64 psia (63 kPa to 44 KPa). What is the entropy change? 17, Ideal oxygen is throttled at 140°F (60°C) from 10 atmo- spheres to 5 atmospheres. What is its temperature change? Open Steam Processes 18. What is the final pressure of steam that is expanded isentropically from 100 psia (500 kPa) and 200°F (450°C) 10 1100 BTU/Ibm (2800 KI /ke)? 19. What is the final entropy of steam that undergoes an ‘eal trotting process from 500 peia (10 MPa) and 00°F (950°C) t0 30 psia.200 KPa)? 20. What is the final entropy for (a) steam expanded isen- tropically from 100 psia (700 kPa) and 80°F (400°C) to 5 psia (30 kPa), and (b) steam expanded from 100 psia (700 ‘kPa) and 800°F (400°C) to 5 psia (30 kPa) ina process with ‘an isentropic efficiency of 80%?S = 5 entropy BIV/itmF Wek ~ 21. One pound (0.5 ke) of air goes through a cycle com. S molar entopy BTUflmole-F t3/tmebK taining the following three processes: T temperate F “c (1) adiabatic compression from 2? (0.06 m°) and 2075 T absolute temperoture *R x (-5°C) to 1 A? (0.03 m) itera egy BTUfio We (2 conan pes ea ion cin ra 2 ee eae vere var ume mI : y mje (3) reversible return to original condition : eee mfinot Find the (2) work, (b) internal energy change, and (c) hea ee etal one transfer foreach process. 17 toad we " » ! Availability | Symbols 22. What is be availability of 100 pria (700 kPa) steam | ff—_iobarie . 1000°F (500°C) if the environment is 14.7 psia (101 kPa) ‘eompeessiility 1k and 60°F (15°C)? pi cacacy) fe - 23. A 90°F (500°C) flame provides 400°F (200°C) sam spats i rated steam. What i the maximum usefol work hat ca ie ne be obizined from one combustion BTU Qulojovle) if te | Biba whe environment is at 80°F (25°C) and ¥ atm? 24, What isthe availablity of 300°F (150°C) air expand 33 alamninwn Hite eon cee eet |e eames (25°C) and 1 abn? eee ©, ous (environment) constant presi, or potential 2 seed iomenclanure © tal Hlelmbotts function BTU/Bem tape them Se apeciic heat BTU/iarF PEK ¥ constant volume @molarspeciic heat “BTU /Ibmole“F_—40/hinol water EB ocegy*. By Be 9 acceleration of gravity — f/see? m/e. | 2 Gibbs function BIU/tom whe | 3 pxwvtational constant Romfyibfsee? na. [& coatpy BIU/iom woykg A molar enthalpy BTU/tbmole Ki/kmob 2 Joule's constant RI), IM/BTD mak Erato of specie hedts — 7 mma Tim ke number of moles Thole vo! jm polytropic exponent — - ne wi/A? kPa aoe | P power BTU/sec, kW see ¢ heat at BTU/Ibm * o/ke 1 @ — motar heat BTUfibmole ——_Kd/kmot ‘ [toad heat bru ” { R specific gas constant A-Tbf/Tom-"R wa/kek | Ro universal gas constant fi-Ibf/Ibmole"R__kl/kmobK