PROJECT

Advanced Foundation Engineering

(CIVE 5501)

A critical review of some technical papers

Topic: Foundation design on expansive soils

Akshesh Patel
Carleton id: 101244369
uOttawa ID: - 300273741
 Abstract

This study describes various types of foundation designs to be considered for

structural engineering projects when the subsoil foundation consists of expansive or
swelling soils. These types of soils swell when they are subjected to moisture and
shrink due to moisture loss. Because of this different behaviour upon wetting and
drying, they cause minor to major structural damages to pavements as well as
buildings. Every year millions of dollars are spent dealing with the consequences of
swelling soils. For the design of foundations on swelling soil, it is first essential to
recognize and evaluate the soil based on its swelling potential, and then determine the
most proper foundation design that can be constructed on this problematic soil. Due
to its qualities, black cotton soil is extremely bothersome, problematic, and dangerous.
Soil deposits in nature are exceedingly irregular, resulting in an unlimited number of
conceivable combinations that affect the soil's strength and the technique for making
it useful. Deferential settlement occurs when expansive soil expands and contracts,
causing serious damage to the foundation, buildings, roadways, retaining structures,
and canal linings. As a result, foundations in black cotton soil require extra attention.
This paper will include soil type research, foundation types of research, foundation
suitability research, and foundation comparative research.
 Introduction

Expansive soil is a problem soil that damages civil engineering structures all around
the world. Foundation problems are frequently caused by expansive soil, also known
as shrink-swell soil. Expansive foundation soils will "heave," causing a building or
other structure to elevate during periods of excessive precipitation. Expansive soil
will "collapse" during periods of decreased soil moisture, which can result in building
settlement. Damage can be severe in any case. Expansive soil can also cause
lateral movement by exerting pressure on the vertical face of a foundation,
basement, or retaining wall.
These soils, which are typically found in arid and semiarid locations and contain a lot
of clay minerals, are mostly found in arid and semiarid places. Large parts of the
southwest and western United States, including Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado,
Nevada, California, Utah, and others, have expansive soils. Large parts of India and
Australia (also referred to as black cotton soils), South America, Africa, and the
Middle East also have these soils (Bowels, 1988; Kalantari, 1991; Murphy, 2010).
During both dry and wet seasons, it's not straightforward to spot the expansive soils
on the field. During dry seasons, the maximum width of these types of soil can reach
over 20 meters, while during wet seasons, they become extremely sticky and difficult
to travel. The existence of surface cracks in expansive soil deposits also indicates
the potential for swelling soils to expand. In the laboratory, a variety of classification
approaches are employed to identify expansive soils. There is currently no uniform
classification system; different approaches are utilized in different parts of the United
States. Typical ways include using Atterberg limits and/or clay size % to categorize a
soil's expansion potential as low, medium, high, or extremely high. Soils classed as
CL or CH in the USCS, as well as A-6 or A-7 in the AASHTO classification systems,
might be considered expansive in general (Kalantari, 1991; U.S. Department of
Transportation, 2006).
Moisture-induced volume changes can cause problems for foundations built on
expansive soils. The volume changes that occur are a consequence of a variety of
variables, including the soil qualities, the moisture condition (suction) at the time of
construction, the degree of change in moisture condition, its variation over time and
space, and the structure's shape and stiffness. Moisture change causes volume
change beneath the structure, which occurs in unsaturated soils above the
groundwater table. For residential buildings, where there is a propensity to utilize
more empirically based solutions, the behaviour of unsaturated soils is frequently not
properly and/or appropriately evaluated.
 Literature review

The mineralogy of expansive soil is dominated by the presence of montmorillonite,

which is characterized by high volume changes from wet to dry seasons and vice
versa, according to a study on geotechnical analysis of black cotton soil. The calcium
ion is the most abundant exchangeable ion in most montmorillonites, but sodium is
the dominating ion in a few, such as Wyoming bentonite. Bentonite is a sedimentary
substance generated from altered volcanic ash that contains a significant amount of
montmorillonite. Illite, attapulgite, and kaolinite are other less expansive clay
minerals in order of decreasing swell potential, with kaolinite being the least
expansive. Under some field conditions, soils containing clay minerals with fewer
expansive characteristics than bentonites may swell dramatically, causing structural
damage. The soil specimens were subjected to a variety of tests, including grain size
analysis, specific gravity, Atterberg’s limits, standard proctor compaction,
consolidation, and direct shear test. For practical purposes, Atterberg’s limits provide
a convenient indicator of potential expansion. The outcomes were also compared to
the Standard Codes.
The dry and semi-arid regions of the world have expansive black cotton soil. These
soils are made up of genesis, basalt, basic volcanic ash, calcareous alluvium, and
sedimentary rocks with calcareous shale, limestone, slates, and sandstones.
Expansive montmorillonite soils are frequently associated with a hot environment
and poor drainage characteristics. In their study on structures in black cotton soils,
U.G.Fulzele, V.R.Ghane, and D.D.Parkhe (2016) discovered that the stability of
different types of foundations is dependent on the construction and conditions of
effecting types of foundations and the importance of foundations.
“Department of the Army USA, Technical Manual TM 5-818-7, Foundations in
Expansive Soils, 1 September 1983.”
The importance of foundations in expanding soils has been highlighted. B.A.Mir
(2015) examined the issues and corrective procedures related to expanding soils in
his research.
As previously stated, large-scale damage to civil engineering structures occurs as a
result of heaving, which is accompanied by a loss of strength in these soils during
wet seasons and shrinking during summer. As previously stated, large-scale damage
to civil engineering structures occurs as a result of heaving, which is accompanied
by a loss of strength in these soils during wet seasons and shrinking during summer.
Building’s crack, canal linings slide, canal beds heave, roads get rutted, and
retaining structures deteriorate, among other things.
Objectives:
1. To study soil type
2. To study about types of foundations
3. To study the suitability of foundations
4. Comparison of foundations.

Keywords: Atterberg limits, expansive soils, shallow and deep foundations,

structural damages, swelling potential.

 Study about the soil:

The examination of the building site conditions should be the first step in
analyzing the swelling behavior of expansive soil foundations.
The behavior of soil layers, existing structures, climate, and early groundwater
conditions are all evaluated during site studies. Borings should be made to obtain
undisturbed soil samples for swell tests and identification.
Figure 1 depicts the approximate locations of clays and shales that may swell or
shrink due to changing moisture conditions across the continental United States.
The degree of expansiveness and the estimated occurrence frequency of
expansive materials were used to distribute expansive materials.
Prior to final design and construction, site studies should be completed. These
are especially recommended in the southern and central United States,
especially in locations with low or high degrees of expansion (Figure l), and
should include estimates of potential heave beneath important structural
foundations. If construction is planned in the vulnerable areas of Figure 1 and,
especially, if a study of the site history and adjacent structures indicates that the
proposed building may be subject to damaging heave, soil exploration programs
for relatively small structures such as houses, and one-story buildings may also
"be economically significant."

Elements that are necessary for soil to swell.

volume change (PI %) (SL %) (LL %)

Low <18 >15 20-35
Medium 15-28 10-15 35-50
High 25-41 7-12 50-70
Very high >35 <11 >70
Figure 1 depicts a study of the central south area of Texas, which reveals that
the LAFB area is exposed to a significant degree of expansiveness, making
structures vulnerable to heave damage.
Some researchers (Hauck, 1959; Peck et al., 1974; Das, 1984; Holts and Kovacs,
1981; Bowels, 1988; Kalantari, 1991; Coduto et al., 2010; Murphy, 2010) believe that
the soil expands and shrinks in a zone ranging in depth from a meter to as much as
20 m from the ground level, depending on the locality and that this zone is referred to
as the depth of seasonal variation As a result, it is reasonable to conclude that
damage to structures is caused by volumetric changes occurring in the upper layer
(zone) of expansive soil, which is commonly referred to as the active or unstable
zone.
The extent of heave that may occur after a structure is placed on expansive clay soil
is heavily influenced by the environment. Moisture conditions in the soil are governed
by the moisture balance between rainfall and evaporation in locations where shallow
water tables do not occur. Construction changes are almost certain to disrupt the
original moisture distribution, requiring the establishment of a new moisture
equilibrium.
2 &3 . Types of foundation or selection of foundation

To establish relative performance, many feasible foundation systems that are

consistent with the functional and architectural requirements of the whole structure,
as well as adaptability to the local terrain and subsurface features, should be
compared. The capacity to minimize or resist the greatest predicted differential
movement to within acceptable limits while offering the most economical is referred
to as optimal performance.

Types of foundations for structures in expansive soil areas can be classified as:
 Shallow foundation
1. Individual footing or isolated footing
2. Combined footing
3. Strip foundation
4. Raft or mat foundation

 Deep Foundation
1. Pile foundation
2. Drilled shafts or Caissons
3. Cofferdams

Suitability of foundation

Spread Footing: The base of a Spread Footings foundation is wider than that of a
standard load-bearing wall. When the bearing soil layer is within 3 m (10 feet) of the
ground surface, these footings are used. The weight must be supported by the soil
bearing capacity of the structure across the structure's base area These foundations
should not be utilized on soils where there is a risk of groundwater flowing over the
bearing layer and causing Scour. When expansive strata are thin enough to locate
the footing in a no expansive stratum below which differential movement is
insignificant, shallow footings can be used. Because of the narrow width of the
footings, placing significant loads on them may not be helpful in mitigating high swell
pressures. Unless the expanding soil layer is thin, the stress placed on the soil is
very low below a depth of about twice the footing width and contributes nothing to
offset the swell pressure.
Combined footing: A combination of footings Supports two columns, one of which
is so near to the other that its separate footings would overlap. At the property line,
one column is placed. The centroid of the footing and the C.G. of the column load
should be the same.
It is supplied on the following terms: When the soil's bearing ability is reduced,
additional space under individual footing is required.
Strip footing:
Strip footing is appropriate when the soil has less swelling pressure due to its
expansive nature. When the soil swells, the sand grains will move up to relieve the
strain. These foundations are often utilized to support medium loads. Strip
foundations can be utilized in a variety of sub-soils, however, they are best suited to
soils with a high carrying capacity. They're especially well-suited to light structural
loads, such as those seen in many low-to-medium-rise household structures, where
mass concrete strip foundations can be utilized. Reinforced concrete may be
necessary for other circumstances.

Mat or Raft foundation:

Mat foundations carry enormous structural loads from columns and walls by being
spread across the full surface of the building. Mat foundations are used for the
foundations of columns and walls. For high-rise buildings, this is often
recommended. It would be too expensive for a low-rise structure. This form of
foundation is appropriate for expansive soils with little bearing capacity, making
spread footings and wall footings impractical. Where the groundwater table is above
the bearing surface of the soil, this foundation should not be used. In such
circumstances, the use of foundation may result in scour and liquefaction.

Pile Foundation:
A Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads
from the structure to a hard rock stratum much deep below the ground level. Pile
foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard
soil strata which is much below ground level and where shallow foundations such as
spread footings and mat footings cannot be used. This type of foundation is also
used to prevent the uplift of the structure due to lateral loads such as earthquakes
and wind forces. The pile foundations resist the loads from the structure by skin
friction and by end bearing. The use of Pile foundations also prevents settlements of
foundations.
Deep foundations, such as concrete piers for significant structures that must be
bottomed below a perched water table to have acceptable bearing capacity, may
result in heave of parched expanding subsoils when moisture seeps down the pier.
The pier and bell diameters can be chosen to provide high column loads and bearing
pressures on the soil beneath the footing, balance soil-swell pressures, and reduce
deep foundation heave (despite moisture seepage beneath the footing). The column
loads can be raised for a given structural weight by expanding the span between
footings and decreasing the size of the footings. An additional benefit of extending
the span distance between footings is that the structural member will rotate less
angularly for the same amount of vertical movement. As a result, the amount of
disruption in the structure is reduced. To simplify construction, reduce contractor
equipment on the job site, and save money, pier diameter variations should be kept
to a minimum in the foundation.

Under-reamed Pile Foundation: Another type of pile foundation is the under-

reamed pile foundation. Bore cast in situ concrete piles with a bulk-shaped
enlargement towards the base are used under reamed piles. The building or
residence is secured to the earth at a depth where ground movement due to
changes in moisture content is negligible in this sort of foundation.

Drilled shafts or Caissons: A compressed member, a drilled caisson is subjected

to an axial load at the top and reaction at the bottom. Drilled caissons are typically
drilled using mechanical methods. When deep deposits of soft clays and loose
water-bearing granular soils occur, drilled shaft foundations are not acceptable. , i.e.
soil made up of boulders and artesian aquifer exit.
Caissons is derived from the French word Caisse, which means box. A round or
rectangular box-like structure sunk to the desired depth from the surface of either
land or water. Used to submerge foundation in water.

Cofferdam: A cofferdam is a temporary structure placed in a river, lake, or dam to

evacuate water and allow construction to proceed. Dams, docks, and bridges all
require sheet piles, and they're commonly employed where sheet pile driving is
simple.
 4 Comparison of foundation:

No Pad foundation Pier foundation Pile foundation

1 Pad foundation diagrammatically Pier foundation diagrammatically Pile foundation diagrammatically
represented, represented, represented,

Cylindrical columns sustain and

The loads from the structure are transfer huge superimposed loads
2 simply distributed to the bearing to strong strata in a pier
layer of earth with a pad foundation. foundation. Piles are pushed into the load-
3 bearing layers through the
Pad foundations are mechanically overburdened soils.
driven. The drill machine is used to drill
piers. Pier foundations are only a Pile foundations transfer load
4 Pad foundations, which usually few inches deep. through friction (in the case of
consist of a concrete block or friction piles) or both friction and
concrete pad, are used to transfer Pier foundations are only capable bearing (in the case of bearing
point loads from a column or framed of transferring load through piles) ( in the case of combined
structure. bearing. end bearing and friction piles).
Pad foundations are only a few Pile foundations are deep
5 inches deep (shallow depth). When the top layer consists of foundations.
decomposed rock and hard clays,
These can be chosen for their strong pier foundations are used. When there are no hard strata
6 bearing capacity at a shallow depth at a depth that can be reached
while maintaining no differential and the loading is unequal, a
settlement. pile foundation is used.
Pier foundations include masonry
7 Plain concrete, reinforced concrete, or concrete piers, as well as drilled End-bearing piles, friction
mixed, continuous, and pad caissons. heaps, compaction piles, anchor
foundations with ground beams are piles, tension or uplift piles,
all types of pile foundations. sheet and batter piles, and so
on are examples of pile
foundations.
For medium-sized constructions, Small loads necessitate pier
8 pad foundations are necessary. foundations. Greater loads, such as those
imposed by a bridge or a
flyover, need the use of a pile
foundation.
  Result and Discussion

Medium to high compressibility and plasticity, as well as high shrinkage and swelling
qualities, describe black cotton soil. Because of this, black cotton soil is also known
as expansive soil, and its geotechnical features must be researched before any
construction can be built on top of it. The presence of montmorillonite, which is
characterized by substantial volume changes from wet to dry seasons and vice
versa, dominates the mineralogy of this soil. In the laboratory, the physical and
geotechnical qualities of the soil samples were investigated. Grain size analysis,
specific gravity, Atterberg’s limits, standard proctor compaction, consolidation, and a
direct shear test were all performed. The collected results were compared to the
Standard codes. Empirical models established in this work with the use of regression
analysis can help site engineers better understand the parameters involved in
describing the features of black cotton soil with medium plasticity and its usage as a
construction material in roads and foundations.

To determine settlement, soil properties should be acquired.

A foundation's complete settlement is divided into three portions, as follows:
S = Si +Sc +Ss
Where,
S = total settlement
Si = elastic or immediate settlement
Sc = consolidation settlement
Ss = secondary settlement

• Immediate settlement (Se) is the portion of the total settlement (S) that is meant to
happen when loading is applied:

𝐒𝐢 = 𝐪𝐁′ (𝟏 − 𝛖^² )𝐈𝐬 𝐈𝐟/ 𝐄

υ: undrained Poisson’s ratio

E: elastic modulus of the soil
q: stress applied by the foundation
B’: the minimum dimension of the foundation
B’= B/2 for the center of the foundation
B’= B for corner of the foundation
Is: influence factor
IF: depth factor (a factor that is determined by the shape of the footing, the
size of the footing, the kind of footing, and the point of settlement calculation)
  Consolidation settlement happens due to the expulsion of excessive water
from the voids of soil.
 Calculation of the stress increase at the middle of the clay layer is required to
determine the consolidation settlement.

𝐇
𝐒𝐜 = 𝐦𝐯 ∆𝛔𝐝𝐳
𝟎

𝑚 = volume coefficient of compressibility

OC: 0.1-0.3
NC: 0.3-1.50

 Secondary settlement starts after consolidation is over.

𝐂𝛂𝐇 𝐭𝟐
𝐒𝐬 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟏 + 𝐞𝐏 𝐭𝟏

 Common for organic soils

 OC clays: Ss=0 (Tomlinson, 2001)
 NC clays: Ss=0.1 Sc
 Coefficient of secondary compression C
 OC: ≤ 0.001
 NC: 0.025-0.004
 Organic soils: ≥ 0.025

The settlement for suitable foundations is determined, and we may select the
appropriate foundation in black cotton soil based on this.The most essential feature
of the soil is that when it is dry, it shrinks and becomes as hard as stone, with a very
high bearing capacity. When the soil is wet, however, it expands, softens, and loses
its bearing capacity. It expands to 20 percent to 30 percent of its original volume and
applies pressure as a result of its expansive nature. The upward pressure exerted
gets so great that the foundation begins to lift upwards. The foundation's reverse
pressure generates fissures in the wall above. The fissures are thin at the bottom
and widen as they progress up the mountain. As a result, research into the types and
suitability of foundations for expansive soils, as well as foundation comparisons, is
required.
 Conclusion:

 Black Cotton Soil is a bad foundation material for construction due to its
unusual features. Black cotton soils are also low in strength and experience a
lot of volume variations, making it difficult to use them in building. As a result,
laboratory test reports are needed to determine soil type prior to construction,
and the results are compared to the Standards Code.
 The foundation should be built or dug to a sufficient depth to safeguard the
structure from structural damage caused by soil swelling or shrinking.
Furthermore, the foundation must convey loads to the earth without
generating settlements or other moments large enough to impair or destroy
the structure or limit its overall usefulness, necessitating research into the
many forms of foundations.
 Before deciding on a construction project, it's a good idea to research the
suitability of each form of foundation.
 A comparison of foundations should be used to make the final foundation
choice.
 Factors affecting for Heave: Because of the multiple elements that determine
the amount and rate of in situ swell, accurate heave estimates are extremely
difficult to come by.
 Pore water composition, clay mineralogy, clay mineral quantity, and cation
type and concentration.
 Organization. Geometry, specific surface area, bonding, platelet arrangement,
fissures and slickensides, dry density, and permeability are all factors that
must be considered.
 Attitude and stratigraphy Expansive layer dip and strike, expansive stratum
thickness, stable stratum depth above expansive soil, bedding, and
stratification
 Previous environment and climate, seasonal depths effect, initial desiccation
degree, vegetation coverage, and stress history
 Rainfall, watering, leaking water lines, drainage pattern, ponding, depth to and
character of the water table, amount of covered area, and hydrogenases all
affect water availability after construction.
 Structure and overburden pressures are referred to as surcharge pressures.
 Time - The initial availability of water and the amount of time it took for it to
become available in diverse regions.
 Temperature - As the temperature rises, moisture will migrate to colder
locations.
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