Business Research

Business research refers to the systematic and organized process of collecting, analyzing,
interpreting, and presenting information related to a specific business situation or problem.
The primary purpose of business research is to gain insights, make informed decisions, and
solve business challenges. It involves gathering data, evaluating trends, and generating
knowledge that can be used to enhance business performance, competitiveness, and strategic
planning.

Key components of business research include:

1. Identification of Research Problem or Objective: Clearly defining the purpose of

the research and the specific issues or questions to be addressed.

2. Literature Review: Reviewing existing literature, studies, and relevant information

to understand the current state of knowledge on the chosen topic.

3. Research Design: Planning and outlining the methodology, data collection methods,
and analysis techniques that will be used to address the research problem.

4. Data Collection: Gathering information through various methods such as surveys,

interviews, observations, or analyzing existing data sources.

5. Data Analysis: Analyzing and interpreting the collected data using statistical tools,
qualitative analysis, or other relevant techniques.

6. Conclusion and Recommendations: Drawing conclusions based on the analysis and

providing recommendations for action or further research.

7. Report Writing: Documenting the research process, findings, and insights in a

structured and comprehensive report.

Nature of Business Research

The nature of business research is characterized by several key features that distinguish it
from other forms of research. Understanding these characteristics can provide insights into
how business research is conducted and its significance within the business environment.
Here are some key aspects of the nature of business research:

1. Applied Research: Business research is often applied in nature, meaning its primary
purpose is to solve specific business problems or address practical issues faced by
organizations. The findings are intended to have real-world applications and
implications.

2. Problem-Solving Orientation: Business research is driven by the need to solve

problems or make informed decisions. It involves identifying and defining business
 problems, developing hypotheses, and seeking solutions through systematic
investigation.

3. Decision-Making Support: One of the main objectives of business research is to

provide decision-makers with relevant and reliable information. This information aids
in making informed decisions related to strategy, operations, marketing, finance, and
other aspects of business.

4. Systematic Process: Business research follows a systematic and structured process. It

typically involves a series of steps, including problem identification, literature review,
research design, data collection, data analysis, and the formulation of conclusions and
recommendations.

5. Empirical Nature: Business research relies on empirical evidence, which means that
it is based on direct observation or experience rather than theoretical speculation. Data
is collected through methods such as surveys, experiments, interviews, and
observations to support or refute hypotheses.

6. Practical Relevance: Business research is conducted with a focus on practical

relevance and applicability. The findings are intended to have direct implications for
improving business practices, strategies, and performance.

7. Multidisciplinary Approach: Business research often draws on insights from various

disciplines such as economics, sociology, psychology, statistics, and management. It
incorporates a multidisciplinary approach to address complex business issues.

8. Dynamic Environment: The business environment is dynamic and constantly

changing. Business research helps organizations adapt to changes, stay competitive,
and identify opportunities or threats in the marketplace.

9. Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations are crucial in business research.

Researchers must ensure the protection of participants' rights, maintain
confidentiality, and adhere to ethical standards in data collection and analysis.

10. Continuous Process: Business research is an ongoing and iterative process. As

business conditions evolve, organizations may need to conduct new research to stay
informed and make informed decisions.

Scope of Business Research

The scope of business research is broad and encompasses a wide range of activities aimed at
understanding, analyzing, and addressing various aspects of the business environment. The
scope of business research can be categorized into different dimensions:
1. Industry Analysis:

• Examining the overall structure, trends, and dynamics of specific industries.

• Identifying opportunities and threats in the industry.

• Assessing the competitive landscape and market forces.

2. Market Research:

• Investigating customer preferences, behaviors, and needs.

• Assessing market demand for products or services.

• Analyzing market segmentation and targeting strategies.

3. Product Development and Innovation:

• Assessing the feasibility and potential success of new products or services.

• Identifying areas for innovation and improvement.

• Evaluating the market acceptance and viability of new offerings.

4. Consumer Behavior:

• Understanding consumer attitudes, motivations, and decision-making

processes.

• Analyzing factors influencing consumer purchasing behavior.

• Identifying trends and shifts in consumer preferences.

5. Financial Analysis:

• Evaluating the financial performance of a business.

• Conducting cost-benefit analysis for decision-making.

• Assessing investment opportunities and financial risks.

6. Human Resource Management:

• Investigating employee satisfaction and engagement.

• Analyzing the effectiveness of recruitment and training programs.

• Identifying factors influencing employee performance.

7. Strategic Planning:

• Formulating and evaluating business strategies.

 • Analyzing the internal and external factors affecting organizational success.

• Assessing the potential impact of strategic decisions.

8. Operational Efficiency:

• Evaluating and optimizing business processes.

• Identifying opportunities for cost reduction and efficiency improvement.

• Assessing the effectiveness of supply chain management.

9. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR):

• Investigating the impact of corporate social responsibility initiatives.

• Assessing the reputation and social impact of the business.

• Identifying opportunities for sustainable practices.

10. Global Business Environment:

• Analyzing international markets and global economic trends.

• Assessing the impact of geopolitical factors on business operations.

• Identifying opportunities and challenges in the global marketplace.

11. Technology and Digital Transformation:

• Assessing the impact of technology on business operations.

• Investigating digital marketing strategies and e-commerce trends.

• Analyzing the potential benefits of adopting new technologies.

12. Risk Management:

• Identifying and analyzing business risks.

• Assessing the impact of external factors on risk exposure.

• Developing strategies to mitigate and manage risks.

The scope of business research is dynamic and responsive to the evolving nature of the
business environment. Researchers may focus on specific areas within this broad scope based
on organizational needs, objectives, and challenges. The ultimate goal is to provide valuable
insights that contribute to informed decision-making and sustainable business success.
Significance of Business Research

Business research holds significant importance for organizations across various industries. Its
value lies in its ability to provide valuable insights, support informed decision-making, and
contribute to the overall success and sustainability of businesses. Here are some key aspects
highlighting the significance of business research:

1. Informed Decision-Making: Business research provides decision-makers with

relevant and reliable information. This enables them to make informed decisions
related to strategic planning, product development, market expansion, resource
allocation, and other critical aspects of business operations.

2. Risk Management: Through the identification and analysis of business risks,

research helps organizations develop strategies to mitigate and manage potential
challenges. This proactive approach enhances risk management practices and
contributes to the resilience of the business.

3. Competitive Advantage: Understanding market trends, consumer behavior, and

industry dynamics through research allows organizations to gain a competitive
advantage. It enables them to respond quickly to changes, identify emerging
opportunities, and differentiate themselves from competitors.

4. Market Understanding: Business research helps organizations gain a deeper

understanding of their target markets. This includes insights into customer
preferences, needs, and expectations, which are crucial for developing products and
services that meet market demands.

5. Innovation and Product Development: Research plays a key role in the innovation
process by identifying gaps in the market, assessing the feasibility of new ideas, and
providing feedback on product development initiatives. It helps businesses stay
relevant and competitive in the marketplace.

6. Operational Efficiency: Evaluating and optimizing business processes through

research leads to increased operational efficiency. Identifying areas for improvement,
streamlining workflows, and implementing best practices contribute to cost reduction
and improved productivity.

7. Strategic Planning: Business research supports the formulation and evaluation of

strategic plans. It helps organizations assess internal and external factors influencing
their operations, identify growth opportunities, and align strategies with market
demands.

8. Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty: Research allows businesses to measure

customer satisfaction, identify areas for improvement, and build stronger customer
relationships. Satisfied customers are more likely to become loyal, repeat customers
and advocates for the brand.
 9. Adaptation to Changing Environments: The business environment is dynamic, and
research helps organizations adapt to changes. Whether it's shifts in consumer
behavior, technological advancements, or regulatory changes, research provides the
necessary insights to navigate and thrive in evolving landscapes.

10. Investment and Financial Decision Support: Financial analysis and market research
assist organizations in making sound investment decisions. Evaluating potential
investments, assessing financial risks, and understanding market trends are critical for
long-term financial success.

11. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Research contributes to the development

and evaluation of CSR initiatives. Understanding the social impact of business
activities and implementing responsible practices can enhance a company's reputation
and stakeholder relationships.

12. Continuous Improvement: Business research is an iterative process that encourages

continuous improvement. Regularly updating information, monitoring key
performance indicators, and staying attuned to market changes allow organizations to
adapt and refine their strategies over time.

In summary, the significance of business research lies in its ability to provide a systematic
and evidence-based approach to decision-making, strategy formulation, and overall business
management. It enables organizations to stay competitive, agile, and responsive to the ever-
changing business landscape.

Types of Research

Research can be broadly categorized into two main types: quantitative research and
qualitative research. Each type serves different purposes and employs distinct methodologies.
Additionally, within these main categories, there are various research methods. Here's an
overview of the two main types and some common research methods within each:

1. Quantitative Research:

• Purpose: Quantitative research is focused on quantifying relationships, testing

hypotheses, and determining cause-and-effect associations. It involves the
collection of numerical data and the use of statistical analysis.

• Methods:

• Surveys and Questionnaires: Structured instruments with closed-

ended questions are used to gather data from a large number of
respondents.

• Experiments: Controlled experiments are conducted to manipulate

variables and observe their effects, often in a laboratory setting.
 • Observational Research: Researchers systematically observe and
record behavior or events in natural settings, often using predetermined
categories.

• Content Analysis: Analyzing the content of texts, documents, or

media to identify patterns and trends.

2. Qualitative Research:

• Purpose: Qualitative research aims to explore, understand, and interpret

complex phenomena. It involves gathering non-numerical data to gain insights
into social and human behavior.

• Methods:

• Interviews: In-depth, open-ended conversations with individuals or

groups to gather detailed information about their experiences, opinions,
and perspectives.

• Focus Groups: Small group discussions facilitated by a moderator to

explore opinions and perceptions on a specific topic.

• Ethnography: Immersion in a specific social or cultural setting to

observe and understand the behaviors, interactions, and practices of the
people in that environment.

• Case Studies: In-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, or

situation, providing a comprehensive understanding of the subject.

• Grounded Theory: Developing theories and concepts from the data

itself, allowing patterns and themes to emerge through analysis.

3. Mixed-Methods Research:

• Purpose: Combining both quantitative and qualitative methods to provide a

more comprehensive understanding of a research problem.

• Methods:

• Convergent Design: Collecting and analyzing both quantitative and

qualitative data independently and comparing the results.

• Sequential Design: Conducting one type of research (quantitative or

qualitative) followed by the other, using the results from the first phase
to inform the second.
 4. Action Research:

• Purpose: Conducted by practitioners to address real-world problems in their

professional context. It involves a cyclic process of planning, acting,
observing, and reflecting.

• Methods: Collaboration with stakeholders, data collection through various

methods, and iterative cycles of problem-solving.

5. Descriptive vs. Analytical Research:

• Descriptive Research: Aims to describe the characteristics of a population or

phenomenon. It provides a snapshot of the current situation.

• Analytical Research: Focuses on understanding the reasons behind a

particular phenomenon. It involves exploring the relationships between
variables and explaining the "why" and "how."

These are broad categories, and specific research studies may incorporate elements from
multiple types or methods based on the research question, objectives, and the nature of the
investigation. Researchers often choose the type of research based on their goals and the
nature of the phenomena they are studying.

Scientific method of Research

The scientific method is a systematic approach used by scientists and researchers to

investigate natural phenomena, solve problems, and advance knowledge. It involves a series
of steps designed to ensure objectivity, reproducibility, and reliability in the research process.
The scientific method typically consists of the following key steps:

1. Observation:

• The process begins with careful observation of a phenomenon or problem in

the natural world. Observations can be made through direct experiences,
literature reviews, or previous research.

2. Question Formulation:

• Based on observations, researchers formulate a specific research question or

hypothesis. The question should be clear, testable, and specific, guiding the
focus of the research.

3. Literature Review:

• Researchers review existing literature to understand what is already known

about the topic, identify gaps in knowledge, and build a theoretical framework
for their study.
4. Hypothesis Development:

• A hypothesis is a testable and falsifiable statement that predicts the

relationship between variables or outcomes. It serves as a tentative explanation
for the observed phenomenon.

5. Research Design:

• Researchers design a detailed plan outlining the methods they will use to
collect and analyze data. This includes selecting the research approach
(experimental, correlational, etc.), defining variables, and choosing the study's
participants.

6. Data Collection:

• The chosen research methods are implemented to collect relevant data. This
may involve experiments, surveys, observations, interviews, or other
techniques, depending on the nature of the research.

7. Data Analysis:

• Collected data is analyzed using appropriate statistical or qualitative methods.

The goal is to identify patterns, relationships, and trends that can address the
research question and test the hypothesis.

8. Results:

• The findings of the data analysis are presented in a clear and organized
manner. This may involve the use of tables, graphs, charts, or written
descriptions to convey the results.

9. Conclusion:

• Researchers draw conclusions based on the analysis of the data and evaluate
whether the results support or reject the hypothesis. Conclusions should be
objective and related to the original research question.

10. Peer Review:

• The research is typically subjected to peer review, where other experts in the
field critically evaluate the study's design, methods, analysis, and conclusions.
This helps ensure the quality and validity of the research.

11. Publication:

• If the research passes peer review, it may be published in scientific journals,

making the findings accessible to the broader scientific community.

12. Replication:
 • Replication involves conducting similar studies to verify the original findings.
Reproducibility is a key aspect of the scientific method, and independent
replication contributes to the robustness of scientific knowledge.

The scientific method is an iterative process, and the results of one study often lead to further
questions and investigations. It provides a structured and systematic approach to acquiring
knowledge and advancing scientific understanding.

Variables

In research, variables are elements or characteristics that can be measured, observed, or

manipulated. Researchers use variables to study and analyze relationships, patterns, and
trends within a given context. Variables can be classified into different types based on their
nature, role in the research, and how they are measured. Here are the main types of variables:

1. Independent Variable (IV):

• The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated or controlled by

the researcher. It is the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.
Changes in the independent variable are believed to influence the dependent
variable.

2. Dependent Variable (DV):

• The dependent variable is the variable that is observed, measured, or recorded

as the outcome of the study. It is the presumed effect or response to changes in
the independent variable. The dependent variable depends on the independent
variable.

3. Categorical Variables:

• Categorical variables represent categories or groups and can be divided into

nominal and ordinal variables.

• Nominal Variables: Categories with no inherent order or ranking.

Examples include gender, ethnicity, or types of cars.

• Ordinal Variables: Categories with a meaningful order or ranking, but

the intervals between them may not be consistent. Examples include
educational levels or customer satisfaction ratings.

4. Continuous Variables:

• Continuous variables are measured on a scale and can take any value within a
given range. They can be further classified into interval and ratio variables.
 • Interval Variables: Have a consistent interval or distance between
values, but lack a true zero point. Examples include temperature in
Celsius or IQ scores.

• Ratio Variables: Have a consistent interval and a true zero point,

meaning zero represents the absence of the variable. Examples include
height, weight, and income.

5. Discrete Variables:

• Discrete variables are countable and often represent distinct categories with
clear boundaries. Examples include the number of employees, the number of
products sold, or the number of defects in a product.

6. Extraneous Variables:

• Extraneous variables are variables other than the independent and dependent
variables that may affect the study's results. Researchers try to control or
account for extraneous variables to ensure the internal validity of their study.

7. Moderator Variables:

• Moderator variables are additional variables that can influence the strength or
direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
They help identify under what conditions the relationship holds or changes.

8. Mediator Variables:

• Mediator variables help explain the process or mechanism through which the
independent variable affects the dependent variable. They provide insight into
the underlying reasons for observed relationships.

Understanding the types of variables is crucial for designing and conducting research studies.
Researchers carefully select, measure, and control variables to ensure the reliability and
validity of their findings.

Research Process

The research process is a systematic sequence of steps or stages followed by researchers to

design, conduct, and analyze a research study. While the specific steps may vary depending
on the nature of the research and the discipline, the general research process typically
involves the following key stages:

1. Identifying the Research Problem:

• The process begins with the identification of a research problem or question.

This involves recognizing a gap in knowledge, an issue to be addressed, or a
 topic that requires investigation. The research problem sets the direction for
the entire study.

2. Conducting a Literature Review:

• Researchers review existing literature related to the research problem to

understand what is already known, identify gaps in knowledge, and build a
theoretical foundation. A thorough literature review helps situate the study
within the broader context of existing research.

3. Formulating the Research Question or Hypothesis:

• Based on the literature review, researchers formulate a clear and specific

research question or hypothesis. The research question guides the study and
reflects the key issue the researcher aims to investigate.

4. Designing the Research:

• Researchers develop a detailed research design outlining the methods and

procedures that will be used to collect and analyze data. This includes
choosing the research approach (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods),
selecting participants, and determining data collection techniques.

5. Selecting Participants and Sampling:

• If applicable, researchers select the participants for the study and determine
the sampling method. Sampling involves choosing a subset of the population
that represents the larger group from which it is drawn.

6. Collecting Data:

• Researchers implement the data collection methods outlined in the research

design. This may involve surveys, experiments, interviews, observations, or a
combination of these techniques. The goal is to gather relevant and reliable
data to answer the research question.

7. Analyzing Data:

• Collected data is analyzed using appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis

methods. The analysis aims to identify patterns, relationships, and trends in the
data. The choice of analysis depends on the research design and the nature of
the data.

8. Interpreting Results:

• Researchers interpret the results of the data analysis in relation to the research
question or hypothesis. This involves drawing conclusions, discussing the
implications of findings, and considering how the results contribute to existing
knowledge.
 9. Drawing Conclusions and Generalizing:

• Researchers draw overall conclusions based on the findings and discuss the
broader implications of the study. They consider the generalizability of results
to a larger population or context.

10. Communicating Results:

• Researchers communicate their findings through various means, such as

research papers, presentations, or reports. Sharing results contributes to the
academic or professional discourse and allows others to build on the research.

11. Reflecting and Iterating:

• Researchers reflect on the research process, including strengths, limitations,

and areas for improvement. They may also identify avenues for future research
and consider how their findings can inform practice or policy.

The research process is iterative, and researchers may revisit and refine earlier stages based
on insights gained during later stages. A well-designed and executed research process
contributes to the generation of valuable knowledge and advancements in the field.

What is a Research Design?

A research design is defined as the overall plan or structure that guides the process of
conducting research. It is a critical component of the research process and serves as a
blueprint for how a study will be carried out, including the methods and techniques that will
be used to collect and analyze data. A well-designed research study is essential for ensuring
that the research objectives are met and that the results are valid and reliable.

Key elements of research design include:

• Research Objectives: Clearly define the goals and objectives of the research study.
What is the research trying to achieve or investigate?

• Research Questions or Hypotheses: Formulating specific research questions or

hypotheses that address the objectives of the study. These questions guide the research
process.

• Data Collection Methods: Determining how data will be collected, whether through
surveys, experiments, observations, interviews, archival research, or a combination of
these methods.

• Sampling: Deciding on the target population and selecting a sample that represents
that population. Sampling methods can vary, such as random sampling, stratified
sampling, or convenience sampling.
 • Data Collection Instruments: Developing or selecting the tools and instruments
needed to collect data, such as questionnaires, surveys, or experimental equipment.

• Data Analysis: Defining the statistical or analytical techniques that will be used to
analyze the collected data. This may involve qualitative or quantitative methods,
depending on the research goals.

• Time Frame: Establishing a timeline for the research project, including when data
will be collected, analyzed, and reported.

• Ethical Considerations: Addressing ethical issues, including obtaining informed

consent from participants, ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of data, and
adhering to ethical guidelines.

• Resources: Identifying the resources needed for the research, including funding,
personnel, equipment, and access to data sources.

• Data Presentation and Reporting: Planning how the research findings will be
presented and reported, whether through written reports, presentations, or other
formats.

Types of Research Designs

There are several types of research designs, each tailored to answer specific research
questions and achieve particular objectives. The choice of research design depends on the
nature of the research problem and the goals of the study. Here are several typical types of
research designs:

1. Experimental Research Design

Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT): In a randomized controlled trial (RCT), individuals are
assigned randomly to either an experimental group or a control group. This design is often
used to assess the impact of a treatment or intervention.

2. Quasi-Experimental Research Design

Non-equivalent Group Design: In this design, two or more groups are compared, but
participants are not randomly assigned. This is common when random assignment is not
feasible or ethical.

3. Observational Research Design

Cross-Sectional Study: In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a single point in time
to examine relationships or differences between variables. It does not involve follow-up over
time.
Longitudinal Study: This design involves collecting data from the same group of participants
over an extended period to study changes and trends over time.

4. Descriptive Research Design

Survey Research: Surveys involve collecting data from a sample of individuals through
questionnaires or interviews to describe characteristics, attitudes, or opinions.

Case Study: Case studies involve an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or
phenomenon. They are often used to gain a deep understanding of a unique case.

5. Correlational Research Design

Correlational Study: This design examines the relationships between two or more variables to
determine if they are associated. However, it does not establish causation.

6. Ex Post Facto Research Design

In this design, researchers examine existing conditions or behaviors and look for potential
causes retrospectively. It’s useful when it’s not feasible to manipulate variables.

7. Exploratory Research Design

Pilot Study: A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary investigation conducted before a full-
scale research project to test research procedures and gather initial data.

8. Cohort Study

Cohort studies follow a group of individuals (cohort) over a period of time to assess the
development of specific outcomes or conditions. They are common in epidemiology.

9. Action Research

Action research is often used in educational or organizational settings. Researchers work

collaboratively with practitioners to address practical problems and make improvements.

10. Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis involves the statistical synthesis of data from multiple studies on the same
topic to provide a more comprehensive overview of research findings.

11. Cross-Sequential Design

This design combines elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal research to examine
age-related changes while comparing different cohorts.

12. Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach that focuses on developing theories or

explanations grounded in the data collected during the research process.
Research Design Methods

Research design methods refer to the systematic approaches and techniques used to plan,
structure, and conduct a research study. The choice of research design method depends on the
research questions, objectives, and the nature of the study. Here are some key research design
methods commonly used in various fields:

1. Experimental Method

Controlled Experiments: In controlled experiments, researchers manipulate one or more

independent variables and measure their effects on dependent variables while controlling for
confounding factors.

2. Observational Method

Naturalistic Observation: Researchers observe and record behavior in its natural setting
without intervening. This method is often used in psychology and anthropology.

Structured Observation: Observations are made using a predetermined set of criteria or a

structured observation schedule.

3. Survey Method

Questionnaires: Researchers collect data by administering structured questionnaires to

participants. This method is widely used for collecting quantitative research data.

Interviews: In interviews, researchers ask questions directly to participants, allowing for more
in-depth responses. Interviews can take on structured, semi-structured, or unstructured
formats.

4. Case Study Method

Single-Case Study: Focuses on a single individual or entity, providing an in-depth analysis of

that case.

Multiple-Case Study: Involves the examination of multiple cases to identify patterns,

commonalities, or differences.

5. Content Analysis

Researchers analyze textual, visual, or audio data to identify patterns, themes, and trends.
This method is commonly used in media studies and social sciences.

6. Historical Research

Researchers examine historical documents, records, and artifacts to understand past events,
trends, and contexts.

7. Action Research
Researchers work collaboratively with practitioners to address practical problems or
implement interventions in real-world settings.

8. Ethnographic Research

Researchers immerse themselves in a particular cultural or social group to gain a deep

understanding of their behaviors, beliefs, and practices.

9. Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Surveys

Cross-sectional surveys collect data from a sample of participants at a single point in time.

Longitudinal surveys collect data from the same participants over an extended period,
allowing for the study of changes over time.

10. Meta-Analysis

Researchers conduct a quantitative synthesis of data from multiple studies to provide a

comprehensive overview of research findings on a particular topic.

11. Mixed-Methods Research

Combines qualitative and quantitative research methods to provide a more holistic

understanding of a research problem.

12. Grounded Theory

A qualitative research method that aims to develop theories or explanations grounded in the
data collected during the research process.

13. Simulation and Modeling

Researchers use mathematical or computational models to simulate real-world phenomena

and explore various scenarios.

14. Survey Experiments

Combines elements of surveys and experiments, allowing researchers to manipulate variables

within a survey context.

15. Case-Control Studies and Cohort Studies

These epidemiological research methods are used to study the causes and risk factors
associated with diseases and health outcomes.

16. Cross-Sequential Design

Combines elements of cross-sectional and longitudinal research to examine both age-related

changes and cohort differences.