Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN MINDANAO

Kabacan, Cotabato

MODULE IN TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

(Philippine History and Government)

MARIO M. BELLO, JR.

Author

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 INTRODUCTION

The course Teaching Social Studies in the Elementary Grades

is broadly aimed to prepare the pre-service teachers in delivering
the social studies lessons in the actual classroom setup. This
course discusses both the content and pedagogical aspects of
teaching social studies specifically on culture and basic geography.

As defined by CMO No. 74, s. 2017, this subject is designed to

equip the students with a strong background in the local history and
culture. This background serves as an avenue for further inquiry of
the available resources in the community for the localisation and
contextualisation of teaching of elementary subjects. Areas to be
included are natural heritage of the locality, and tangible and
intangible culture that are of great significance to the socio-
economic and political activities of the people in the place.

Basing on the mentioned contextualisation of this subject by

the governing guidelines in the offering of the BEED Program, this
module will cover two major areas: 1. The contents of the social
studies as required by the CMO; and 2. A survey of the different
teaching methods, strategies, and techniques in the teaching of
Elementary Social Studies. Area number 1 is further divided into the
a. discussion of cultures available in the community, and b.
appreciation of different geographical landmarks in Mindanao.
Although the CMO is bereft of definition as to what degree and
extent should the discussion of basic geography is necessary, the
author, in consideration of the expected clientele of the Pre-Service
Teachers, limits the discussion of basic geography to a survey of
the renowned geographical landmarks in the island of Mindanao.

Finally, it may be said that this module is a quick response to

the immediate demand of conducting modular classes in this time of
pandemic. It must be therefore understood that in consideration of
the circumstances, the contents of this module is still under further
development even now that it is already released.

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 —MARIO M. BELLO, JR.
Author

Table of Contents

Contents Page

I. Desired Learning Competency of Students 5

Based on K-12 Curriculum Guide
II. The Time Tested Methods in Teaching Social Studies 9
a. The Inductive Method
b. The Deductive Method
c. The Integrated Method
d. The Lecture Method
e. The Project Method
f. The Demonstration Method
g. The Experiment Method
III. 21st Century Methods and Strategies in Teaching 19
Social Studies
a. Conceptual Approach
b. Integrative Approach
c. Inquiry Approach
d. Peer Tutoring
IV. Other Strategies Applicable in Teaching Social 23
Studies in the Primary Grades
a. Individualized Teaching Methodologies
b. Independent Study
c. Writing Journal
d. Narrative
e. Preparing Projects and Collections
f. Discovery Approach

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 g. Constructivist Approach
h. Experiential Learning
i. Special Reports
j. Student Research
k. Problem Solving
l. Creative Thinking
m. Using Multiple Intelligences Theory
V. Methods Used in Small Groups 48
a. Cooperative Learning
b. Role Playing
c. Socio-Drama
d. Peer Tutoring
e. Micro-Teaching
f. Direct Instruction
g. Inquiry Approach
h. Reading
i. Integrative Group
j. Reading
VI. Methodologies Used in A Large Class 69
a. Discussion
b. Reflective Thinking
c. Concept Teaching
d. Team Teaching
e. Demonstration
f. Field Studies
g. Lecture
h. Simulation
i. Inviting Specialists
j. Field Trip

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Lesson I: DESIRED LEARNING COMPETENCY OF STUDENTS BASED
ON K-12 CURRICULUM GUIDE

Learning Outcome:

Discuss different competencies/skills to be developed in

Social Studies in the Elementary Grades

Definition of Terms:

TEACHING METHOD

A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used

by teachers to enable student learning. These strategies are
determined partly on subject matter to be taught and partly by the
nature of the learner. For a particular teaching method to be
appropriate and efficient it has to be in relation with the
characteristic of the learner and the type of learning it is supposed
to bring about. Suggestions are there to design and selection of

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teaching methods must take into account not only the nature of the
subject matter but also how students learn (Westwood, P. (2008).
What teachers need to know about Teaching methods. Camberwell,
Vic, ACER Press).

TEACHING STRATEGY

Teaching strategies, also known as instructional strategies,

are methods that teachers use to deliver course material in ways
that keep students engaged and practicing different skill sets. An
instructor may select different teaching strategies according to unit
topic, grade level, class size, and classroom resources. Many kinds
of instructional strategies are employed to achieve teaching and
learning goals and support different kinds of students. For example,
teachers may select strategies tailored to students with learning
disabilities according to the needs of the student and the
requirements of the course (https://study.com/teach/instructional-
strategies.html).

TEACHING TECHNIQUE

A technique is the implementation which actually takes place

in the classroom. It is a particular trick, procedure to accomplish
an immediate objective. It must be consistent with the method and
in harmony with the approach as well.

Performance Standards:

Differentiate and discuss teaching method, strategy and

technique.

Materials:

Module
Online resources

What do you already know?

1. Do learners learn in the same pace?

2. What are the different factors affecting the learning process

of children?

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What do you need to know?

TEACHING METHOD

The distinction in teaching methods – teacher-centred versus

student-centred – is a good place to start because these methods
are usually seen as opposed to each other, though they can be seen
as complementary. Direct instruction is used to help children
acquire knowledge and action sequences (e.g. learning to write the
alphabet). Indirect instruction, which involves inquiry-based,
problem-solving, and project-based learning, is used to enable
children’s understanding of the physical, social, and psychological
world in which they live. In addition to different goals, the two
groups of methods derive from different theories about learning and
employ different practices.

Both groups of methods belong in schools, but acquiring and

understanding involve different but related mental processes. Each
is a legitimate goal of schooling for all children.

The term teaching method refers to the general principles, pedagogy and
management strategies used for classroom instruction. Your choice of teaching method
depends on what fits you — your educational philosophy, classroom demographic, subject
area(s) and school mission statement. Teaching theories can be organized into four
categories based on two major parameters: a teacher-centered approach versus a student-
centered approach, and high-tech material use versus low-tech material use.

Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning

Taken to its most extreme interpretation, teachers are the main authority figure in a
teacher-centered instruction model who passively receive knowledge from their teachers
through lectures and direct instruction, with an end goal of positive results from testing and
assessment. In this style, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities; student
learning is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments.

Student-Centered Approach to Learning

While teachers are still an authority figure in a student-centered teaching model,

teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process.

The teacher’s primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall
comprehension of material, and to measure student learning through both formal and
informal forms of assessment, like group projects, student portfolios, and class participation.
In the student-centered classroom, teaching and assessment are connected because student
learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction
(https://teach.com/what/teachers-know/teaching-methods/).

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TEACHING STRATEGY

Lawton define, “teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson(s) which include
structure desired learner behavior in terms of goals of instructions and an outline of planned
tactics necessary to implement the strategy”. Teaching strategies refer to methods used to
help students learn the desired course contents and be able to develop achievable goals in the
future. Teaching strategies identify the different available learning methods to enable them to
develop the right strategy to deal with the target group identified (studylectures.com).

Thomas L. Friedman, author of The World Is Flat, refers to a twenty-first century

world that will be very different from the one in which we were educated. To survive in a
new, globally competitive world, today’s students will need creativity, problem-solving
abilities, a passion for learning, a dedicated work ethic and lifelong learning opportunities.
Students can develop these abilities through instruction based on best practice teaching
strategies. Best practices are applicable to all grade levels students in higher education. Best
practices motivate, engage and prompt students to learn and achieve. Students who receive a
balanced curriculum and possess the knowledge, skills and abilities to transfer and connect
ideas and concepts across disciplines will be successful as measured by standardized tests and
other indicators of student success (Friedman, T., (2005). The World Is Flat. New York:
Farrar, Straus and Giroux).

TEACHING TECHNIQUE

Modern Teaching Technique is important and most preferred in the technological

age. Nowadays, as classes are modified and equipped with Modern teaching aids such
as Speakers, Online Streaming Videos, Interactive Whiteboards, Visualizer, Response
System, CD's, Projectors, Educational Software etc, it acts as a tool for the teachers to
explain the concepts in a more effective and lucid manner. Teachers can teach the students
with more depth and efficiency and also clear all their doubts with Modern Teaching
Techniques. Teachers must use various types of Modern Teaching Techniques to connect
with the students
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331071559_Modern_Teaching_Techniques_in_Ed
ucation).

The following are the classifications of Modern Teaching

Techniques

1. Techniques associated with Teaching Method

> Brain Storming

> Micro Teaching Technique
> Programmed Learning
> Inquiry-Based Learning
> Mind Map
> Cooperative Learning
> Dramatızatıon

2. Media involved in Modern Teaching Techniques

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> Audio Aids
> Visual Aids
> Audio-Visual Aids
> Interactive Electronic White Board
> M-Learning
> E-Learning

How Much have you learned?

1. Differentiate teaching method, strategies and techniques.

2. Enumerate the different teaching methods, strategies, and techniques developed today.

How do you apply what you have learned?

1. Is the teacher-centered approach to learning better than the learner-centered approach to

learning? Defend your answer.

Lesson II: THE TIME TESTED METHODS (INDUCTIVE METHOD,

DEDUCTIVE METHOD, INTEGRATED METHOD, LECTURE METHOD,

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PROJECT METHOD, DEMONSTRATION METHOD, EXPERIMENT
METHOD)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Define and discuss the time tested methods that are

applicable in teaching social studies.

Materials:

Module
Online References

What do you already know?

1. What is the definition of a teaching strategy?

2. What are the considerations in determining teaching

methods?

3. What are the considerations in determining teaching

strategies?

What do you need to know?

There are several strategies used in teaching social studies

(Philippine History and Government) developed by different
educators in the world. It must however be remembered that there
is no specific strategy that is applicable in all situation and
circumstances. The decision on what to use as a teaching strategy
in a particular subject matter and classroom setup is still largely
dependent on the assessment and discretion of the teacher.

The following strategies are part of the several strategies in

teaching social studies. The other strategies are to be discussed in
the succeeding lessons.

INDUCTIVE METHOD

The inductive method of teaching is a student-centric approach

based on the idea that students are more likely to learn when they
are actively engaged in the learning process.

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This approach challenges students to formulate their own beliefs
or concepts by examining all the evidence provided and
recognizing patterns to arrive at solutions.

Educators often use it to help nurture children's inquisitive nature

and foster creativity and group problem-solving.

The inductive method can follow either of the two approaches:

 Experimental: Where you experiment and explore to form a

hypothesis
 Statistical: Based on numbers
The inductive teaching method is unique because it does not rely
on a strict lesson plan or prior knowledge or guidelines, unlike
deductive teaching, where teachers give direct instruction on what
they want students to learn.

The inductive method of teaching has many advantages and

disadvantages.

Some advantages of this teaching method are:

 Encourages student participation

 Builds natural curiosity in students
 Helps in developing a scientific mindset approach
 Promotes learning by a ‘doing’ approach
Some disadvantages of this teaching method are:

 Time-consuming
 It might lead students to develop incorrect rules.

Steps Involved in the Inductive Method of Teaching

Following are the six steps involved in this method:

1. Provide students with the relevant learning materials. These

could be examples, images, keywords, data, etc.

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 2. Instruct students to find something familiar in the material
provided.
3. Instruct them to identify patterns.
4. Instruct students to identify a problem (from various points of
view) that needs to be solved.
5. Instruct students to generate a range of possible solutions to
an issue or problem and then choose the best one.
6. Instruct students to organize steps to complete a task and
develop their conclusions to formulate the hypothesis.
What is the Difference between Inductive and Deductive Teaching?

In inductive teaching, the teacher observes his/her students and

determines what they require. It is more hands-on and relies on
observation.

In deductive teaching, the teacher has a predetermined lesson plan

and teaches accordingly.

How Can Inductive Reasoning be Used in the Classroom?

Teachers can use inductive reasoning to help students learn and

understand concepts better.

Teachers can allow students to share their thought processes

while trying to answer and solve their concerns.

They are encouraged to participate in open discussions. But the

teacher is required to be prepared for questions.

With the inductive method of teaching, students are free to form

their hypotheses about what they are learning and how to learn it.
This thinking starts with specific observations or facts and then
works to find a generalized conclusion that explains the facts. It is
one type of reasoning that builds conclusions from observation.

The inductive method can be used in any subject where factual or

conceptual knowledge is gained.

Inductive Teaching vs Deductive Teaching

The inductive method assumes that general statements are

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generated from specific observations while the deductive method
assumes that particular statements are generated from general
observations.

The inductive method of teaching is often used with children

because it allows them to discover the material on their own. It is
also used in more informal settings, such as seminars or
workshops.
Inductive teaching is based on an experiment-like approach to
understanding the topic at hand while deductive teaching is
typically more of a lecture.

How Does the Inductive Method Help a Teacher?

The inductive method of teaching allows a teacher to use open-

ended questions and activities to guide students towards their
understanding.
The teacher creates an environment where students can take risks
to learn.
The role of the teacher is to create a productive learning
environment. This is done by developing a curriculum in
accordance with a macro teaching lesson plan, selecting
appropriate materials, and introducing new material in a sequential
order.
The teacher should provide opportunities to children to explore
concepts, ask questions, and take risks.
There should be no attempt by the teacher to control or direct the
process, as it could hinder the whole strategy.

Which Is Better?

When creating a lesson plan before a session begins, teachers

have to decide how personalized a learning experience can be.
They have to gauge the depth of understanding students require for
a subject. And they also have to figure out if there is enough time
available for them to practice the inductive teaching method, since
it is a time-consuming activity.
Nevertheless, there is no best approach here. Each one has its
pros and cons.

It depends on the teacher teaching the subject. The best scenario,

in this case, is to use the inductive approach as well as the

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deductive approach to teach students different ways of thinking
and understanding.
A person can make the transition from inductive reasoning to
deductive reasoning and vice versa, and can use both at the same
time.
Inductive reasoning is more often used in hypothesis generation,
and deduction is often used in testing hypotheses.

DEDUCTIVE METHOD

Deductive teaching is a traditional approach in which

information about target language and rules are driven at the
beginning of the class and continued with examples. The principles
of this approach are generally used in the classes where the main
target is to teach grammar structures. For instance, these
principles are convenient for the classes that grammar transtlation
method is applied. According to Thornbury’s three bacic principles a
deductive lesson starts with presentation of the rules by the
teacher. Secondly teacher gives examples by highlighting the
grammar structures. Then students make practise with the rules
and produce their own examples at the end of the lesson.

INTEGRATED METHOD

Adopting an integrated approach to teaching and learning

means creating learning experiences that enable children to draw
meaningful connections across their learning experiences and
between their learning and life experiences. It helps them
understand how concepts and skills are linked and can be applied in
different situations/contexts.

Examples of how meaningful connections can be made are the

following:
 Across different learning areas
 Between children’s previous and new experiences
 Between children’s interests/daily life experiences and new
learning experiences
 Between different contexts (indoors & outdoors; home &
preschool; EL & MTL class)
 Between learning experiences of children from different
groups (e.g., different classes/levels)

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LECTURE METHOD

What is Lecture Method?

In the lecture method, the teacher presents the learning concepts
to the students. Teachers learn different concepts beforehand and
explain the concepts in a classroom. The teacher will be actively
involved in the lecture method and the students will be passively
listening to the lectures. In order to make the lectures more
engaging and captivating, teachers use different strategies. These
strategies enhance the outcomes of the lecture method and
improve the learning retention rate of the students.

Skills Required for Lecture Method

Communication Skills
This is the primary skill that a teacher requires in order to excel in
the lecture method. In order to convey the ideas and concepts
effectively to the students, teachers have to develop
communication skills. Communication skills allow teachers to
present the concepts in a comprehensible way to the students. In
this way, students will be able to understand the learning concepts
in a better way. A teacher who has mastered the communication
skills will be able to keep the students engrossed in the class and
will be able to develop an interest in learning.

Creative Skills
The lecture method opens a sea of opportunities to explore the
process of instructing students. When the students are passively
listening to the lectures there is a high chance for them to get
distracted and lose interest in learning. Hence, it is in the hands of
the teacher to incorporate different creative strategies into the
lecturing methodology to instill an interest in the lectures. Having
a sense of humor would be an added benefit to teachers. This
would make the classes more fun, engaging and enjoyable for
students. Teachers can also experiment with the way they deliver
a concept in the class. For instance, if a teacher is teaching a
drama to the students, he/she can deliver the dialogues using
various sound modulations, tones, and sounds that fit the setting of
the scenes.

Time Management Skills

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In order to improve the productivity of classroom lectures,
teachers ought to have a perfect plan and objective for each class.
Teachers should ideally plan ahead to determine which key
aspects of a concept they will present in a single lecture.
Moreover, they should also have an idea regarding the outcome
they want to achieve by the end of the session. When they are
dealing with a long lesson, teachers should break the lesson in
such a way that it makes it easier for the students to grasp them.
Additionally, teachers should make sure they are making the best
use of the time provided and should achieve success.

Class Management Skills

Teachers should have the ability to manage the students and the
classroom in order to facilitate the lecturing process. If teachers
are not able to manage the students in the class, they will not be
able to transfer ideas to the students. There will be gaps in the
process of teaching and learning and hence students fail to
comprehend the concepts taught in the class. Teachers have to
master the tactics to capture the attention of the students in their
classroom and make sure that they don’t get distracted. Indulging
in conversation and other activities in the midst of a classroom can
decrease the effectiveness of lectures. Hence, teachers should
make sure that students are not diverted but are focused on the
lectures. Teachmint can aid in the process of classroom
management through its School ERP solution as well.

Strategies to Make Lecture Method Effective

Ensuring Learner Engagement
As long as students are merely passively engaged in the learning
process, they tend to lose enthusiasm for learning. Hence, the
lecture method can be made interactive by involving students as
active participants. In order to make the lecture method more
interesting, teachers can ask questions in between the lectures.
This will encourage students to stay immersed in the class. They
can also use additional features of Teachmint such as Live
Polls and Hand Raise to encourage student engagement.
Additionally, teachers can gain insight into whether the students
are understanding the lessons taught in class. Interactive classes
can improve the learning retention rate of the concepts and can
have a long-lasting impact on students

Incorporating Audio-Visual Aids

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Audio-visual aids can aid in improving the quality of lectures. This
can enhance the learning experience for students, and concept
comprehension becomes easier. Visual aids like charts, videos,
images, and graphs can enrich the imaginative power of students.
It encourages the students to come up with innovative ideas and in
this way, teachers will be able to maximize the potential of
students. Moreover, it is a great way to improve the effectiveness
of lecturing sessions and makes them more enjoyable for students.

Planning is Essential
It is essential for teachers to have a solid plan that facilitates the
learning process for their students. They can choose the right
strategy that needs to be executed while handling a lesson. For
this, planning is essential and has to be implemented in the class
to improve the quality of the lecturing process. Teachers should
analyze their students and come up with a plan that suits their
learning styles and learning requirements. This is another way to
improve the efficacy of the lecturing method.

Conclusion
Lecturing is an inevitable part of classroom learning. Lecturing is a
common strategy used by teachers to impart knowledge to their
students. Teachers ought to have great communication skills to
deliver ideas to the students. Communication skills are the
fundamental skill that improves the effectiveness of pedagogical
practices.

PROJECT METHOD

What is the Project Method of Teaching

The project method of teaching is a medium of instruction in which
the students are given a number of projects or situations out of
which they have to choose the problem they want to solve. After
the student has chosen the problem they want to solve, they will
have to come up with a solution to the problem on their own. This
is one of the most proactive approaches to learning, but what
about the teacher in this case? The teacher, in the case of the
project method of teaching, assumes the role of a guide than a
dictator and guides the class through the lesson at their own
pace.

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The project method is an alternative classroom model that gives
more focus on the aspect of student learning rather than the
teaching aspect of the lesson. It emphasizes trusting the students
and not imposing a learning style onto them. The responsibility of
the work falls directly on the students since even the curriculum
content and technique are considered from the student's POV. So
this method is completely student-centric.

Who Developed the Project Method of Teaching?

The project method of teaching is generally considered to have
been formulated, developed, executed, and perfected by educator
William H. Kilpatrick. Even though it is deemed to have been
proposed as a concept back in 1908 as a means of improving the
method of teaching agriculture, Kilpatrick is credited with
elaborating upon the concept and popularizing it worldwide in his
famous article, "The Project Method" which was published in 1918.

Project Method - 5 Steps

Given below are the 5 main steps that constitute the project
method of teaching:

Project Selection
The first step in the process of the project method is the selection
of the project work. The students are given some problems from
which they should select the subject or project which has the
maximum utility and fulfill a specific practical need. In this
process, teachers act as guides and motivate the students to keep
on track and choose wisely on the basis of their aptitude.

Planning
Planning is the next step in the project method of teaching. In this
phase, students should do planning for the project work and the
teacher will guide them and help them in the process. The students
can be brought together to express their views and give
suggestions in the form of a discussion, where the teacher can
raise points of objection and problems related to the project they
have taken.

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Execution
Following the planning phase comes execution, where the students
execute the project work as per their plan as created in the
previous step. The students assign their duties among themselves
according to the interest of the individual students and on the
basis of their respective capabilities. Every student will hence be
contributing toward the completion of the project in their own way
- collecting data, visiting places, gathering information, reading
history, and so on. The teacher again comes in as a guide and
provides the necessary information, helping them to keep on the
right track.

Evaluation
The fifth and final stage of the project method is evaluation. The
whole work is reviewed by the teacher and students get judged or
assessed on the basis of their performance. They carry out the
project as planned, following which the mistakes they have made
in the process are noted down.

Types of Project Method of Teaching

The proponent of Project Method, Kilpatric, classified it broadly
into four types as explained below:

Constructive Method
In the constructive project method, the learners are instructed to
construct something related to social life such as models, maps,
charts, parcels, and so on.

Artistic Method
This type of teaching is generally employed in the field of
aesthetics and arts such as music, fine arts, culture, literature,
and so on.

Problem Solving Method

The problem-solving method is used to solve problems related to
real-life situations on any subject such as how to send an email,
how to operate bank accounts, how to use a particular product,
and so on. Solving these problems will ideally make the students
efficient in social life.

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Group Work Method
This method employs all the students with a task to complete in
the form of a group. The team then sets out to complete that task
with the teacher acting as a guide. This can be as complex as an
engineering project that requires different areas of expertise to
collaborate on something as simple as setting up a garden in the
school.

Advantages of Project Method

Now that we have covered what the project method entails and its
subtypes, let’s get into the advantages of this method of teaching:

Active Learning Experience

The project method emphasizes the concept of learning by doing.
Students actively get involved in the learning activity, hence
helping them in enhancing their skillset, first-hand experiences,
and thinking capacity. Incorporating active learning in students’
daily lives can be quite helpful in the long run.

Inculcating a Sense of Responsibility

In the project method of teaching, the teacher is a guide and the
activities carried out in the class are carried out by the students
themselves. This helps improve self-reliance and self-responsibility
among students. It helps students learn on their own and develop
their own style of learning.

Improves Collaboration Among Students

Since the project method employs a methodology where students
work in collaboration with their group, it helps students bond with
one another on a professional as well as personal level, hence
making their overall learning experience interesting and insightful.
It instills in them a sense of cooperation and builds on their social
skills immensely.

Improves Communication Skills

It helps students improve their communicative skills drastically
because students are given the opportunity to express themselves
freely among their peers as well as their teachers, hence helping
them communicate more effectively.

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Improves Critical Thinking Skills
Critical thinking skills are 21st Century Skills that students of all
ages need to have in today’s time. It is something that needs to be
cultivated with respect to the future of the students and needs to
be dealt with with utmost diligence.

Disadvantages of Project Method of Teaching

As with any method of teaching, the project method also has
certain disadvantages, some of which are given below:

Time Consuming
Teaching students using the project method can be time-
consuming as there are a lot of things that need to be taken into
consideration when teaching using this method such as the
student's ability to comprehend the subject, the speed with which
they do so, the factual accuracy of the project and so on. There are
a lot of factors that need to be observed and duly corrected by the
teacher. This is the perfect segue into the next point: the lack of
expert teachers.

The Lack of Experienced Teachers

The project method of teaching can only be conducted by
experienced teachers who have several years of experience, which
a lot of teachers may not have. This leads to a shortage of
teachers and hence incapability to execute this form of teaching
effectively.

Not Suitable for All Subjects

The project method of teaching is most suitable for subjects that
require practical knowledge, and so subjects such as arts,
literature, and so on may not benefit a lot from this form of
teaching.

Conclusion
The project method of teaching is just one type of teaching method
that can be applied in a classroom. There are several other
teaching methods that can be employed in different situations that
make them effective. The context, subject, and type of learning
style the students prefer all come into play when determining such
a method of teaching.

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How much have you learned?

1. Recite the principles each embedded in the approaches or

strategies discussed.

2. Discuss the differences between the approaches or

strategies discussed.

How do you apply what you have learned?

1. Pick one topic in politics and governance and construct a

plan on how you are to present the subject matter to the
learners using any one of the discussed
approaches/strategies.

Lesson III: STRATEGIES APPLICABLE IN TEACHING SOCIAL

STUDIES IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES (CONCEPTUAL APPROACH,
INTEGRATIVE APPROACH, INQUIRY APPROACH, PEER TUTORING)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Discuss each strategy under individualized teaching

methodologies;

2. Choose an appropriate strategy in teaching social studies

under individualized instruction.

Performance Standard 1:

Define and discuss procedures of experiential learning,

conceptual approach, integrative approach, inquiry approach, and
peer tutoring.

Materials:

Page 22 of 108
 Module
Online References

What do you already know?

1. What is the definition of a teaching strategy?

2. What are the considerations in determining teaching

methods?

3. What are the considerations in determining teaching

strategies?

What do you need to know?

There are several strategies used in teaching social studies

(Philippine History and Government) developed by different
educators in the world. It must however be remembered that there
is no specific strategy that is applicable in all situation and
circumstances. The decision on what to use as a teaching strategy
in a particular subject matter and classroom setup is still largely
dependent on the assessment and discretion of the teacher.

The following strategies are part of the several strategies in

teaching social studies. The other strategies are to be discussed in
the succeeding lessons.

CONCEPTUAL APPROACH

What It Means to Teach Conceptually

When a teacher designs lessons that focus on concepts instead of

individual facts, she is teaching conceptually. Concepts can be
understood as categories that can contain smaller facts or ideas
but are simultaneously part of larger categories. It's not enough just
to know the concept itself: Teaching conceptually requires teachers
to address—and students to master—the relationships between
concepts and the ways in which they can be arranged into a
functional hierarchy. Students use this framework to logically sort
information and draw crucial connections across subjects for a
cohesive understanding of the world. Quite simply, it's the system
the active human mind uses to gain understanding.

How Conceptual Teaching Works

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Teaching conceptually is best understood by considering a classic
example that all Challenger School teachers have discussed in their
professional development and training. To teach a child about an
apple, we approach the subject as a concept.

What is an apple?

An apple is a fruit. Right away, this takes the concept of an apple

and places it into a hierarchy of ideas: Fruit is the overarching
concept into which an apple can be placed. Bananas, oranges, and
grapes can also be added to the concept of fruit, and students learn
to see what characteristics these have in common that cause them
to be grouped together. In the case of fruit, the defining concept
that connects them is that they are all plant parts that contain
seeds by which the plant reproduces.

Just as the concept of an apple is part of a larger picture, it also

can be broken down into subordinate concepts. In the category of
apple, there are different varieties. An overarching concept of all
varieties of apples is that the fruit comes from a certain species of
tree.

When thinking about an apple conceptually, it's not enough just to

explore a list of facts about apples with students (for example, that
they are sweet, round, and sometimes red). To really understand
what makes an apple an apple, concepts help students tie facts
together to understand which characteristics are crucial to its
identification.

Why Conceptual Teaching Works

Concepts give shape and meaning to individual facts, allowing

students a far deeper understanding of their significance. For
example, teaching conceptually allows students to move well
beyond the mere memorization of dates in history and encourages
them to group events as concepts (for example, "root causes of the
Civil War" or "results of the Industrial Revolution"). Once students
understand concepts, they can see relationships between different
concepts in the history of the world for a richer understanding of the
human experience; for example, they can draw connections
between seemingly disparate events like Thoreau's "Civil
Disobedience," Gandhi's hunger strikes, and the Greensboro lunch
counter sit-ins.

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With strong conceptual teaching skills, talented teachers create
lessons in which everything taught is meaningful. There are no
useless facts; rather, everything is connected. When students begin
internalizing these frameworks as preschoolers, they learn to be
highly logical thinkers who break down ideas into their parts and
find connections between different parts of the curriculum. Making
these connections is the highest order of thinking. When young
children are encouraged to find and create patterns and organize
concepts into a hierarchy, they are well on their way to the
independent study and thinking habits needed for success in
competitive high schools and colleges.

INTEGRATIVE APPROACH

Using the integrative approach to teaching combines many

subjects into single lessons. The idea behind the theory is that
students receive maximum learning by acquiring knowledge and
skills in more than one area in the same time-frame. Integrating
lessons can be done with any subjects, such as mixing language
arts with art by researching famous artists and then writing a
report or math and physical education where students play
basketball while assigning different shots to equal point values.
The possibilities for integrated lessons are endless.

Peer tutoring

Peer tutoring is an instructional strategy that consists of student

partnerships, linking high achieving students with lower achieving
students or those with comparable achievement, for structured
reading and math study sessions. According to Rohrbeck, Ginsburg-
Block, Fantuzzo, & Miller (2003), peer tutoring is “systematic, peer-
mediated teaching strategies”.

There has been extensive research on peer tutoring. Studies show:

 Use of cooperative learning structures and “group reward

contingencies” can increase social motivation (Johnson,
Maruyama, Nelson, & Skon, 1981; Wentzel, 1999; Slavin, 1990).
 Level of engagement influences student motivation to achieve
classroom goals (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
 Peer tutoring is an economically and educationally
effective intervention for persons with disabilities that can

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 benefit both the tutor and tutee, socially and educationally by
motivating them to learn (Miller & Miller, 1995).
 Peer tutoring interventions were more effective or showed
greater gains for: a) students in grades 1-3; b) urban settings;
c) low socio-economic areas; d) minority students; e) school-
wide prevention programs; and f) when students controlled
tutoring sessions (Rohrbeck, et al., 2003).
 Peer tutoring gives teachers the capability to accommodate a
classroom of diverse learners to improve academic
achievement across ability levels and content areas (Cohen,
Kulik & Kulik, 1982; Cook, Scruggs, Mastropieri, & Casto,
1985; Johnson, Maruyama, Nelson & Skon, 1981).
This brief discusses three research-supported peer tutoring
strategies: Cross-Age Tutoring, Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies
(PALS), and Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT). Variations exist among
these strategies (e.g., some have flexible structures; others have
very specific directions for implementation) but the underlying
theory is consistent. The chart below provides a brief comparison of
approaches

How much have you learned?

1. Recite the principles each embedded in the approaches or

strategies discussed.

2. Discuss the differences between the approaches or

strategies discussed.

How do you apply what you have learned?

1. Pick one topic in politics and governance and construct a

plan on how you are to present the subject matter to the
learners using any one of the discussed
approaches/strategies.

Page 26 of 108
Lesson IV: STRATEGIES APPLICABLE IN TEACHING SOCIAL
STUDIES IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES (INDEPENDENT STUDY,
WRITING JOURNAL, NARRATIVES, PREPARING PROJECT AND
COLLECTIONS)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Define, discuss procedures of independent study, writing

journal, narratives, preparing projects and collections;

2. State Appropriate examples of the methods independent

study, writing journal, narratives and preparing projects and
collections.

Performance Standard 1:

Define and discuss procedures of independent study, writing

journal, narratives, preparing projects and collections.

Materials:

Module
Online References

Page 27 of 108
What do you already know?

1. What is the definition of a teaching strategy?

2. What are the considerations in determining teaching

methods?

3. What are the considerations in determining teaching

strategies?

What do you need to know?

There are several strategies used in teaching social studies

(culture and geography) developed by different educators in the
world. It must however be remembered that there is no specific
strategy that is applicable in all situation and circumstances. The
decision on what to use as a teaching strategy in a particular
subject matter and classroom setup is still largely dependent on the
assessment and discretion of the teacher.

The following strategies are part of the several strategies in

teaching social studies. The other strategies are to be discussed in
the succeeding lessons.

INDEPENDENT STUDY

Independent study is an individualized learning experience

that allows students to select a topic focus, define problems or
questions, gather and analyze information, apply skills, and create a
product to show what has been learned. Independent study can be
effectively used in upper elementary and junior high health
programs. This learning strategy works best with students who
have a high degree of self- directedness and a mastery of basic
research skills.

The general purposes of independent study include:

• learning to gather, analyze and report information
• encouraging in-depth understanding of specific content areas
• making connections between content and real-life applications.

Basics

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 A successful independent study project depends on
recognizing and planning for these basic elements:

• cooperative teacher–student planning of what will be studied and

how it will be shown

• alternative ideas for gathering and processing information

• multiple resources that are readily available

• teacher intervention through formal and informal student–teacher

communication

• time specifically allowed for working and conferencing

• working and storage space

• opportunities for sharing, feedback and evaluation

• student recognition for expertise and finished product

• established evaluation criteria.

Student–teacher interaction

Regular student–teacher interaction is essential during

independent study. The interaction may be formally structured
conferences or casual conversations as teachers circulate while
students are working. Teachers interact with students in order to:

• keep in touch

• help with problem solving

• provide direction

• open up new areas for exploration and production

• give encouragement

• introduce, teach and/or reinforce the needed skill.

Independent study plans

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 In developing independent study plans, it is important to:

• select topics or issues that are motivating

• discuss and brainstorm possible questions

• identify key questions to pursue and answer

• develop plans and time sequences

• locate and use multiple resources

• use learning to create products

• share findings with classmates

• evaluate the process, products and use of time

• explore possibilities that could extend studies into new areas of

learning.

Suggestions for successful independent study

When students are ready to begin working at a shared

independence or self-guided level, they are ready to design
independent studies with reasonably well-developed degrees of
student determination and out- of-class, long-term investigation
potential. The following guidelines ensure greater success in
independent study projects and may be modified for the readiness
level of students.

• Have students propose a topic for study that they really care
about. This maximizes intrinsic motivation and goes a long way
toward ensuring follow-through.

• Encourage students to read broadly about the topic before they

describe the project. This ensures they understand the issues they
will be studying before they proceed.

• Help students use a variety of resources for their study, including

people, print resources and other media.

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• Have students find problems or issues that professionals in the
field think are important and might choose to study.

• Ensure that students develop timelines for completing the whole

task as well as components of it. Keeping a simple calendar of the
time spent and tasks completed on a given day may be useful in
helping students and teachers monitor progress and work habits.
Many students at the shared independence level need to have
teachers and peers critique their work as it progresses to reduce
procrastination and monitor quality. For these students, it is
helpful to establish check-in dates.

• Have students plan to share their work with an audience that can
appreciate and learn from what students create. Students should
participate in identifying and securing these audiences. Audiences
may range in size from one to many.

• Help students develop awareness of a range of possible final

products.

• Have students generate criteria to evaluate their products. These

rubrics should be developed early in the process and modified as
the project develops. Criteria give students a sense of power over
their own work and help teachers evaluate final products fairly and
objectively.

• If independent projects are part of class work, ensure students

understand:

− when it is appropriate to work on the independent study

− where in the classroom and within the school they may work
− what materials need to be at school for in-class work
− other ground rules for in-class independent study.
(https://education.alberta.ca/media/482311/is.pdf)

WRITING JOURNALS

Journals and learning logs provide students with opportunities

to record their thoughts, feelings and reflections on a variety of
topics or experiences. Journals allow students to explore ideas and
clarify their own thinking.

In the health and life skills classroom, use journals to:

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• record key ideas from presentations, lectures or reading
assignments

• make predictions about what will happen next in school, national

or world events

• record questions

• summarize the main ideas of a book, film or reading

• connect the ideas presented to other subject areas or students’

personal lives

• monitor change in an experiment or event over time

• respond to questions

• brainstorm ideas

• help identify problems and issues

• identify solutions and alternatives

• keep track of the number of problems solved or articles read.

Journals are useful tools in the health curriculum because

they give students an ongoing opportunity to reflect on their
learning. Students need opportunities to process what they have
just learned and reflect on how that learning affects their lives.
Keeping logs and journals are two strategies that reinforce
reflective teaching and learning by helping students construct
knowledge for themselves.

Process new information

Learning logs and journals can be used to process new

information during class time. Teachers can give direct instruction
in 10- to 15-minute segments, and then ask students to write down
key ideas, questions, connections or reflections. This gives
students an opportunity to think about new materials, clarify
confusion, discuss key ideas and process information before moving
on to new material.

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 There are a number of benefits learning logs offer.

• They provide students with a format for identifying and

remembering key ideas.

• They allow students more time to process information.

• They can be used to review for quizzes and tests.

• They can be included in portfolios.

• They allow students who miss a class to borrow logs from friends
to keep up with class work.

• They allow teachers to identify confusion or misunderstandings

during the lesson and make adjustments to instruction.

• They allow students to connect ideas they are learning to real-life

experiences and concerns.

Promote reflection and higher-level thinking

The following journal format uses questions to encourage

students to reflect on what they learned at the beginning of a
lesson, in the middle and at the end.

At the beginning of the lesson

• What questions do you have from yesterday?

• Write two important points from yesterday’s discussion.

•
• In the middle

• What do you want to know more about?

• How is this like something else?

• Is this easy or difficult for you? Explain why.

• At the end

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• Something you heard that surprised you …

• How could you use this outside class?

A related journal format encourages students to reflect on

their learning by looking back, looking in and looking forward.

Looking back

• What activities did we do?

• What did I learn?
• How does what I learned relate to the real world? Looking in
• What did I like or dislike about the learning experience?
• How do I feel about what I learned?
• What questions or concerns do I have about what I learned?

Looking forward

• What would I like to learn more about?

• What goal could I set for myself?
• How might what I learned help me in the future?

Self-assessment

Work with students to develop self-assessment tools that

encourage them to set higher goals in their journal writing. Two
interesting formats from Kay Burke’s How to Assess Authentic
Learning look at the level of thoughtfulness, depth and
personalization of students’ responses.

Management Tips

Consider the following suggestions for using journals in the

health and life skills classroom.

• Allow students to mark any entry “private.” Entries marked private

are read only by the teacher. They will not be shared with others
without students’ permission.

• Respond to journal entries by asking questions that guide

students’ decision-making or problem-solving process.

• Focus on expression of ideas rather than mechanics of spelling

and neatness.

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• Throughout the term, ask students to revisit their journal entries
and identify how their thoughts and ideas have changed.

NARRATIVES

Storytelling Strategies for the Classroom

Should we schedule time for it, or should it be organic? Should we attach

requirements to storytelling or simply allow it for fun? Honestly, there’s no right or wrong
way to include them. Here are a few simple approaches you might take to include storytelling
in your classroom:

Share your own stories, just for fun: Tell them about when you were their age,
about times you failed, succeeded, or about memorable lessons you learned. This builds a
strong connection between you and your classroom, letting them know that you can relate to
them and vice versa.

Use stories as introductions: Just as we encourage students to use attention-getting

devices for their essays and speeches, we can use the same technique as educators. Begin
class with an interesting story but one that is relevant to the lecture’s focus.

Use stories as illustrations: When you’re hammering through a relatively difficult

concept with your class, one easy way to explain it is to illustrate the concept with a story.
When facts and figures won’t do, simple narratives sometimes can.

Tie storytelling to learning goals: We want our students to develop listening skills,
and we can incorporate storytelling into the larger picture of achieving these outcomes.

Tell stories to engage reluctant learners: Some students experience difficulty

connecting to drab textbooks or abstract concepts. However, those same learners typically
have little struggle connecting to stories. Through telling stories, you make life and learning
more relevant, giving reluctant learners a better angle of engagement.

Types of Stories

There are several different types of stories you could potentially tell in your
classroom. Harbor knowledge of each type, so if you’re lacking in one kind, you can replace
it with another.

• A true story from your own life.

• A true story from the life of someone you know, like a friend, family member, or
neighbor.
• A true story from the news or a current event.
• A story that took place sometime in history.
• A fictional story with made up characters or events.
• An “Imagine if …” story that sets up a hypothetical situation.

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 Of course, there are various genres and styles of storytelling, but the above list
represents the essential variety that you might incorporate into the classroom.

Why Storytelling Works

In its simplest form, storytelling remains a powerful element of communication, with

the narrative being equally as compelling as essays and textbooks. They humanize learning. It
offers us the opportunity to connect to like-minded characters or see the world literally from
within someone else’s skin. Stories touch our emotions and make us laugh, cry, fear, and get
angry—a sharp contrast to a plain old presentation. When lessons feel relevant to students,
they are more likely to engage, and stories are a perfect vehicle for that.

Plus, no matter how organized or detailed a textbook might be, there’s something
about the shape of a narrative—the exposition, the problem, the quest for a solution, the
resolution—that resonates with our mental makeup.

Have Students Tell Their Stories

As you incorporate your own stories, recognize how they connect with students on a
different level. But why keep the power of storytelling to yourself? You can also actively
help students become their own powerful storytellers, too!

Allow students to write, illustrate, and tell their own tales. The way you incorporate
this may vary depending on your curriculum goals, but it is essential that children understand
how to tell a good story and how this relates to effectively accomplishing an objective.
Students can use stories in their essays and argumentation—they can help in remembering
processes or formulas or in connecting events with one another. The opportunities are endless
and easy to employ.

Project-based learning, as with all lessons, requires much preparation and planning. It
begins with an idea and an essential question. When you are designing the project and the
essential question that will launch the activities, it is important to remember that many
content standards will be addressed. With these standards in mind, devise a plan that will
integrate as many subjects as possible into the project.

Have in mind what materials and resources will be accessible to the students. Next,
students will need assistance in managing their time -- a definite life skill. Finally, have
multiple means for assessing your students' completion of the project: Did the students master
the content? Were they able to apply their new knowledge and skills? Many educators
involve their students in developing these rubrics.

PROJECT BASED LEARNING

Here are steps for implementing PBL, which are detailed below:

Start with the Essential Question

The question that will launch a PBL lesson must be one that will engage your
students. It is greater than the task at hand. It is open ended. It will pose a problem or a
situation they can tackle, knowing that there is no one answer or solution.

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 Take a real-world topic and begin an in-depth investigation. Base your question on an
authentic situation or topic. What is happening in your classroom? In your community?
Select a question about an issue students will believe that, by answering, they are having an
impact on. Make it relevant for them. The question should be a "now" question -- a question
that has meaning in your students' lives.

Design a Plan for the Project

When designing the project, it is essential that you have in mind which content
standards will be addressed. Involve the students in planning; they will feel ownership of the
project when they are actively involved in decision making. Select activities that support the
question and utilize the curriculum, thus fueling the process. Integrate as many subjects as
possible into the project. Know what materials and resources will be accessible to the
students to assist them. Be prepared to delve deeper into new topics and new issues that arise
as the students become increasingly involved in the active pursuit of answers.

Create a Schedule

Design a timeline for project components. Realize that changes to the schedule will
happen. Be flexible, but help the students realize that a time will come when they need to
finalize their thoughts, findings, and evaluations. Consider these issues when creating a
schedule:

• What time allotment will be given to the project?

• Will this project be conducted during the entire school day or during dedicated blocks of
time?
• How many days will be devoted to the project?

Enable success by practicing the following tactics:

• Help students who may not perceive time limits.

• Set benchmarks.
• Give students direction for managing their time.
• Teach them how to schedule their tasks.
• Remind them of the timeline.
• Help them set deadlines.
• Keep the essential question simple and age appropriate.
• Initiate projects that will let all students meet with success.

Also, allow students to go in new directions, but guide them when they appear to
digress from the project. When a group seems to be going in a different direction, ask the
students to explain the reasoning behind their actions. They may have an insight to a solution
you haven't seen. Help the children stay on course, but don't accidentally set limitations.

Monitor the Students and the Progress of the Project

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 To maintain control without preventing students from taking responsibility for their
work, follow these steps:

• Facilitate the process and the love of learning.

• Teach the students how to work collaboratively.
• Designate fluid roles for group members.
• Have students choose their primary roles, but assume responsibility and interactivity for
all group roles.
• Remind them that every part of the process belongs to each individual and needs each
student's total involvement.
• Provide resources and guidance.
• Assess the process by creating team and project rubrics.

Assess the Outcome

Assessment meets many needs. It

• provides diagnostic feedback.
• helps educators set standards.
• allows one to evaluate progress and relate that progress to others.
• gives students feedback on how well they understand the information and on what they
need to improve.
• helps the teacher design instruction to teach more effectively.

Whenever possible, give the students the opportunity to conduct self-assessment.

When a student's assessment and the teacher's assessment don't agree, schedule a student-
teacher conference to let the student explain in more detail his or her understanding of the
content and justify the outcome.

Evaluate the Experience

Little time for reflection is available in the busy schedule of the school day, yet
reflection is a key component of learning. How do we expect our students to synthesize new
knowledge if they are not given time to reflect on what they have discovered? Too often, we
teachers do not allow ourselves that time, either. Designate a time for reflection of the daily
activities. Allow for individual reflection, such as journaling, as well as group reflection and
discussion. (For example, validate what students have learned and make suggestions for
improvements.)

To enable effective self-evaluation, follow these steps:

• Take time to reflect, individually and as a group.

• Share feelings and experiences.
• Discuss what worked well.
• Discuss what needs change.
• Share ideas that will lead to new questions and new projects.

How much have you learned?

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 1. Recite the principles each embedded in the approaches or
strategies discussed.

2. Discuss the differences between the approaches or

strategies discussed.

How do you apply what you have learned?

2. Pick one topic in politics and governance and construct a

plan on how you are to present the subject matter to the
learners using any one of the discussed
approaches/strategies.

Lesson V: STRATEGIES APPLICABLE IN TEACHING SOCIAL

STUDIES IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES (DISCOVERY APPROACH,
CONSTRUCTIVIST, EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING, SPECIAL REPORTS)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Define, discuss procedures of discovery approach,

constructivist, experiential learning, special reports;

2. State Appropriate examples of the discovery approach,

constructivist, experiential learning, special reports strategies.

Performance Standard 1:

Define and discuss procedures of discovery approach,

constructivist, experiential learning, special reports.

Materials:

Module
Online References

What do you already know?

Page 39 of 108
 1. What is the definition of a teaching strategy?

2. What are the considerations in determining teaching

methods?

3. What are the considerations in determining teaching

strategies?

What do you need to know?

This lesson is a continuation of the discussion on different

teaching strategies that are applicable to teaching social studies in
the elementary grades.

In this particular lesson, the discovery approach,

constructivist, experiential learning, special reports will be
discussed.

DISCOVERY APPROACH

New kinds of learning are always being implemented by

educational institutions, in an effort to improve the quality and
reputation of their own institutions, and of course to better the
quality of education that their students and pupils receive. One of
these interesting methods of learning is discovery learning.

Discovery learning is a kind of teaching that is based on the student finding things out
for themselves, looking into problems, and asking questions. Essentially, it's all about
students coming to their own conclusions and asking about things in their course that might
not make particular sense. Obviously, as soon as enquiries are made, they can learn new
things and hence will have become part of an innovative, thought-provoking and interesting
educational journey.

The main times that discovery learning is used in the classroom are during problem
solving exercises and educational programs. Students will undergo discovery learning when
they are looking at their own experiences and knowledge in their studies, and enquiring about
further information to improve their understanding. Discovery learning will also be used in
terms of answering controversial and tricky questions, asking other people what they think,
and generally discussing things. Experiments are also key to discovery learning, for instance
in sciences, where students will be able to experience science right in front of them - and
discover things that may occur, which hence prompts them to ask the question 'why?'

It has been proven time after time that discovery learning is an incredibly effective
method of teaching special needs students, and is perfect for allowing students to have a
productive learning environment that promotes questioning things, discussing ideas, and
getting involved.

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 Discovery learning also has a part in getting special needs students involved in
normal, conventional educational curriculum - indeed, this means that discovery learning can
play a key part in getting special needs students in the same classroom as 'regular' students,
studying the same things, and sitting the same kinds of exams. This means that special needs
students will not feel estranged, and will not feel like their education is particularly different
to anybody else's. In the long run this provides a moral boost for special needs students,
whilst also enhancing their education and the education of the other students sharing their
class.

In a regular classroom, a teacher who is trying to enforce new innovative methods of

teaching might give students different problems, and try and get them to work together to
come up with a solution to this problem. This can be implemented in nearly any kind of class
and consistently proves to be an effective way of teaching. It provides numerous benefits, and
of course is a great way of integrating special needs students with other students in
conventional educational facilities
(http://www.teach-nology.com/teachers/methods/theories/discovery.html).

The Discovery Learning Method is an active, hands-on style of learning, originated by

Jerome Bruner in the 1960s. Bruner emphasized that we should be “learning by doing.” With
this method, students actively participate instead of passively receiving knowledge. Students
interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with
questions and controversies or performing experiments. They are encouraged to think, ask
questions, hypothesize, speculate, cooperate and collaborate with others. They develop
confidence in problem solving and feel comfortable using knowledge they already have.
Instead of a student being an empty vessel for a teacher to fill with knowledge, the Discovery
Learning Method takes into consideration that all students have some background knowledge
that they may be able to apply to the current subject at hand.

The Discovery Learning Method is a constructivist theory, meaning it is based on the

idea that students construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through
experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. Willy Wonka very famously said
“We are the music makers. We are the dreamers of dreams.” Willy Wonka was a
constructivist and his factory constantly used the Discovery Learning Method. That’s what
made his Chocolate Factory so exciting to children and adults alike–there was hands-on
learning and trying in his factory. Granted, some of the results weren’t favorable, but each
time something happened to a child, an Oompa Loompa would sing a song not only
reiterating the lesson, but also reminding the children and adults that they should have known
something would happen based on their prior knowledge. This hands-on approach created
lifelong lessons nobody (not even the people watching it from the comfort of their own
homes) would ever forget.

It is also unique in how it presents problems. Teachers will give students a problem
and some resources to solve it. This concept alone is very different from standard science
experiments you may remember when you were growing up. Most science teachers would
give the instructions for an experiment, perform the experiment, show the result of the
experiment, and then grade the students on their write-ups of the experiment. There’s not
much discovery happening when students see every step and the desired outcome before they
even attempt it on their own. Students are simply performing a task they watched someone
else do.

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The Discovery Learning Method may have a specific end result, but the focus is on the steps
and the critical thinking involved in getting there. Teachers have to observe the process, not
just grade a written paper at the end of the experience.

Educational Psychologist Jean Piaget viewed children as little philosophers and

scientists building their own theories of knowledge. The book Hands-On Science Teaching
best summarizes this:

“Piaget’s research clearly mandates that the learning environment should be rich in
physical experiences. Involvement, he states, is the key to intellectual development, and for
the elementary school child this includes direct physical manipulation of objects.”
(https://inventionlandinstitute.com/discovery-learning-method/)

The 5 Principles of Discovery Learning Model

The Discovery Learning Model integrates the following 5 principles:

Principle 1: Problem Solving.

• Instructors should guide and motivate learners to seek for solutions by combining
existing and newly acquired information and simplifying knowledge. This way, learners
are the driving force behind learning, take an active role and establish broader
applications for skills through activities that encourage risks, problem-solving and
probing.

Principle 2: Learner Management.

• Instructors should allow participants to work either alone or with others, and learn at
their own pace. This flexibility makes learning the exact opposite of a static sequencing
of lessons and activities, relieves learners from unnecessary stress, and makes them feel
they own learning.

Principle 3: Integrating and Connecting.

• Instructors should teach learners how to combine prior knowledge with new, and
encourage them to connect to the real world. Familiar scenarios become the basis of
new information, encouraging learners to extend what they know and invent something
new.

Principle 4: Information Analysis and Interpretation.

• Discovery learning is process-oriented and not content-oriented, and is based on the
assumption that learning is not a mere set of facts. Learners in fact learn to analyze and
interpret the acquired information, rather than memorize the correct answer.

Principle 5: Failure and Feedback.

• Learning doesn’t only occur when we find the right answers. It also occurs through
failure. Discovery learning does not focus on finding the right end result, but the new
things we discover in the process. And it’s the instructor’s responsibility to provide
feedback, since without it learning is incomplete
(https://elearningindustry.com/discovery-learning-model)

CONSTRUCTIVIST

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 Constructivism is an epistemology, or a theory, used to explain
how people know what they know. The basic idea is that problem
solving is at the heart of learning, thinking, and development. As
people solve problems and discover the consequences of their
actions–through reflecting on past and immediate experiences–they
construct their own understanding. Learning is thus an active
process that requires a change in the learner. This is achieved
through the activities the learner engages in, including the
consequences of those activities, and through reflection. People
only deeply understand what they have constructed.

A constructivist approach to learning and instruction has been

proposed as an alternative to the objectivist model, which is
implicit in all behaviorist and some cognitive approaches to
education. Objectivism sees knowledge as a passive reflection of
the external, objective reality. This implies a process of
"instruction," ensuring that the learner gets correct information.
History of Constructivism
The psychological roots of constructivism began with the
developmental work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980), who developed a
theory (the theory of genetic epistemology) that analogized the
development of the mind to evolutionary biological development and
highlighted the adaptive function of cognition. Piaget proposed four
stages in human development: the sensorimotor stage, the
preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the
formal operational stage. For Piaget, the development of human
intellect proceeds through adaptation and organization. Adaptation
is a process of assimilation and accommodation, where external
events are assimilated into existing understanding, but unfamiliar
events, which don't fit with existing knowledge, are accommodated
into the mind, thereby changing its organization.

Countless studies have demonstrated–or tried to discredit–

Piaget's developmental stages. For example, it has become clear
that most adults use formal operations in only a few domains where
they have expertise. Nonetheless, Piaget's hypothesis that learning
is a transformative rather than a cumulative process is still central.
Children do not learn a bit at a time about some issue until it finally
comes together as understanding. Instead, they make sense of
whatever they know from the very beginning. This understanding is
progressively reformed as new knowledge is acquired, especially
new knowledge that is incompatible with their previous

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understanding. This transformative view of learning has been
greatly extended by neo-Piagetian research.

The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky's (1896–1934)

relevance to constructivism derives from his theories about
language, thought, and their mediation by society. Vygotsky held
the position that the child gradually internalizes external and social
activities, including communication, with more competent others.
Although social speech is internalized in adulthood (it becomes
thinking), Vygotsky contended that it still preserves its intrinsic
collaborative character.

In his experiments, Vygotsky studied the difference between

the child's reasoning when working independently versus reasoning
when working with a more competent person. He devised the notion
of the zone of proximal development to reflect on the potential of
this difference. Vygotsky's findings suggested that learning
environments should involve guided interactions that permit
children to reflect on inconsistency and to change their conceptions
through communication. Vygotsky's work has since been extended
in the situated approach to learning.

Vygotsky and Piaget's theories are often contrasted to each

other in terms of individual cognitive constructivism (Piaget) and
social constructivism (Vygotsky). Some researchers have tried to
develop a synthesis of these approaches, though some, such as
Michael Cole and James Wertsch, argue that the individual versus
social orientation debate is over-emphasized. To them, the real
difference rests on the contrast between the roles of cultural
artifacts. For Vygotsky, such artifacts play a central role, but they
do not appear in Piaget's theories.

For the American philosopher and educator John Dewey

(1859–1952), education depended on action–knowledge and ideas
emerge only from a situation in which learners have to draw out
experiences that have meaning and importance to them. Dewey
argued that human thought is practical problem solving, which
proceeds by testing rival hypotheses. These problem-solving
experiences occur in a social context, such as a classroom, where
students join together in manipulating materials and observing
outcomes. Dewey invented the method of progressive education in
North America. The Fostering Communities of Learners (FCL)
program, devised by Ann Lesley Brown and Joseph Campione, is a

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current attempt to put Dewey's progressive education theory to
work in the classroom.

In summary, Piaget contributed the idea of transformation in

learning and development; Vygotsky contributed the idea that
learning and development were integrally tied to communicative
interactions with others; and Dewey contributed the idea that
schools had to bring real world problems into the school curriculum.

Constructivist Processes and Education

There are a number of competing constructivist views in

education. Constructivists tend to celebrate complexity and
multiple perspectives, though they do share at least a few
educational prescriptions.

Prior knowledge. Constructivists believe that prior knowledge

impacts the learning process. In trying to solve novel problems,
perceptual or conceptual similarities between existing knowledge
and a new problem can remind people of what they already know.
This is often one's first approach towards solving novel problems.
Information not connected with a learner's prior experiences will be
quickly forgotten. In short, the learner must actively construct new
information into his or her existing mental framework for meaningful
learning to occur.

For example, Rosalind Driver has found that children's

understanding of a phenomenon (interpretations that fit their
experiences and expectations) differ from scientific explanations.
This means that students distinguish school science from their "real
world" explanations. Studies of adult scientific thinking reveal that
many adults hold non-normative scientific explanations, even
though they have studied science. This is what the philosopher
Alfred Whitehead (1861–1947) referred to as inert knowledge.
Asking students what they already know about a topic and what
puzzles them affords an opportunity to assess children's prior
knowledge and the processes by which they will make sense of
phenomena.

Real and authentic problems. Constructivist learning is based

on the active participation of learners in problem-solving and
critical thinking–given real and authentic problems.

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 In anchored instruction, for example, as advanced in the work
of the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University,
learners are invited to engage in a fictitious problem occurring in a
simulated real-world environment. Rich and realistic video contexts
are provided–not only to provide relevant information for solving the
problem, but also to create a realistic context. If the students buy in
to the proposed problems, they will be engaged in problem solving
similar to what the people in the video are engaged in.

There are also many examples of project-based learning in

which students take on tasks such as building a vehicle that could
cross Antarctica. It is unclear whether these constitute authentic
problems–or what students learn from project-based learning.

Constructivist curriculum. A constructively oriented

curriculum presents an emerging agenda based on what children
know, what they are puzzled by, and the teachers' learning goals.
Thus, an important part of a constructivist-oriented curriculum
should be the negotiation of meaning. Maggie Lampert, a
mathematics teacher, guides students to make sense of
mathematics by comparing and resolving discrepancies between
what they know and what seems to be implied by new experience.

In constructivist classrooms, curriculum is generally a process

of digging deeper and deeper into big ideas, rather than presenting
a breadth of coverage. For example, in the Fostering Communities
of Learners project where students learn how to learn, in
knowledge-building classrooms where students seek to create new
knowledge, or in Howard Gardner's classrooms where the focus is
on learning for deep understanding, students might study
endangered species, island biogeography, or the principles of
gravity over several months. As students pursue questions, they
derive new and more complex questions to be investigated. Building
useful knowledge structures requires effortful and purposeful
activity over an extended period.

Cognitive conflict and social context. According to Dewey,

"Reflection arises because of the appearance of incompatible
factors within an empirical situation. Then opposed responses are
provoked which cannot be taken simultaneously in overt action"
(p.326). To say this in another way, cognitive conflict or puzzlement
is the stimulus for learning, and it determines the organization and
nature of what is being learned. Negotiation can also occur between

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individuals in a classroom. This process involves discussion and
attentive listening, making sense of the points of views of others,
and comparing personal meanings to the theories of peers.
Justifying one position over another and selecting theories that are
more viable leads to a better theory. Katerine Bielaczyc and Allan
Collins have summarized educational research on learning
communities in classrooms where the class goal is to learn
together, to appreciate and capitalize on distributed expertise, and
to articulate the kinds of cognitive processes needed for learning.

Constructivist assessment. Assessment of student learning is

of two types: formative and summative. Formative assessment
occurs during learning and provides feedback to the student. It
includes evaluations of ongoing portfolios, and demonstrations of
work in progress. Student collaboration also provides a form of
formative assessment. In FCL, for example, students report to each
other periodically on their research. In knowledge-building
classrooms, students can read and comment on each other's work
with the Knowledge Forum software. Formative assessment rarely
occurs in classrooms.

Summative assessment occurs through tests and essays at

the end of a unit of study. Summative assessments provide little
specific feedback. From a constructivist perspective, formative
assessments are more valuable to the learner, but with the recent
emphasis in North America on standards, and due to the poor
alignment of constructivist approaches and standards, it is very
difficult to harmonize formative and summative assessments.

Technology and constructivism. Cognitive research has

uncovered successful patterns in tutorial, mentoring, and group
discussion interactions. However, typical Internet chat and bulletin-
board systems do not support a constructivist approach to learning
and instruction. During the 1990s, researchers created tools such
as Knowledge Forum, the Knowledge Integration Environment, and
Co Vis to more fully address constructivist principles. Each of these
tools invites collaboration by structuring the kinds of contributions
learners can make, supporting meaningful relationships among
those contributions, and guiding students' inquiries. Teachers who
use information and communication technologies in their
classrooms are more likely to have a constructivist perspective
towards learning and instruction. Additionally, sophisticated
information and technology communications tools can capture the

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cognitive processes learners engage in when solving problems. This
affords teacher reflection and coaching to aid deeper learning. It
also affords teachers the chance to learn from each other.

The teacher's role. The teacher's role in a constructivist

classroom isn't so much to lecture at students but to act as an
expert learner who can guide students into adopting cognitive
strategies such as self testing, articulating understanding, asking
probing questions, and reflection. The role of the teacher in
constructivist classrooms is to organize information around big
ideas that engage the students' interest, to assist students in
developing new insights, and to connect them with their previous
learning. The activities are student-centered, and students are
encouraged to ask their own questions, carry out their own
experiments, make their own analogies, and come to their own
conclusions. Becoming a constructivist teacher may prove a
difficult transformation, however, since most instructors have been
prepared for teaching in the traditional, objectivist manner. It
"requires a paradigm shift," as well as "the willing abandonment of
familiar perspectives and practices and the adoption of new ones"
(Brooks and Brooks, p. 25).

A constructivist approach to education is widely accepted by

most researchers, though not by all. Carl Bereiter argues that
constructivism in schools is usually reduced to project based
learning, and John Anderson, Lynn Reder, and Herbert Simon claim
that constructivism advocates very inefficient learning and
assessment procedures. In any event, the reality is that
constructivism is rarely practiced in schools
(https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2174/Learning-Theory-
CONSTRUCTIVIST-APPROACH.html).
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984 from

which he developed his learning style inventory.

Kolb's experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four-

stage cycle of learning and four separate learning styles. Much of
Kolb’s theory is concerned with the learner’s internal cognitive
processes.

Kolb states that learning involves the acquisition of abstract

concepts that can be applied flexibly in a range of situations. In

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Kolb’s theory, the impetus for the development of new concepts is
provided by new experiences.

The Experiential Learning Cycle

Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically

represented by a four-stage learning cycle in which the learner
'touches all the bases':

1. Concrete Experience - a new experience or situation is

encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing experience.

2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience - of particular

importance are any inconsistencies between experience and
understanding.

3. Abstract Conceptualization reflection gives rise to a new idea, or

a modification of an existing abstract concept (the person has
learned from their experience).

4. Active Experimentation - the learner applies their idea(s) to the

world around them to see what happens.

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 Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a
cycle of four stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed by
(2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to
(3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations
(conclusions) which are then (4) used to test a hypothesis in future
situations, resulting in new experiences.

Kolb (1974) views learning as an integrated process with each

stage being mutually supportive of and feeding into the next. It is
possible to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its
logical sequence.

However, effective learning only occurs when a learner can

execute all four stages of the model. Therefore, no one stage of the
cycle is effective as a learning procedure on its own.

Learning Styles

Kolb's learning theory (1974) sets out four distinct learning

styles, which are based on a four-stage learning cycle (see above).
Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single
different learning style.
Various factors influence a person's preferred style. For
example, social environment, educational experiences, or the basic
cognitive structure of the individual.

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 Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style
preference itself is actually the product of two pairs of variables, or
two separate 'choices' that we make, which Kolb presented as lines
of an axis, each with 'conflicting' modes at either end.

A typical presentation of Kolb's two continuums is that the

east-west axis is called the Processing Continuum (how we
approach a task), and the north-south axis is called the Perception
Continuum (our emotional response, or how we think or feel about
it).

Kolb believed that we cannot perform both variables on a

single axis at the same time (e.g., think and feel). Our learning style
is a product of these two choice decisions.

It's often easier to see the construction of Kolb's learning

styles in terms of a two-by-two matrix. Each learning style
represents a combination of two preferred styles.

The matrix also highlights Kolb's terminology for the four

learning styles; diverging, assimilating, and converging,
accommodating:

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 Active Reflective
Experimentati Observation
on (Doing) (Watching)

Concrete Accommodati Diverging

Experience ng (CE/AE) (CE/RO)
(Feeling)

Abstract Converging Assimilating

Conceptualizatio (AC/AE) (AC/RO)
n (Thinking)

Learning Styles Descriptions

Knowing a person's (and your own) learning style enables

learning to be orientated according to the preferred method.

That said, everyone responds to and needs the stimulus of all

types of learning styles to one extent or another - it's a matter of
using emphasis that fits best with the given situation and a person's
learning style preferences.

Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO)

These people are able to look at things from different

perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than
do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve
problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from several
different viewpoints.

Kolb called this style 'diverging' because these people perform

better in situations that require ideas-generation, for example,
brainstorming. People with a diverging learning style have broad
cultural interests and like to gather information.

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 They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and
emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the
diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind
and to receive personal feedback.

Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO)

The assimilating learning preference involves a concise,

logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than
people.

These people require good clear explanation rather than a

practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging
information and organizing it in a clear, logical format.

People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on

people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People
with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories than
approaches based on practical value.

This learning style is important for effectiveness in information

and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this
style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and
having time to think things through.

Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems

and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. They
prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and
interpersonal aspects.

People with a converging learning style are best at finding

practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and
make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems.

People with a converging learning style are more attracted to

technical tasks and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A
converging learning style enables specialist and technology
abilities.

People with a converging style like to experiment with new

ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.

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Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE)

The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on,' and relies on

intuition rather than logic. These people use other people's analysis,
and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are
attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out
plans.

They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical

analysis. People with an accommodating learning style will tend to
rely on others for information than carry out their own analysis. This
learning style is prevalent within the general population.

Educational Implications

Both Kolb's (1984) learning stages and cycle could be used by

teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically
available to students, and to develop more appropriate learning
opportunities.

Educators should ensure that activities are designed and

carried out in ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in
the manner that suits them best.

Also, individuals can be helped to learn more effectively by the

identification of their lesser preferred learning styles and the
strengthening of these through the application of the experiential
learning cycle.

Ideally, activities and material should be developed in ways

that draw on abilities from each stage of the experiential learning
cycle and take the students through the whole process in sequence
(https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html).

How much have you learned?

1. Recite the principles each embedded in the approaches or

strategies discussed.

2. Discuss the differences between the approaches or

strategies discussed.

How do you apply what you have learned?

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 1. Pick one topic in culture or geography and construct a plan
on how you are to present the subject matter to the learners using
any one of the discussed approaches/strategies.

Lesson VI: STRATEGIES APPLICABLE FOR SMALL GROUPS IN

TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES
(COOPERATIVE LEARNING, ROLE PLAYING, SOCIO-DRAMA, PEER
TUTORING, AND MICROTEACHING)

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Learning Outcomes:

1. Define, discuss procedures of cooperative learning, role

playing, socio-drama, peer tutoring, and microteaching strategies;

2. State appropriate examples of the cooperative learning, role

playing, socio-drama, peer tutoring, and microteaching strategies.

Performance Standard 1:

Define and discuss procedures of cooperative learning, role

playing, socio-drama, peer tutoring, and microteaching strategies.

Materials:

Module
Online References

What do you already know?

1. Recall the definition of a teaching strategy?

2. Enumerate the teaching strategies that were already

discussed?

3. What are the salient features of each of the strategies

previously discussed?

What do you need to know?

This lesson is a continuation of the discussion on different

teaching strategies that are applicable to teaching social studies in
the elementary grades.

In this particular lesson, the strategies for small groups such

as cooperative learning, role playing, socio-drama, peer tutoring,
and microteaching strategies are discussed.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Cooperative learning involves students working in small groups to complete tasks or

projects. Tasks are structured so that each group member contributes to the completion of the
task. Success is based on the performance of the group rather than on the performance of
individual students.

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Program benefits

Cooperative learning activities play an important role in increasing students’ respect

for and understanding of each other’s abilities, interests and needs. These activities encourage
students to take responsibility for their learning.

Tips for getting started

Consider the following suggestions for successful cooperative learning in the health
education classroom.

• Keep groups small—two to five members is best (the larger the group, the more skillful
group members must be).

• Create diverse groups; this allows everyone to learn from each other’s differences.

• Structure groups in such a way that success depends on each group member being
responsible for some part of the task.

• Initially, group students and assign roles within each group.

• Teach basic routines for classroom management, including forming groups quickly and
quietly, maintaining appropriate noise levels, inviting others to join the group, treating
all students with respect and helping or encouraging peers.

• Monitor behavioural expectations by scanning groups, using proximity and friendly

reminders, sitting and watching a group for a while, revisiting expectations, and when
necessary, reteaching expectations.

• Ensure individual students are aware of their roles and responsibilities within the
group. Post a list of roles or give students cards describing specific roles.

• Discuss and model collaborative skills, such as listening, allowing others to speak,
asking for help when needed, reaching consensus and completing a task within the
allotted time. Students need opportunities to practise these skills, and receive feedback
and reinforcement.

• Allow students time to evaluate the cooperative learning process, both individually and
as a group.
Think–pair–share
In think–pair–share, the teacher poses a topic or question. Students think privately
about the question for a given amount of time, usually one to three minutes. Each
student then pairs with a partner to discuss the question, allowing students to clarify
their thoughts. Next, each pair has an opportunity to share their answers with the whole
class.

Think–pair–share is a cooperative learning strategy that provides opportunities for

students to:

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 • participate

• learn from others

• make connections.

Forming learning groups

There are many strategies to choose from when forming cooperative learning groups.
Using a variety of strategies ensures that students have an opportunity to work with many
different group members throughout the year.

Consider the following strategies for forming groups.

• Pairing up partners—Students pair up with someone who falls into the same
category. For example, students pair up with the first person they meet who is
wearing the same colour socks as them.

• Pick a card—Use old decks of cards to form groups. For example, to get groups
of four, put together four king of spades, four queen of diamonds, and so on.
Distribute the cards randomly and ask students to find the others with matching
cards.

• Chalkboard list—This is a good strategy to use when students are finishing their
work at different times. As students complete one assignment, they write their
names on the chalkboard. When three names accumulate, they form a new
group and move on to the next activity.

Group roles

The roles in a cooperative learning group depend on the task. Before assigning roles,
review the task and determine what roles are necessary for the group to be successful. Roles
could include:

• Checker—Ensures that everyone understands the work in progress.

• Timekeeper—Watches the clock and makes sure the group finishes the task within the
time allotted.

• Questioner—Seeks information and opinions from other members of the group.

• Recorder—Keeps a written record of the work completed.

• Reporter—Reports on the group’s work to the rest of the class.

• Encourager—Encourages everyone in the group to contribute

and offers positive feedback on ideas.

• Materials manager—Gathers the material necessary to complete the task. At the end of
the task, the materials manager returns materials and turns in the group’s work.

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 • Observer—Completes a checklist of social skills for the group.
When introducing roles to the class, explain and model them. Give students
opportunities to practise. Emphasize that all roles are equally important and contribute
to the success of the group.
Students need many opportunities to work in small groups to improve their ability to be
part of a team. The number one reason people fail at their jobs is their inability to get
along with coworkers. Cooperative learning creates opportunities for students to learn
and apply important social and communication skills.
Cooperative learning is an effective strategy for the health education classroom. It
enhances perspective, encourages higher-level reasoning, creates social support and
provides opportunities for students to participate in meaningful, thoughtful activity.

Group achievement marks

One controversial aspect of cooperative learning is whether or not to assign group

achievement marks. Spencer Kagan, in O’Connor’s The Mindful School: How to Grade for
Learning, argues against using a group achievement mark for the following reasons.

• Group marks convey the wrong message. If grades are partially a function of
forces entirely out of students’ control, such as who happens to be their
partners, that sends students the wrong message.

• Group marks violate individual accountability if individual students find ways

to manipulate situations to their advantage.

• Group achievement marks are responsible for parents’, teachers’ and students’
resistance to cooperative learning.
•
Rather than awarding group achievement marks, Kagan suggests providing feedback
in written form on students’ cooperative learning skills. Kagan believes students will work
hard if they know in advance that such feedback will occur. He also suggests asking students
to set their own goals and use self-assessment to promote learning and improve social skills.

ROLE PLAYING

Role-playing provides students with opportunities to explore and practise new

communication skills in a safe, nonthreatening environment, express feelings, and take on the
role of another person by “walking in another’s shoes.”

Role-playing is the spontaneous acting out of situations,

without costumes or scripts. The context for the role-play is
presented and roles are selected. Students have minimal planning
time to discuss the situation, choose different alternatives or
reactions and plan a basic scenario. At the conclusion, students
have an opportunity to discuss how they felt and what they learned
about that particular situation. The most important part of role-play
is the follow-up discussion.

When using role-plays in the health and life skills classroom:

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 • always have students role-play the positive aspects of a skill or

situation

• if it is necessary to role-play a negative situation, the teacher

should take on the negative role

• provide a specific situation

• provide a limited time for students to develop and practise their

role-plays (5 to 10 minutes is usually sufficient)

• limit the use of costumes and props

• provide students with tips for participating and observing.

Tips for participating
Share the following tips with role-play participants.

• Face the audience, and speak loudly and clearly.

• Don’t rely on props or costumes. Use body language to

communicate your message.

• Focus on your role-play partners and the message you want to

communicate.
Encourage students to assess their participation by asking
themselves the following questions.

• Am I identifying with the people involved?

• Are all the important aspects of the situation portrayed?

• Are the ideas from the planning session used in the role-play?

• Are new skills or concepts used accurately?

Tips for observing

Demonstrate good listening by being quiet and attentive during

the role-play.

Show support by clapping and using positive words of

encouragement and feedback.

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 Laugh at the appropriate moments. Do not laugh at role-play
participants.

Ongoing assessment

During role-play, observe how students handle the situations

represented and consider the following questions.

• Are concepts being expressed accurately in language and

action?

• Are any students confused or uncertain about the purpose of

the
role-play, the situation or their roles?

• Should space or materials be changed?

To extend the learning from role-plays, consider the following

questions.

• What issues were clarified through the role-play?

• What misconceptions might have been presented?

• What questions did the role-play raise?

• What new information is needed?

• What links does this role-play have to future tasks that extend
or
broaden the topic?

Role-playing can be an effective strategy for practising new

skills and exploring new ideas in the health and life skills
classroom. It addresses several of the multiple intelligences, and
can be a motivating and memorable learning activity.

SOCIO-DRAMA

Sociodrama is a method by which a group of individuals select and

spontaneously enact a specific social situation common to their experience.

In doing this Sociodrama can provide an action forum for resolving conflicts
among people with different views. It is also effective in clarifying values, developing
social skills, solving problems, diagnosing an organisation, developing and
rehearsing action plans or improving personal effectiveness and awareness.

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 Sociodrama groups may take several approaches to working with their shared
experiences. They may work on problem-solving, developing deeper understanding,
making decisions or learning new roles.

For example, a group of managers at a conference might wish to explore what

the future will expect of them, then develop a strategic plan and trial responses to it.
A group of unemployed persons may want to learn how to act at a job interviews.

Unlike simple role playing, Sociodrama employs many special 'Action

Methods' to deepen and broaden the enactment. The aside, doubling, soliloquy, role
reversal and mirroring, all help the group members experience their roles in the life-
drama more fully. Theatrical training or interest is unnecessary to Sociodrama. The
modality is a group interaction process used to assist all types of populations in
meeting specific group goals. The method draws upon a person's ability to learn with
their whole body and mind. It is a kinesthetic, emotional and cognitive educational
methodology (http://www.psychodrama.org.uk/what_is_sociodrama.php).

PEER TUTORING

Peer tutoring is an effective teaching strategy for all students.

Most students find it interesting to interact with their peer group
and they ask their queries without any hesitation and comfortable
while learning along with their peer group.

In India peer tutoring have been used non-systematically and

hence most of the students could not use this method beneficially.
Hence it becomes an area of thrust and creative approach in the
teaching learning process. Teachers can also get rid of overburden
of teaching and students strength. More and more systematic work
can be promoted to increase the use of peer tutoring in classrooms.

Peer tutoring is a teaching strategy that uses students as

tutors. The student pairs might work on academic, social,
behavioral, functional or even social skills. There are many different
ways to pair students, such as by ability level, skills mastered, or
age. The following model descriptions will assist you in selecting
the correct model based on certain criteria.Peer tutoring has been
extensively researched as an effective strategy to engage students
and promote academic success.

Peer Tutoring Models

There are many different ways you can group students to tutor
each other. It is important that the teacher make sure that any
material being reviewed by tutor groups is accurately assessed in

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these groups. Peer tutoring is not meant for introducing new
materials or concepts. You need to monitor for understanding on
both ends.

Class Wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT): In this model, the whole

class would be divided into pairs, or small groups no larger than
five. The groups should include students with different ability levels.
For example, you would use this model if the whole class were
preparing for a school-wide spelling bee. Class wide peer tutoring
involves dividing the entire class into groups of two to five students
with differing ability levels. Students then act as tutors, tutees, or
both tutors and tutees. Typically, CWPT involves highly structured
procedures, direct rehearsal, competitive teams, and posting of
scores (Maheady, Harper, & Mallette, 2001). The entire class
participates in structured peer tutoring activities two or more times
per week for approximately 30 minutes (Harper & Maheady, 2007).
While the procedures and routines in CWPT remain the same,
student pairings or groups may change weekly or biweekly. In
CWPT, student pairings are fluid and may be based on achievement
levels or student compatibility.

Cross-Age Peer Tutoring: Younger students are paired with an

older student. The older student is there to model good behavioral,
functional, adaptive or social skills. For example, a second grader
could be paired with a kindergarten student to show them how to
walk to the cafeteria, get a lunch tray, select foods, and find a place
to sit. Older students are paired with younger students to teach or
review a skill. The positions of tutor and tutee do not change. The
older student serves as the tutor and the younger student is the
tutee. The older student and younger student can have similar or
differing skill levels, with the relationship being one of a
cooperative or expert interaction. Tutors serve to model appropriate
behavior, ask questions, and encourage better study habits. This
arrangement is also beneficial for students with disabilities as they
may serve as tutors for younger students.

Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT): Two or more students

alternate between acting as the tutor and tutee during each
session, with equitable time in each role. Often, higher performing
students are paired with lower performing students. RPT utilizes a
structured format that encourages teaching material, monitoring
answers, and evaluating and encouraging peers. Both group and
individual rewards may be earned to motivate and maximize

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learning. Students in RPT may prepare the instructional materials
and are responsible for monitoring and evaluating their peers once
they have selected a goal and reward as outlined by their teacher.

Same-age Peer Tutoring: Peers who are within one or two years of
age are paired to review key concepts. Students may have similar
ability levels or a more advanced student can be paired with a less
advanced student. Students who have similar abilities should have
an equal understanding of the content material and concepts. When
pairing students with differing levels, the roles of tutor and tutee
may be alternated, allowing the lower performing student to quiz
the higher performing student. Answers should be provided to the
student who is lower achieving when acting as a tutor in order to
assist with any deficits in content knowledge. Same-age peer
tutoring, like class wide peer tutoring, can be completed within the
students’ classroom or tutoring can be completed across differing
classes. Procedures are more flexible than traditional class wide
peer tutoring configurations.

Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS): Students are paired

with students around the same ability level. The tutee and tutor
roles can change based on which student needs help on a particular
skill. For example, one student may help his partner with science
vocabulary words, and then the partner may change roles and help
the other student with multiplication facts. PALS is a version of the
CWPT model, involves a teacher pairing students who need
additional instruction or help with a peer who can assist (Fuchs,
Fuchs, & Burish, 2000). Groups are flexible and change often across
a variety of subject areas or skills. Cue cards, small pieces of
cardstock upon which are printed a list of tutoring steps, may be
provided to help students remember PALS steps (Spencer, Scruggs,
& Mastropieri, 2003). All students have the opportunity to function
as a tutor or tutee at differing times. Students are typically paired
with other students who are at the same skill level, without a large
discrepancy between abilities.

Here are five benefits that exemplify the importance of peer

teaching:

> Increased Literacy Scores — According to an Ohio University Pilot

Study, Students who read and discuss story passages with their
peers recall more content and score higher on assessments. The
researcher divided four average-reading 6th grade students into

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pairs. The first pair participated in peer reading activities twice a
week, whereas students in the second pair read the same passages
individually at the same
frequency. The first pair scored higher on each reading assessment.

> Developed Reasoning and Critical Thinking Skills — Students who

work in pairs and groups typically perform better on tests that
involve reasoning and critical thinking, according an oft-cited study
about science education. This is largely because students must
become active learners, discussing and rationalizing lesson
concepts in
their own words.

> Improved Confidence and Interpersonal Skills — Peer teaching

point to students
building confidence and communication abilities.Pioneering
research from 1988 states tutors improve self-esteem and
interpersonal skills by giving feedback. Tutees realize these
benefits by asking questions and receiving immediate clarification.
A later study of at-risk students echoed these advantages.

> Increased Comfort and Openness -The same 1988 study indicates
that “students generally identify more easily with peer helpers than
with adult authority figures.” This helps create an environment in
which students are more comfortable to ask questions and work
through challenging problems in an environment free from class
ridicule.

> Versatility - you can run a range of peer teaching exercises based
on different subjects and objectives, possibly involving other grades
and classes. Lots of ideas can lead to lots of fun for your students.

Basis for choosing peer tutoring -

> It is a widely-researched practice across ages, grade levels, and

subject areas
> The intervention allows students to receive one-to-one assistance
> Students have increased opportunities to respond in smaller
groups
> It promotes academic and social development for both the tutor
and tutee
> Student engagement and time on task increases

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> Peer tutoring increases self-confidence and self-efficacy (Spencer,
2006)
> The strategy is supported by a strong research base (e.g.,
Calhoon, Al Otaiba, Cihak,
King, & Avalos, 2007; Kunsch, Jitendra, & Sood, 2007; Vasquez &
Slocum, 2012)

How should tutors and tutees be selected?

One common method for determining dyads, or groups,

involves ranking students from the highest performing to the lowest
performing student for the particular activity or subject. Pairs can
be formed by cutting the list in half and then matching the top
performing student with the first lowest performing student, the
second highest performing student with the second lowest
performing student, and so forth (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Kazdan, 1999). If
heterogeneous groups are desired, the number of students in each
team should be determined. The list of students can then be
numbered from one to the desired number of persons in a group and
then repeated until the entire class is included (Harper & Maheady,
2007).

When selecting tutors, teachers should be cognizant of which

students can be most helpful in the process. Teachers should be
mindful of differing student personalities, needs, and preferences.
Dyads or groups should be established accordingly.

How should peer tutoring models be selected?

Peer tutoring models are flexible and can be altered to meet

individual student or class learning needs. The academic task
should dictate the appropriate model based on content and learning
goals. While there is some upfront planning and instruction, once
students develop an understanding of procedures, groups or dyads
can be altered dependent upon the setting, activity, or desired
learning outcomes.

How much instruction is needed to use peer tutoring?

Depending on the subject area and model selected, one to

four, 30- to 45-minute sessions can be devoted to teaching and
modeling (see Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2007; Spencer, 2006;
Polloway, Patton, & Serna, 2008). Students should master each step

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of the model selected before learning additional skills. A teacher
will need to closely monitor student progress to ensure that
established procedures are followed, students utilize interpersonal
skills, and content is covered.

Benefits of peer tutoring to children with Intellectual

Disability-

Children with Intellectual disability is the most marginalized

group in the society in order to give them effective training we need
to give priority to basic academic learning hence as a special
educator we keep on introducing effective strategies for person
with Intellectual disability.

Peer tutoring can be an effective strategy for children with ID

as it helps in enhancing social skill, interpersonal skill and they get
mutual benefit from each other. As one child achieves the goal all
other achieve goals. Peer tutoring is also the form of collaborative
learning. It also reduces burden of teacher as he has to teach a lot
of skill personally to the students. One child who acquires mastery
over the skill starts teaching other student who has not yet
acquired the skill. In peer tutoring children are paired with another
student after proving teaching sessions to the peer tutor.

What can be done to support peer tutoring initiatives?

> Provide direct, systematic instruction for the peer tutoring

process selected.
> Consider providing cue cards summarizing procedures or post
procedures until automaticity is established.
> Model error correction procedures.
> Chart, and consider posting, student or group progress.
> Praise use of tutoring procedures in addition to correct responses.
> Share with students the link between peer tutoring and increased
achievement.
(http://oaji.net/articles/2017/1201-1534934536.pdf)

MICROTEACHING

Microteaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It employs

real teaching situation for developing skills and helps to get deeper knowledge regarding the
art of teaching. This Stanford technique involved the steps of “plan, teach, observe, re-plan,
re-teach and re-observe” and has evolved as the core component in 91% of on-campus
clinical teaching development programs, with the significant reduction in the teaching
complexities with respect to number of students in a class, scope of content, and timeframe,

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etc. Most of the pre-service teacher education programs widely use microteaching, and it is a
proven method to attain gross improvement in the instructional experiences. Effective student
teaching should be the prime quality of a teacher. As an innovative method of equipping
teachers to be effective, skills and practices of microteaching have been implemented.

Efficient technique and effective teaching

Microteaching can be practiced with a very small lesson or a single concept and a less
number of students. It scales down the complexities of real teaching, as immediate feedback
can be sought after each practice session. The modern-day multimedia equipment such as
audio–video recording devices have a key role in the learning process.
Observing a fellow teacher and using a trial-and-error in own teaching sessions are
very common way of self-training. But, both of them have their own demerits. On the other
hand, microteaching helps in eliminating errors and builds stronger teaching skills for the
beginners and senior teachers. Microteaching increases the self-confidence, improves the in-
class teaching performances, and develops the classroom management skills.

Steps and requirements of microteaching

Knowledge acquisition, skill acquisition, and transfer are the three different phases of
microteaching. Knowledge acquisition phase is the preparatory, pre-active phase, in which
the teacher gets trained on the skills and components of teaching through lectures, discussion,
illustration, and demonstration of the skill by the experts. In the interactive, skill acquisition
phase, the teacher plans a micro-lesson for practicing the demonstrated skills. The colleagues
and peers can act as constructive evaluators which also enable them to modify their own
teaching-earning practices. The teacher can reinforce behaviors and skills that are necessary
and extinguish that are not needed. Ultimately, they can integrate and transfer this learned
skills from simulated teaching situation to real class room teaching.

After understanding the concepts and components of each

core teaching skill, the participant should prepare a micro-lesson
for each core teaching skill, and implement one skill in each
microteaching session in a sequential manner. The setting can be
done in the department itself with minimal facilities on a weekly or
monthly basis. Adequate and appropriate constructive feedback for
each skill can encourage re-teaching and re-implementing of the
skill. The feedback data can be reused, and all the core teaching
skills can be integrated in a macro lesson and ultimately to a real
classroom teaching or medical education programs. The entire
faculty play dual role of trainee and constructive evaluators. This
also improves the evaluating skills of teacher. Though there are
possible chances of not providing proper feedback during the initial
sessions, the skilled ability to evaluate and provide constructive
feedback increases when there is an increase in the number of
sessions.

How much have you learned?

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 1. Recite the principles each embedded in the approaches or
strategies discussed.

2. Discuss the differences between the approaches or

strategies discussed.

How do you apply what you have learned?

1. Pick one topic in culture or geography and construct a plan

on how you are to present the subject matter to the learners using
any one of the discussed approaches/strategies.

Lesson VII: STRATEGIES APPLICABLE FOR SMALL GROUPS IN

TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES
(DIRECT INSTRUCTION, INQUIRY APPROACH, READING,
INTEGRATIVE APPROACH, INSTRUCTIONAL DEVICES,
EXPERIMENTING)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Define, discuss procedures of direct instruction, inquiry

approach, reading, integrative approach, instructional devices, and
experimenting strategies;

2. State appropriate examples of the direct instruction, inquiry

approach, reading, integrative approach, instructional devices, and
experimenting strategies.

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Performance Standard 1:

Define and discuss procedures of cooperative learning, role

playing, socio-drama, peer tutoring, and microteaching strategies.

Materials:

Module
Online References

What do you already know?

1. Recall the definition of a teaching strategy?

2. Enumerate the teaching strategies that were already

discussed?

3. What are the salient features of each of the strategies

previously discussed?

What do you need to know?

This lesson is a continuation of the discussion on different

teaching strategies that are applicable to teaching social studies in
the elementary grades.

In this particular lesson, the strategies for small groups such

as direct instruction, inquiry approach, reading, integrative
approach, instructional devices, and experimenting strategies are
discussed.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Direct instruction is where teachers use explicit teaching techniques to teach a specific
skill to their students. This type of instruction is teacher-directed, where a teacher typically
stands at the front of a room and presents information. Teachers match their instruction to the
task to enhance students’ understanding of a topic. This technique depends on strict lesson
plans with little room for variation. It does not include active learning activities such as
discussions, workshops or case studies.

Direct instruction has a number of critics, who believe that it has little room for
personalization or adaptability. The six steps in direct instruction are:

– Introducing material, that is used to activate students’ prior knowledge

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– Presenting new material, where students begin to learn with step-by-step guides

– Guiding students, where teachers can correct mistakes early on and reteach material if
needed

– Providing feedback, where teachers give students an indicator of their performance

– Practicing independently, where students individually apply the skills that they’ve gained

– Evaluating, where students are tested on what they’ve learned.

INQUIRY APPROACH

Inquiry-based learning (also enquiry-based learning in British English) is a form

of active learning that starts by posing questions, problems or scenarios. It contrasts with
traditional education, which generally relies on the teacher presenting facts and his or her
knowledge about the subject. Inquiry-based learning is often assisted by a facilitator rather
than a lecturer. Inquirers will identify and research issues and questions to develop
knowledge or solutions. Inquiry-based learning includes problem-based learning, and is
generally used in small scale investigations and projects, as well as research. The inquiry-
based instruction is principally very closely related to the development and practice of
thinking and problem solving skills.
Specific learning processes that people engage in during inquiry-learning include:

• Creating questions of their own

• Obtaining supporting evidence to answer the question(s)
• Explaining the evidence collected
• Connecting the explanation to the knowledge obtained from the investigative process
• Creating an argument and justification for the explanation

Inquiry learning involves developing questions, making observations, doing research

to find out what information is already recorded, developing methods for experiments,
developing instruments for data collection, collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data,
outlining possible explanations and creating predictions for future study.

Levels

There are many different explanations for inquiry teaching and learning and the
various levels of inquiry that can exist within those contexts. The article titled The Many
Levels of Inquiry by Heather Banchi and Randy Bell (2008) clearly outlines four levels of
inquiry.

Level 1: Confirmation Inquiry

The teacher has taught a particular science theme or topic. The teacher then develops
questions and a procedure that guides students through an activity where the results are
already known. This method is great to reinforce concepts taught and to introduce students
into learning to follow procedures, collect and record data correctly and to confirm and
deepen understandings.

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Level 2: Structured Inquiry
The teacher provides the initial question and an outline of the procedure. Students are to
formulate explanations of their findings through evaluating and analyzing the data that they
collect.

Level 3: Guided Inquiry

The teacher provides only the research question for the students. The students are responsible
for designing and following their own procedures to test that question and then communicate
their results and findings.

Level 4: Open/True Inquiry

Students formulate their own research question(s), design and follow through with a
developed procedure, and communicate their findings and results. This type of inquiry is
often seen in science fair contexts where students drive their own investigative questions.

Banchi and Bell (2008) explain that teachers should begin their inquiry instruction at
the lower levels and work their way to open inquiry in order to effectively develop students'
inquiry skills. Open inquiry activities are only successful if students are motivated by
intrinsic interests and if they are equipped with the skills to conduct their own research study.

Open/true inquiry learning

An important aspect of inquiry-based learning is the use of open learning, as evidence

suggests that only utilizing lower level inquiry is not enough to develop critical and scientific
thinking to the full potential. Open learning has no prescribed target or result that people have
to achieve. There is an emphasis on the individual manipulating information and creating
meaning from a set of given materials or circumstances. In many conventional and structured
learning environments, people are told what the outcome is expected to be, and then they are
simply expected to 'confirm' or show evidence that this is the case.

Open learning has many benefits. It means students do not simply perform
experiments in a routine like fashion, but actually think about the results they collect and
what they mean. With traditional non-open lessons there is a tendency for students to say that
the experiment 'went wrong' when they collect results contrary to what they are told to
expect. In open learning there are no wrong results, and students have to evaluate the
strengths and weaknesses of the results they collect themselves and decide their value.

Inquisitive learning

Sociologist of education Phillip Brown defined inquisitive learning as learning that

is intrinsically motivated (e.g. by curiosity and interest in knowledge for its own sake), as
opposed to acquisitive learning that is extrinsically motivated (e.g. by acquiring high scores
on examinations to earn credentials). However, occasionally the term inquisitive learning is
simply used as a synonym for inquiry-based learning (Graseck, Paul (January 2005).
"Where's the ministry in administration?: attending to the souls of our schools". Phi Delta
Kappan. 86 (5): 373–378).

INTEGRATIVE APPROACH

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 Integrative learning is an approach where the learner brings
together prior knowledge and experiences to support new
knowledge and experiences. By doing this, learners draw on their
skills and apply them to new experiences at a more complex level.
The concept behind integrative learning is that students take
ownership of their own learning, becoming critical inquiries who are
able to make meaningful connections between different disciplines
and utilise critical thinking to real-life problems (Boix Mansilla, V.
(2008). Integrative Learning: Setting the Stage for a Pedagogy of the
Contemporary. Peer Review (Fall). American Association of Colleges
and Universities).

Using the integrative approach to teaching combines many

subjects into single lessons. The idea behind the theory is that
students receive maximum learning by acquiring knowledge and
skills in more than one area in the same time-frame. Integrating
lessons can be done with any subjects, such as mixing language
arts with art by researching famous artists and then writing a report
or math and physical education where students play basketball
while assigning different shots to equal point values. The
possibilities for integrated lessons are endless.

Collaborate with other teachers in the grade you teach.

Discuss grade-level standards for their subject and brainstorm ideas
on working together to combine curriculum. These collaboration
sessions with colleagues are a great way to integrate different
subjects into your classroom and get the other teachers to do the
same, creating whole grade units of study that flow with each other.
Create your lesson plans with the collaborative details in
mind. Note the grade-level standards and get creative. Not all
subjects are easy to combine, but it can be done. Plan your core
material first and then expand upon the activities that you have
students do. A lot of the integration comes after the main content
has been delivered. For example, if you are teaching about a
particular culture in social studies class, deliver you content on the
subject and then create an activity that integrates another subject.
Ideas for this would be to have students use math to calculate the
average size of tribes, or the amount of land that a tribe uses for
farming, or using art to create a map of the landholdings of such
tribal group.

Deliver the lesson to students and have them participate in the

planned activities. Check their knowledge retention by integrating

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language arts. For this part of the lesson, have them research and
write a report on an aspect of the material. This can be done for
almost any topic, from famous scientists to the Declaration of
Independence. By using these steps, you will have successfully
integrated at least three subjects into one lesson, benefiting
students much more substantially than by just delivering material
on the subject.

Meet with the other teachers in your grade team to check how
the lessons are going. Find out what they have been doing to
effectively use integration in their classroom. Adjust your lesson
plans accordingly to what has been successful and what has not
(https://classroom.synonym.com/teach-using-integrative-approach-
8677824.html)

EXPERIMENTING

Conducting a classroom experiment is easy to do. The first

time you try one, it is probably a good idea to use an experiment
that someone else has prepared. In a published experiment, there
will typically be "teacher's notes" containing detailed instructions
for conducting the experiment. Sometimes the teacher plays an
active role and in other cases the instructor gives students a period
of time to complete the experiment while the teacher is passive.
Teaching notes also generally give suggestions for adapting the
exercise to different classroom environments, for example, large vs.
small classes. They may also contain variations that might help
tailor the experiment to an individual teacher's course.

Conducting a classroom experiment involves the following

steps:

1. Teacher’s Preparation

Instructors routinely tailor classes to their own students. For

example, if students have weaker math preparation than is needed
to learn course material, we do some math review to reinforce
skills. Planning out the use of experiments as part of a course
involves the same sort of tailoring. Some suggestions:

• Decide how to best incorporate experiments into course

content. Some suggestions of when to include an experiment
include:

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 ◦ To illustrate material where students have prior
misconceptions about the material or where students
normally have difficulty mastering the concepts,
◦ When the experiment can become a point of reference for
a number of concepts throughout the semester. If the
experiment helps make an initial abstract topic more
concrete for the students, it gives them a better chance
of mastering extensions of that topic,
◦ If students perceive a topic as boring, an experiment
might help students see what is relevant and interesting
about that topic,
◦ When you hit a low point in the semester and the class
needs to be re-energized, like after midterms or spring
break.

• Designate the appropriate amount of time for the experiment -

some experiments might be adapted to take more than one
class period while others may be adapted to take only a few
minutes.

◦ A short experiment at the beginning of class can help

motivate a more formal presentation that follows. On the
other hand, if students are likely to get very boisterous
during the experiment, they might find it hard to
concentrate and take notes immediately after the
experiment concludes.
◦ An experiment that is detailed and where waiting is
involved or one that has a number of variations might take
an entire class period. On the other hand, if the variations
relate to material that would normally be spread out over
several weeks, it might be best to divide the experiment
up to match the material. That is, unless the experiment
takes so long to set up that this is impractical.
◦ Experiments don't have to be "long" to be "useful" to
students.

• Match the experiment to the class level, course atmosphere

and the personalities and learning styles of your students.

◦ To liven up a "sleepy" class, add some drama to the

experiment where you can. Hand out candy prizes, ask

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 students to wear badges with their "job title" on them or
anything else that fits your style and your students.
◦ Experiments can be a great way to get a quiet class
involved in discussion, and sometimes once you create a
classroom culture where discussions take place, they will
continue to take place after the experiment ends.

• Choose a strategy for dealing with the classroom environment:

room layout, number of students, whether the class is taught
online, etc.

◦ For very large classes it might be necessary to have

students work in groups, or to have students take turns
carrying out the experiment while others in the class
observe.
◦ Classrooms with tables may be more practical for
experiments than those with small desks attached to the
student's chair. Consider requesting a classroom that
makes it easy to carry out classroom experiments or
borrowing a table if necessary.
◦ Online classes can take advantage of computer
technology to help with classroom experiments. It isn't
necessary in a lot of cases for all students to make
decisions at the same time or for all parts of the
experiment to take place on the same day.

2. Student’s Preparation

All classroom experiments begin with an instruction stage that

acquaints students with the tasks that they will perform during the
experiment. In some very simple experiments it may be possible to
give students informal verbal instructions during class. For more
complex experiments it is best to have written instructions so that
students can refer to them during the experiment. In this case
instructors should consider whether it is best to have students
prepare in advance of class or in class.

1. Pre-Class Instructions

• Either on paper or distributed using a class website or learning

portal
• Saves time in class

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 • Gives students a chance to come up with questions and
formulate strategies
• Helpful for students with disabilities who need help reading
instructions
• Questions to test student understanding can be included and
used as a graded assignment

2. In Class Instructions

• Best for instructor to read instructions aloud so students don't

skim instructions too quickly and so instructor can emphasize
important points
• Discussing answers to quiz questions over instructions can
help clear up misunderstandings

3. Analysing the data and extending the experience

Once you collect the data or observations, the decision about

how to communicate the results to students and link it to what they
are learning in class is very important. Some things to consider:

• It is useful for students to see not only the data they have
collected but also data from other students or groups.
Sometimes it might not be practical to compile the data in
class. Think about whether it makes more sense to present the
compiled data in the following class or to present it using a
course website.
• Think about how students will interact with the data. In some
cases it is most helpful for the instructor to organize the data
into graphs or charts for the students - for more advanced
students, dealing with the data can be part of the experience.
• Ask the students to interpret the results rather than presenting
them the way you might in a seminar.
• Guide a discussion of how the experiment relates to course
material using leading questions.

The classroom experiment experience isn't just about that

moment in class. It can often be used successfully as a shared
experience that anchors later material in the course. It also can be
a catalyst to help students start thinking beyond the course
material.

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 • Near the end of the discussion of the experiment, ask your
students "What would happen if we changed some aspect of
the experiment?"
• Ask your students how to modify the experiment in which they
participated to test a new hypothesis. This is a good strategy
later in the semester when you encounter related course
topics.

4. Assessing Student’s Achievement

There are two main reasons for assessing what students have
learned from the experiment. The obligation to assign grades at the
end of the semester is the most obvious. In addition, is a very
helpful way of making sure that the experiment is a useful part of
the class and can help with fine tuning the experiment for future
semesters.

There are a number of strategies for assessing student

learning. Thinking about the learning objectives you selected for the
experiment is always a good starting point.

1. Give a post experiment quiz or homework assignment. These

assignments can reinforce the lessons from the experiment by
asking students to revisit what happened or work additional
practice problems similar to those completed in the
experiment.
2. Design test questions about the experiment itself. Basic
questions ask students to describe important features of the
experiment itself and summarize the results. It may also be
appropriate to ask students to perform calculations similar to
those from the experiment or interpret some similar data. More
advanced questions might focus on predicting results in a
different experimental treatment that is related to course
material or designing a follow up experiment. Students can also
analyze a similar experimental design and suggest
modifications based on their experience.
3. Ask students to design an experiment to test a new hypothesis.
4. Present students with questions that have "no right answer"
that are designed to find out how they perceived the
experiment and its purpose. Some examples:
◦ Were the experiment's instructions clear - if not, what did
you find confusing?
◦ What did you learn from the experiment?

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 ◦ In what ways did the experiment help you to better
understand related class material?
◦ What questions do you still have about the topic we
studied?
(https://serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/experiments/assessing.html)

How much have you learned?

1. Recite the principles each embedded in the approaches or

strategies discussed.

2. Discuss the differences between the approaches or

strategies discussed.

How do you apply what you have learned?

1. Pick one topic in culture or geography and construct a plan

on how you are to present the subject matter to the learners using
any one of the discussed approaches/strategies.

Page 79 of 108
Lesson VII: STRATEGIES APPLICABLE FOR A FULL CLASS SIZE IN
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES
(REFLECTIVE TEACHING, TEAM TEACHING, DEMONSTRATION,
FIELD STUDIES)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Define, discuss procedures of reflective teaching, team

teaching, demonstration, and field studies strategies;

2. State appropriate examples of the reflective teaching, team

teaching, demonstration, and field studies strategies.

Performance Standard 1:

Define and discuss procedures of reflective teaching, team

teaching, demonstration, and field studies strategies.

Materials:

Module
Online References

What do you already know?

1. Recall the definition of a teaching strategy?

Page 80 of 108
 2. Enumerate the teaching strategies that were already
discussed?

3. What are the salient features of each of the strategies

previously discussed?

4. What are the pros and cons of each of the strategies

previously presented?

What do you need to know?

This lesson is a continuation of the discussion on different

teaching strategies that are applicable to teaching social studies in
the elementary grades.

In this particular lesson, the strategies for full class size such
as reflective teaching, team teaching, demonstration, and field
studies strategies are discussed.

REFLECTIVE TEACHING

Reflective Teaching (RT) is a self-assessment of teaching,

wherein an instructor examines their pedagogy, articulates reasons
and strengths for their strategies, and identifies areas for revision
or improvement. RT involves an examination both of one’s
underlying beliefs about teaching and learning and their alignment
with actual classroom practice, throughout a course and
afterwards. RT operates as an umbrella term denoting a variety of
practices, including teaching inventories and observation protocols, self-
assessments, and consideration of student evaluations.
When teaching reflectively, instructors think critically about their
teaching and problem-solve for solutions to recurring issues, rather
than relying on unchanging, established personal norms. This
critical analysis can draw on a variety of sources: Brookfield (2017)
lays out four crucial sources, including “students’ eyes, colleagues’
perceptions, personal experience, and theory and research.”
Instructors can use a variety of tools and approaches to learn from
these sources and reflect upon their teaching, ranging from low-key
to formal, and personal to inter-collegial.

Examples

Self-Assessment

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 • Reflection Journals: A reflection journal allows instructors to
capture details of their teaching directly after class, and read an
ongoing narrative of their teaching across terms and years.
Taking 5 or so minutes after class, the instructor writes
thoughts on the day’s lesson (typing or handwriting works,
although handwriting often supports better memory and
reflection). Instructors might reflect on the following questions:
What went well today? What could I have done differently? How
will I modify my instruction in the future?

• Teaching Inventories: A number of inventories have been

developed to help instructors assess their teaching approaches.
These often consist of multiple choice questions on a Likert-
scale and often take less than 10 - 15 minutes to complete.
Inventories are usually designed to assess the extent to which
particular pedagogies are employed (e.g. student- versus
teacher-centered practices).

• Video-Recorded Teaching Practices: Instructors can video-

record their lessons informally or formally, along with an
observation protocol in order to self-assess their own practices.
Video cameras installed in certain Yale classrooms can be
utilized by instructors for recordings. Alternatively, instructors
can utilize, or have a Teaching Fellow utilize, the Media Library
tool Panopto for classroom recordings, or utilize a small
recording studio in the CTL (contact the Media Library team for
more information).

• Teaching Portfolio: A more time-intensive practice, the teaching

portfolio allows instructors to pull the various components of
their teaching into a cohesive whole, starting typically with a
teaching philosophy or statement, moving through sample
syllabi and assignments, and ending with evaluations from
colleagues and students. The portfolio does not capture
classroom practices very well, but provides an opportunity for
instructors to see their teaching in a “big picture.” The
University of Washington CTL explores best practices of
reflective teaching (link is external)
through the teaching portfolio.

External Assessment

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 • Student Evaluations (Quarterly Exams): In many courses,
instructors will obtain feedback from students in the form of
midterm and/or end-of-term evaluations in your case, formative
and summative evaluations. Care on behalf of the instructor
must be taken in interpreting this feedback, as the literature
suggests that student evaluations can be particularly biased
against women and minorities, and thus not always valid
measures of instruction (Basow, 1995; Watchel, 1998; Huston,
2005). With this in mind, instructors can consider student
evaluations as one data source in their instruction and take note
of any prevailing themes. They can seek out other ways to
assess their practices to accompany student evaluation data
before taking steps to modify instruction. One option is to
include external observation and anonymous discussion with
students for more real-time, and often more honest, feedback.
The CTL offers midterm student course evaluations and small
group feedback sessions, which provide non-evaluative,
anonymous conversation notes with students in addition to the
traditional survey format.

• Peer or Departmental Observation and Feedback: Instructors

can ask a trusted colleague or administrator to observe their
classroom and give them feedback on their teaching. Colleagues
can agree on a protocol and list of behaviors to focus on, or
utilize one of many teaching inventories available online.

Recommendations

• Use multiple data sources - Considering teaching from at least

two different perspectives (student evaluations and personal
inventory, or personal inventory and peer observation) can
provide a more holistic view of instruction. Instructors should be
careful to compare and review outcome data carefully, and even
reflect on it with a colleague, before making changes.
Additionally, changes should be made slowly (the usual
recommendation is one core change per term), and reflected on
as well.

• Take time to write - If instructors wish to keep a teaching log,

they may schedule dedicated time to write their entries, ideally
soon after class ends, rather than hoping to find a moment
throughout the day. As in any new technique, habit formation is
key to continual engagement.

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 • Find a friend - Instructors should consider finding a colleague or
two to meet with in order to discuss teaching efforts. This may
include a faculty member who teaches the same or similar
course, or any trusted colleague or administrator. Most
observations are best followed up with an informal coffee
meeting to discuss findings in a no-judgment, non-evaluative
climate (https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/ReflectiveTeaching).

TEAM TEACHING

Team teaching involves a group of instructors working

purposefully, regularly, and cooperatively to help a group of
students of any age learn. Teachers together set goals for a course,
design a syllabus, prepare individual lesson plans, teach students,
and evaluate the results. They share insights, argue with one
another, and perhaps even challenge students to decide which
approach is better.

Teams can be single-discipline, interdisciplinary, or school-

within-a-school teams that meet with a common set of students
over an extended period of time. New teachers may be paired with
veteran teachers. Innovations are encouraged, and modifications in
class size, location, and time are permitted. Different personalities,
voices, values, and approaches spark interest, keep attention, and
prevent boredom.

The team-teaching approach allows for more interaction

between teachers and students. Faculty evaluate students on their
achievement of the learning goals; students evaluate faculty
members on their teaching proficiency. Emphasis is on student and
faculty growth, balancing initiative and shared responsibility,
specialization and broadening horizons, the clear and interesting
presentation of content and student development, democratic
participation and common expectations, and cognitive, affective,
and behavioral outcomes. This combination of analysis, synthesis,
critical thinking, and practical applications can be done on all levels
of education, from kindergarten through graduate school.

Working as a team, teachers model respect for differences,

interdependence, and conflict-resolution skills. Team members

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together set the course goals and content, select common
materials such as texts and films, and develop tests and final
examinations for all students. They set the sequence of topics and
supplemental materials. They also give their own interpretations of
the materials and use their own teaching styles. The greater the
agreement on common objectives and interests, the more likely that
teaching will be interdependent and coordinated.

Teaching periods can be scheduled side by side or

consecutively. For example, teachers of two similar classes may
team up during the same or adjacent periods so that each teacher
may focus on that phase of the course that he or she can best
handle. Students can sometimes meet all together, sometimes in
small groups supervised by individual teachers or teaching
assistants, or they can work singly or together on projects in the
library, laboratory, or fieldwork. Teachers can be at different sites,
linked by video-conferencing, satellites, or the Internet.

Breaking out of the taken-for-granted single-subject, single-

course, single-teacher pattern encourages other innovations and
experiments. For example, students can be split along or across
lines of sex, age, culture, or other interests, then recombined to
stimulate reflection. Remedial programs and honors sections
provide other attractive opportunities to make available appropriate
and effective curricula for students with special needs or interests.
They can address different study skills and learning techniques.
Team teaching can also offset the danger of imposing ideas, values,
and mindsets on minorities or less powerful ethnic groups. Teachers
of different backgrounds can culturally enrich one another and
students.

Advantages

Students do not all learn at the same rate. Periods of equal

length are not appropriate for all learning situations. Educators are
no longer dealing primarily with top-down transmission of the tried
and true by the mature and experienced teacher to the young,
immature, and inexperienced pupil in the single-subject classroom.
Schools are moving toward the inclusion of another whole
dimension of learning: the lateral transmission to every sentient
member of society of what has just been discovered, invented,
created, manufactured, or marketed. For this, team members with
different areas of expertise are invaluable.

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 Teamwork improves the quality of teaching as various experts
approach the same topic from different angles: theory and practice,
past and present, different genders or ethnic backgrounds. Teacher
strengths are combined and weaknesses are remedied. Poor
teachers can be observed, critiqued, and improved by the other
team members in a nonthreatening, supportive context. The
evaluation done by a team of teachers will be more insightful and
balanced than the introspection and self-evaluation of an individual
teacher.

Working in teams spreads responsibility, encourages

creativity, deepens friendships, and builds community among
teachers. Teachers complement one another. They share insights,
propose new approaches, and challenge assumptions. They learn
new perspectives and insights, techniques and values from
watching one another. Students enter into conversations between
them as they debate, disagree with premises or conclusions, raise
new questions, and point out consequences. Contrasting viewpoints
encourage more active class participation and independent thinking
from students, especially if there is team balance for gender, race,
culture, and age. Team teaching is particularly effective with older
and underprepared students when it moves beyond communicating
facts to tap into their life experience.

The team cuts teaching burdens and boosts morale. The

presence of another teacher reduces student-teacher personality
problems. In an emergency one team member can attend to the
problem while the class goes on. Sharing in decision-making
bolsters self-confidence. As teachers see the quality of teaching
and learning improve, their self-esteem and happiness grow. This
aids in recruiting and keeping faculty.

Disadvantages

Team teaching is not always successful. Some teachers are

rigid personality types or may be wedded to a single method. Some
simply dislike the other teachers on the team. Some do not want to
risk humiliation and discouragement at possible failures. Some fear
they will be expected to do more work for the same salary. Others
are unwilling to share the spotlight or their pet ideas or to lose total
control.

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 Team teaching makes more demands on time and energy.
Members must arrange mutually agreeable times for planning and
evaluation. Discussions can be draining and group decisions take
longer. Rethinking the courses to accommodate the team-teaching
method is often inconvenient.

Opposition may also come from students, parents, and

administrators who may resist change of any sort. Some students
flourish in a highly structured environment that favors repetition.
Some are confused by conflicting opinions. Too much variety may
hinder habit formation.

Salaries may have to reflect the additional responsibilities

undertaken by team members. Team leaders may need some form of
bonus. Such costs could be met by enlarging some class sizes.
Nonprofessional staff members could take over some
responsibilities
(https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2493/Team-
Teaching.html).

FIELD STUDIES

In field-based learning, teaching is extended to a site outside of the classroom or

laboratory, exposing students to a real-world setting. Students learn though direct interaction
with an environment that reflects taught concepts rather than learning through indirect
presentations of the setting such as textbooks or lectures.

Field-based learning may serve a diverse range of teaching aims and goals as students
are provided with a perspective of materials, objects or phenomena that are not accessible in,
or fully appreciated through, other settings.

Field-based learning is generally chosen because the experience:

• provides an opportunity to present materials, objects or phenomena that are not

accessible otherwise to students in a way that enables direct contact and interaction
• provides students with an opportunity to practice skills or techniques that cannot be
carried out elsewhere
• stimulates higher understanding and reinforcement of previously learned classroom
material
• stimulates an appreciation for, concern or valuing of the visited environment

The following are the steps in conducting the field studies:

Page 87 of 108
When teaching one-day field studies:
Prepare Students
Establish the basic narrative/description
elements of the material to be studied on the
field study before the trip takes place (via
lecture, handout, etc.). Point students toward
any useful resources to gain important
foundational knowledge. This strategy allows
for more time to be spent on deeper and more
analytical and evaluative thinking when on-
site.

Foster Awareness
Teach and Foster a self-conscious awareness
on the site. Many students may be unaware of
the history, significance or background of a
site that is necessary for critical consideration
of the environment that their learning is taking
place in.

Engage
Encourage students to ask questions of
guides, to interact with the site and its
environment, and to chat with other visitors.
What, for instance, do local visitors say about
the site? Do they react notably differently to
your group? Why?

Provoke Meta-Learning
Have students think about how what they
experienced at the site complicates or
contradicts what they have read or discussed
in class. How might they account for any such
differences? How does the medium of learning
affect their conclusions?

Page 88 of 108
 Build Upon Learning
Leave time for discussion on site while the
issues are fresh; always follow up field studies
with a discussion in class once students have
has time to reflect on their experiences.

Illustrate Concepts
Try, where it is useful, to find new or slightly
oblique ways to teach concepts. For example,
a Literature and Philosophy class on the
theorizations of subjectivity visits a gallery
specializing in contemporary British
conceptual art to address the core issues of
the course visually rather the textually.

Assess
Inform students of upcoming
assignments/assessments on what they learn
during their field studies. This will help
students to check in on their learning
throughout their trip and to ensure they are
learning what they need to.

(https://www.queensu.ca/ctl/teaching-support/instructional-strategies/field-based-learning)

How much have you learned?

1. Recite the principles each embedded in the approaches or

strategies discussed.

2. Discuss the differences between the approaches or

strategies discussed.

How do you apply what you have learned?

1. Pick one topic in culture or geography and construct a plan

on how you are to present the subject matter to the learners using
any one of the discussed approaches/strategies.

Page 89 of 108
Lesson VIII: STRATEGIES APPLICABLE FOR A FULL CLASS SIZE IN
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES
(LECTURE, SIMULATION, INVITING A SPECIALIST, AND FIELDTRIP)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Define, discuss procedures of lecture, simulation, inviting a

specialist and field trip strategies;

2. State appropriate examples of the lecture, simulation,

inviting a specialist and field trip strategies.

Performance Standard 1:

Define and discuss procedures of r lecture, simulation, inviting

a specialist and field trip strategies.

Materials:

Module
Online References

What do you already know?

1. Recall the definition of a teaching strategy?

2. Enumerate the teaching strategies that were already

discussed?

3. What are the salient features of each of the strategies

previously discussed?

What do you need to know?

Page 90 of 108
 This lesson is a continuation of the discussion on different
teaching strategies that are applicable to teaching social studies in
the elementary grades.

In this particular lesson, the strategies for full class size such
as lecture, simulation, inviting a specialist and field trip strategies
are discussed.

LECTURE

The lecture strategy is the most widely used form of

presentation. A lecture is an oral presentation of information by the
teacher. It is the method of relaying factual information which
includes principles, concepts, ideas about a given topic. The
teacher is very active, doing all the talking. Students on the other
hand are very inactive, doing all the listening.
The lecture is defined as the method of instruction in which
the instructor has full responsibility for presenting facts and
principles orally It is an oral presentation of information by the
teacher .

Structuring presentation—

Lecture strategy is generally not suitable for the lower

classes. But, this is the method most liked by teachers. Thinking
and observation which result from science teaching do not get
developed.

Effective presenters provide roadmaps for their speech. They

design and present lectures that are well-organized and easy to
follow. There’s an “attention grabber” for the opening, a preview of
what is ahead and three or four chunks of information that make-up
the body of the presentation, and a closing that summarizes
important content, information and key messages

Structure your lectures to help students retain the most

important material. Plan your classes so that the main points come
at a time when students are most attentive. Structure them to
include: Attention-getting introduction Brief overview of main points
to be covered Quick statement of background or context Detailed
explanation of no more than three major points, the most important

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first, with a change of pace every ten or fifteen minute Concluding
summary of main points to reinforce key themes

Structure the lecture to suit your audience and the subject

matter. Consider the difficulty of the material and students’ level of
ability as you make decisions about the amount of information to
cover, the amount of detail, and the number of examples you
present. Structure the lecture to suit your students and the subject
matter. Consider the difficulty of the material and students’ level of
ability and the entering behavior as you make decisions about the
amount of information to cover, Unfamiliar technical words should
be introduced cautiously

Focus the message. It is very easy to present too much

information, which quickly saturates students, causing them to drop
into a passive-listening role. They may understand what is being
said, but they are not retaining it. Identify what you most want your
students to remember about the topic.Prepare a one-page sketch of
the lecture Structure the lecture in outline form and flesh it out with
examples and illustrations; identify your key points Specify the main
topic or topics. Free associate words, facts, ideas, and questions as
they come to you

Provide a logical progression for the material. Provide a logical

progression for the material. Some lectures lend themselves to a
chronological or sequential approach. At other times, you can move
from the general principle to specific instances, build up from the
parts to the whole, trace one idea across time or space, describe a
problem and then illustrate its solution, Decide what content to
cover Organize the topics in a meaningful sequence. Like
topical ,Causal ,Sequential, Symbolic or graphic, Problem-solution

Design your lectures in ten- or fifteen-minutes blocks. Each

block should cover a single point with examples and end with a
brief summary and transition to the next section. If you find yourself
running out of time, cut an entire block or shorten the middle
section of a block rather than rush the summary.

Budget time for questions. Whether or not you formally open

the floor for questions, leave time for students to ask you to repeat
material or to supply additional explanations.

Begin and end with a summary statement. Continuity and

closure are important: students need to see how each new topic

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relates to what they have already learned as well as to what they
will be learning in the coming weeks. To bring your points home,
use different words and examples in your opening and closing
summaries.

Experiment with different formats for your lecture notes. Some

formats are more suited to certain subjects and disciplines than
others for example a tree diagram (such as a flowchart or network)
provides a system of pathways through important points with
optional stopovers, tangents, useful illustrations, or examples.

Write down vivid examples. . Within the body of your lecture

notes or on a separate sheet of paper, copy out all the key facts,
quotations, computations, or complex analyses. Clear,
straightforward, memorable examples reinforce the points you are
trying to make.

Use notes wisely Notes used wisely can ensure accuracy, jog
the memory, and dispel the fear of forgetting. They are essential for
reporting complicated information. For an instructor who tends to
ramble, notes are a must because they help keep the lecture on
track.

Prepare your lecture for the ear, not the eye. Oral
presentations are very different from written presentations. When
students are listening to you speak, they cannot go back and
“reread” a troublesome sentence or look up a difficult word in the
dictionary.

Rehearse your lecture Carefully prepare your lectures.

Thorough preparation can prevent last-minute headaches.. After
completing the preliminary planning and writing of the lesson plan,
the instructor should rehearse the lecture to build self-confidence.
Rehearsals, or dry runs, help smooth out the mechanics of using
notes, visual aids, and other instructional devices. A run-through
will give you a sense of how comfortable you are with the material
and the length of your presentation. To save time, practice only the
most difficult sections, the opening and the ending.

Presentation Tips

Page 93 of 108
 Visit the classroom before the first meeting The size and
shape of the lecture room also influence the design and delivery of
the lecture.
Notice the instructor’s area, placement of light switches,
chalkboards, and other details. Make arrangements for whatever
instructional equipment you will need: overhead projector,
microphone, slide projector. When you visit the classroom, stand
where you will lecture, practice using the equipment, and write on
the board. Check whether your board work can be seen from the
back of the room. The final logistical consideration is the media
equipment available.

Technology-Enhanced Classrooms. Many classrooms are

equipped with technology that will help you add other dimensions to
your lecture (TECs) allow you to use computer consoles, DVD/VHS
players, personal response systems, wireless microphones, and
other technologies to enhance your teaching. You can display your
teaching files (PowerPoint, sound files, images), and your course
site or other websites on an LCD projector.

Delivering a Lecture

Lectures may include several different types of delivery.

However, depending on the requirements of any particular
circumstances, a lecture is usually delivered in one of four ways:
Reading from a typed or written manuscript, Reciting memorized
material without the aid of a manuscript, Speaking
extemporaneously from an outline, and Speaking impromptu
without preparation.

The teaching lecture is probably best delivered in an

extemporaneous manner. The instructor speaks from a mental or
written outline, but does not read or memorize the material to be
presented. Because the exact words to express an idea are
spontaneous, the lecture is more personalized than one that is read
or spoken from memory.

Learn how not to read your lectures. At its best, lecturing

resembles a natural, spontaneous conversation between instructor
and student, with each student feeling as though the instructor is
speaking to an audience of one. If you read your lectures, however,
there will be no dialogue and the lecture will seem formal, stilted,
and distant.

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 Avoid a “cold start.” Go to class a little early and talk
informally with students. Make the presentation appear to be
interactive, engaging and a discussion. Ask rhetorical questions
Survey the audience with powerful trigger questions . Feed forward
structuring message; Grab students’ attention with your opening.
Open with a provocative question, startling statement, unusual
analogy, striking example, personal anecdote, dramatic contrast,
powerful quote, short questionnaire, demonstration, or mention of a
recent news event.

Begin by writing out the main theme and why students should
learn about it. Identify what you most want your students to
remember about the topic. Announce the objectives for the class.
Tell your students what you expect to accomplish during the class,
or list your objectives on the board. Place the day’s lecture in
context by linking it to material from earlier session. The purpose
should describe in general terms what the students will learn during
the lecture.

During class, think about and watch your audience-your

students. Focus on your students as if you were talking to a small
group. One-on-one eye contact will increase students’ attentiveness
and help you observe their facial expressions and physical
movements for signs that you are speaking too slowly or too
quickly, or need to provide another example. A common mistake
lecturers make is to become so absorbed in the material that they
fail to notice whether students are paying attention or not.

Vary your delivery to keep students’ attention. Keeping

students’ attention is among the most important facets of helping
them To extend students’ attention spans Ask questions at
strategic points or ask for comments or opinions about the subject.

Make the organization of your lecture explicit. Put an outline

on the board before you begin, outline the development of ideas as
they occur, or give students a handout of your major points or
topics. Outlines help students focus on the progression of the
material and also help them take better notes. If their attention
does wander, students can more readily catch up with the lecture if
they have an outline in front of them.

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 Convey your own enthusiasm for the material. Think back to
what inspired you as an undergraduate or to the reasons you
entered the field you are in. Even if you have little interest in a
particular topic, try to come up with a new way of looking at it and
do what you can to stimulate students’ enthusiasm.

Be conversational. Use conversational inflections and tones,

varying your pitch just as you do in ordinary conversation. If you
focus on the meaning of what you are saying, you’ll instinctively
become more expressive. Choose informal language, and try to be
natural and direct. Establish rapport with your students. Warmth
and rapport have a positive effect on any audience. Students will
feel more engaged in the class if the opening minutes are personal,
direct, and conversational.

Use verbal support . A comparison is used to bridge the known

and the unknown clarify a new subject idea, or situation by showing
how it resembles a familiar subject. Comparison may be factual or
imaginary. An example of an imaginary comparison is called an
analogy. An analogy uses a story or incident with a point that
parallels the point that the communicator wants to make. The
analogy does not prove a point, but helps to dramatize it.

Use Statistics and Testimonies Statistics and Testimonies can

be used to clarify or amplify a point, but must be used sparingly and
wisely. They should be in terms that are easily understood, and
unless there is good reason for giving exact statistical figures,
round numbers should be used.

Story Telling. Story telling helps make your presentation

believable and conveys your human side. Incorporate anecdotes and
stories into your lecture. When you are in a storytelling mode, your
voice becomes conversational and your face more expressive, and
students tend to listen more closely. Use anecdotes to illustrate
your key points.

Maintain eye contact with the class. Look directly at your

students one at a time to give them a sense that you are speaking
to each individual. Look at a student for three to five seconds – a
longer glance will make most students uncomfortable. Beware of
aimless scanning or swinging your head back and forth.

Page 96 of 108
 Use Suitable Language In the teaching lecture, simple rather
than complex words should be used whenever possible. Picturesque
slang and free-and-easy colloquialisms, if they suit the subject, can
add variety and vividness to a teaching lecture. If the subject
matter includes technical terms, the instructor should clearly define
each one so that no student is in doubt about its meaning.
Whenever possible, the instructor should use specific rather than
general words.
Unless long sentences are carefully constructed, they are difficult
to follow and can easily become tangled. To ensure clarity and
variety, the instructor should normally use sentences of short and
medium length.

Use concrete, simple, colorful language. Use first-person and

second-person pronouns (I, we, you). Choose dramatic adjectives,
for example, “vital point” rather than “main point” or “provocative
issue” rather than “next issue.” If you need to use technical
language, provide definitions or a glossary handout to facilitate
communication. In order to facilitate impact and effectiveness of
presentations it is important to keep your language clear, concise
and compelling.

Use the make me feel important (MMFI) rule to find unique

ways to connect with the audience. Create a psychological safe
climate; build closeness and openness by using people’s names,
nodding your head, looking people in the eye with one thought
rather than scanning the room. Laugh at yourself when you make a
mistake. If you mispronounce a word or drop your notes, your ability
to see the humor of the situation will put everyone at ease. Don’t let
your confidence be shaken by minor mistakes.

Vary the pace at which you speak. Students need time to

assimilate new information and to take notes, but if you speak too
slowly, they may become bored. Try to vary the pace to suit your
own style, your message, and your audience. Vary your voice.
Consider the pitch, volume, duration of words, intonation, and the
intensity of your voice.

Loudness Too soft and the audience cannot hear you. Too loud
and they will not want to. Of the two, too loud is preferable, but
somewhere in the middle is “just right.”Rate Speaking too fast does
not give students time to digest what is being said. Too slow puts
them to sleep.

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 Intonation , Intonation is the range of your voice. Some
speakers are monotone, which tends to be boring. On the other
hand, some speakers are too histrionic, which tends to become
tiresome. Stress and inflection are related to intonation but they are
not the same. Stress is how you emphasize an important point or
issue, which can be applied by slowing speech, stopping, spelling a
word out, repeating a phrase.

Pause. “This is the really important consideration,” and pause

again before proceeding. Watch out for vocalized pauses. Try to
avoid saying “um,” “well,” “you know,” “OK,” or “so.” Silent pauses
are more effective. Pauses are used both to stress a point and to
allow students time to think and catch up. A pause can be used to
gain attention, for transition to a new event, to give students time
to catch up with an illustration, or to take notes.

Don’t plan to lecture for a full period. The average student’s

attention span is between ten and twenty minute. After that,
students have difficulty concentrating on the speaker. For each
lecture, plan to change the pace every fifteen minutes or so to
relieve the monotony and recapture students’ interest.

Budget your own time carefully. Teaching a large lecture class

takes a great deal of time and energy Set up weekly work schedules
for yourself so that you are prepared for the onslaught of midterms
and finals. Find ways to scale back other obligations, if you can, so
that you have time to deal with the complexities of teaching such
courses Keep track of time.

Use Body Gestures Two extremes of gesturing are: none and

wild. Gestures and movement convey a sense of comfort with the
material. They can be used along with vocal variation to stress the
importance of something, or simply to point out an important part of
a visual.

Adopt a natural speaking stance. Breathe normally. Normal

breathing prevents vocal strain that affects the pitch and quality of
your speech. Keep your shoulders relaxed, your neck loose, your
eyes fully open, and your jaw relaxed. Balance yourself on both feet
with your toes and heels on the ground. Beware of shifting
movements or unconscious rocking to and from. Keep your knees

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slightly relaxed. Shoulders should be down and loose, with elbows
cocked, and your hands at waist level.

Use facial expressions to convey emotions. If you appear

enthusiastic and eager to tell students what you know they are
more likely to be enthusiastic about hearing it. Use your facial
features: eyes, eyebrows, forehead, mouth, and jaw to convey
enthusiasm, conviction, curiosity, and thoughtfulness

Use Movement to emphasize an important point or to lead into

a new topic Two extremes of movement are: clutching the podium
and pacing the room. Both are distracting to the communication
process. Movement should be a natural flow, from the podium to the
board to the audience. Another consideration is your position in the
room. Changing location causes the students to refocus their
attention, and can keep students alert.

Use movements to hold Students’ attention. A moving object is

more compelling than a static one. Occasionally, move about the
room. Use deliberate, purposeful, sustained gestures: hold up an
object, roll up your sleeves. To invite students’ questions, adopt an
open, casual stance. Beware of nervous foot shifting, however, and
aimless, distracting gestures.

Use Graphics The biggest problems with graphics are that

they are usually too small to read and contain too much material.
Keep graphics simple and large. Discuss the graphic in your lecture.
A graphic that is not referenced during the lecture is not much help

To aid memory, use visual illustrations during a lecture.

Visual illustrations are remembered longer than verbal information,
and they can aid the recall of information that is associated with
them. Many classrooms are equipped with technology that will
help you add other dimensions to your lecture.

The use of real objects can increase attention, particularly if

they are passed around the room. Remember to pause, giving
students time to look at them.

Use PowerPoint and Slide ware Presentation

Many instructors find PowerPoint useful in enhancing lectures

and emphasizing key point to their students. However, misuse and

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overuse of this software can lead to a room full of bored looks and
glassy stares. PowerPoint is a visual medium. Use graphics,
pictures, models, and other images instead of bullets to make your
point whenever possible. In PowerPoint, less can be more. Think
big, bold, and brief. Do not put large amounts of text on the screen.
Aim for no more than seven lines per slide and ruthlessly edit so
that your bullets contain only the main points.

Develop Listening Skills

To prevent students from sinking into passive listening, also

engage students’ active listening skills by interspersing questions
throughout your lecture.

Good discussion questions get the students’ attention. Start

by asking a question associated with something they should have
read – not a recall question, but perhaps one on a controversial
topic. Start with a divergent question such as, “What are the criteria
for evaluating good teaching?” Write the first answer on the board.
Ask for another. When you have ten or so criteria, ask the class
which is the single best criteria and why? Who has a different
opinion? Do not ask recall questions that have a single correct
answer unless you are going to do something with the response.
Ask the question, and then call on a student to answer it. If you
identify the student first, the rest of the class is off the hook, and
they may pay less attention.

Closing the Lecture

Tell them what you told them. Studies have shown that
students are thinking about leaving, and assimilation of new
information is at its lowest point. Instead, have students jot down
the most important thing they learned, or a question they would like
answered about the day’s lecture, or have them answer a single
question over the lesson material. In the words of Howard Gardner
(2000), “In a lecture, less is more.” It is very easy to present too
much information, which quickly saturates students, causing them
to drop into a passive-listening role.They may understand what is
being said, but they are not retaining it

Ask the students for questions. This gives students an

opportunity to clarify their understanding of the content. . Several
questions which focus on the main points of the content may be
used to summarize the content of the lecture. Ensure all answers

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have been given and offer an outlet to clarify questions that may
occur at a later date. Ask for additional questions.

Draw some conclusion for the class. Help students see that a
purpose has been served, that something has been gained during
the last hour. A well-planned conclusion rounds out the
presentation, ties up loose ends, suggests ways for students to
follow up on the lecture, and gives students a sense of closure. Use
a transparency, slide or flipchart to review the summary points

Finish forcefully. Don’t allow your lecture to trail off or end in

midsentence because the period is over, and avoid the last-minute
“Oh, I almost forgot. . .” An impressive ending will echo in students’
minds and prompt them to prepare for the next meeting. End with a
thought-provoking question or problem; a quotation that sets an
essential theme; a summation of the major issue as students now
understand it, having had the benefit’ of the lecture just delivered;
or a preview of coming attractions. End your lecture with the
volume up. Make your voice strong, lift your chin up, keep your eyes
facing the audience. Be sure to stay after class for a few minutes to
answer students’ questions.

Strengths of Lecture strategy

The advantages of the lecture approach are that it provides a

way to communicate a large amount of information to many
listeners, maximizes lecturer control and is non-threatening to
students.

The lecture offers the opportunity to deliver a great deal of

information to a small or large number of learners while using the
teacher’s time efficiently. The teacher can help the students to pull
information together, understand it better, or organize it in a way
that allows the learner to know when he can and can’t use it.

A lecture is a convenient way to instruct large groups. The

lecture method provides for the effective use of time and manpower
in that the instructor can present many ideas to a large group in a
relatively short period of time. Also, the lecture method can be used
to supplement other methods of instruction.

Lectures can be used to present information that would be

difficult for the student to get in other ways, particularly if the

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students do not have the time required for research, or if they do
not have access to reference material. Lectures also can usefully
and successfully supplement other teaching devices and methods.
A brief introductory lecture can give direction and purpose to a
demonstration or prepare students for a discussion by telling them
something about the subject matter to be covered.

In a lecture, the instructor can present many ideas in a

relatively short time. Facts and ideas that have been logically
organized can be concisely presented in rapid sequence. Lecturing
is unquestionably the most economical of all teaching methods in
terms of the time required to present a given amount of material.

The lecture is particularly suitable for introducing a new

subject and for explaining the necessary back- ground information.
By using a lecture in this way, the instructor can offer students with
varied back- grounds a common understanding of essential
principles and facts.

Lectures are best suited for making information memorable;

that is, lectures provide elaboration of content, examples, and
context. Also, because texts often lag behind current knowledge,
lectures are valuable methods for presenting new information.

Weaknesses and Problems

Lectures can be informative, boring and overwhelming

depending on the compelling nature of the message and the
presenter’s style and clarity of message. The lecture method usually
is one-way communication and allows for little or none audience
participation. The result is audience misunderstanding, loss of
information and poor retention.

Too often the lecture inhibits student participation and, as a

consequence, many students willingly let the instructor do all the
work. Learning is an active process, and the lecture method tends
to foster passiveness and teacher-dependence on the part of the
students. As a teaching method, the lecture does not bring about
maximum attainment of certain types of learning outcomes. Motor
skills, for example, can seldom be learned by listening to a lecture.

The lecture does not easily allow the instructor to estimate

the students’ understanding as the material is covered. Within a

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single period, the instructor may unwittingly present more
information than students can absorb, and the lecture method
provides no accurate means of checking student progress.

The major struggle faced by the lecturer is to keep the

students actively involved. Passive listening rarely promotes
learning. Many instructors find it difficult to hold the attention of all
students in a lecture throughout the class period. To achieve
desired learning outcomes through the lecture method, an
instructor needs considerable skill in speaking.

The lecture method limits the amount of student participation.

A lecture is inadequate for teaching hands-on skills and it is not an
effective method for maintaining student interest.

Lecturing minimizes feedback from students, assumes an

unrealistic level of student understanding and comprehension, and
often disengages students from the learning process causing
information to be quickly forgotten

Students strong in learning styles other than auditory learning

will have a harder time being engaged by lectures. Students who
are weak in note-taking skills will have trouble understanding what
they should remember from lectures. Students can find lectures
boring causing them to lose interest. Students may not feel that
they are able to ask questions as they arise during lectures.
Teachers may not get a real feel for how much students are
understanding because there is not that much opportunity for
exchanges during lectures.

Lectures are one tool in a teacher’s arsenal of teaching

methods. Just as with all the other tools, it should only be used
when most appropriate (http://www.vkmaheshwari.com/WP/?
p=2435).

SIMULATION

Experiential learning such as simulation has been promoted as

a means to challenge student's misconceptions (McClintock, 2000).
Experiential learning encourages higher-order learning, which
promotes critical thinking abilities and self-directed learning
(Kreber, 2001). Hakeem (2001) found that students involved in
experiential learning have a greater understanding of their subject

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matter than students in a traditional lecture-only class. Rocha
(2000) reported that students enrolled in classes where experiential
learning methods are used perceived themselves as more
competent practitioners than students in classes without these
methods. One form of experiential learning used in educational and
community settings is simulations, engaging an audience in active
learning where participants learn from each other, not just from the
“sage on the stage” (Dorn, 1989). In business-related classes,
simulations have been used to model international trade (Truscott,
Rustogi, &Young, 2000) and the development of business
enterprises (Goosen, Jensen, & Wells, 2001). In family life
education, they have been used to illustrate divorced and remarried
families (Crosbie-Burnett & Eisen, 1992) and interactions between
partners (Osmond, 1979). Social science courses studying
institutions and individuals have simulated life in mental hospitals
(Claiborn & Lemberg, 1974), and in prison (Haney, Banks, &
Zimbardo, 1973).
For teaching about poverty, Jessup (2001) maintains that:
“Simulations are also more effective than conventional teaching
methods at emphasizing abstract concepts over factual information,
engendering empathy, and serving as a reference for ongoing
discussions regarding social inequality” (p.103).

Implementation

Three elements are necessary for effective simulations;

preparation, active student participation, and post-simulation
debrief.

• Preparation: Although instructional simulations can be very

effective in encouraging student’s engagement, many
simulations require intensive pre-simulation lesson preparation.
Preparation varies with the type and complexity of the
simulation. Most simulation creators suggest that simulations
are best when:

• Simulations are tied to the course goals.

• Facilitators read ALL the supporting material for the
simulation.
• Facilitators do a trial run or participate in the simulation
before assigning the simulation to students, when
possible.

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 • Facilitators make sure that university facilities support
the simulation when facilities are needed.
• Instructors integrate instructional simulations with other
pedagogies such as cooperative learning.
• Instructors should anticipate ways the simulation can go
wrong and include this in their pre-simulation discussion
with the class.

• Active Student Participation: Effective learning comes

through simulations when students are actively engaged.
• Students should predict and explain the outcome they
expect the simulation to generate.
• Every effort should be made to make it difficult for
students to become passive during the simulation. Every
student must assume a role that they may or may not
know before the simulation. Often it is not known until the
simulation.

• Post-Simulation Debrief: Post-simulation discussion with

students leads to deeper learning. The instructor should:
• Provide sufficient time for students to reflect on and
discuss what they learned from the simulation.
• Prepare question to ask during the debrief to ensure
students see alignment between the simulation and the
course goals.

Although this Teaching Tool describes face-to-face simulation,

this may not always be possible. The following online simulations
may be helpful (https://www.kent.edu/ctl/simulation-teaching-
strategy).

FIELD TRIP

Field trip is one of the major constructivist methods of

teaching and learning. The teaching strategy is student-centered
and students-directed. Teachers simply facilitate the learning task.
The method allows the learner to learn through participation and
observation in the learning process. Through interaction with
others, learners come to understand what is being learned in the
permanent way. This attempt is to shift from teacher centered to
learner-centered mode of teaching Field trips are far from new.
Teachers have been incorporating them into their teaching methods
for years because they enable students to experience the real that

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is physical world (https://project-house.net/the-effects-of-field-trip-on-the-teaching-
and-learning-of-geography-in-limbe-1-municipality/).

Although field trips are governed by the policies imposed by

each educational institution, the following are general principles
which are helpful in planning, conducting and assessing field trips.

The entire field trip must be well planned with an emphasis on

education value and safety. Adequate supervision must be provided.
The ratio of students to adults varies according to the age of the
students and the trip. Parental approval must be secured prior to
the field trip. The types of acceptable field trips are defined below.

On Campus

• Pre-planned

a. Any pre-arranged location on campus is acceptable that can be

reached by walking.

• Spontaneous

A. Events that may occur spontaneously on campus can enhance

student’s learning. When teachers become aware of these events, it
can be a great opportunity for a spontaneous field trip and teaching
tool. Construction activities, migrating geese or ducks, helicopter
landings are some examples.

• Virtual in-class

c. Digital media can be used to bring the world into the classroom.
Video conferencing is an excellent way for students to experience
locations that may be otherwise unreachable. Some examples are
video web feeds of jungles, cities, farms or volcanoes. Programs
such as Skype can connect classrooms and people across the
country or the world by introducing students to different cultures
and experiences.

Off Campus

• Pre-planned walking

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a. Locations off campus that can be easily reached by walking are
acceptable. There must be at least a one teacher per six students
(ratio of 1 to 6). Sidewalks and crosswalks must be available and
used to insure the safety of the group.
b. No spontaneous off campus field trips are allowed.
c. At present there is no funding available for busing students off
campus.

Trip Selection

• There is no limit to the number of field trips that can be taken

during the school year.
• The objectives and purpose of the field trip must address the
curriculum and study topic.
• Field trips should be coordinated with other teachers to ensure
that field trip locations are not being over-used throughout the
school year.
• Final approval for the field trip must be obtained from the
supervising teacher/director.
• A visit to the site is required before the field trip to become
familiarized with the location.

Planning

• The teacher responsible for the field trip should contact the
appropriate individual at the site to arrange the actual date and
time(s) and obtain appropriate information necessary for the field
trip.
• Field Trip Authorization is stipulated in the child’s contract at the
time of enrollment.
• A parent newsletter and signup sheet must include the following
information: time and date, location and contact information.
• Emergency cards for all students must be completed and carried
by teachers in the field trip bag.
• Alternate arrangements for pupils not attending the field trip must
be made.
• Teachers planning a field trip shall inform other teachers about
the trip if their schedules will be affected.
• Arrangements for other adults should be made well in advance of
the activity.

Conducting the Trip

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• Personal child name tags must be removed and replaced with a
field trip tag that includes school contact information.
• School funds will be used for any paid activities.

On the day of the trip:

o Divide Class into small groups and assign adults to each group.
Ratio must be no larger than 1 to 6.
o Take field trip bag with emergency cards, first aid kit and any
other necessary supplies.
• During the trip, make sure students have ample time to observe,
ask questions, and work on assignments.
• Immediately after the field trip teachers capitalize on what
learning has taken place and make a thank you note when
appropriate.
• The teacher should evaluate the field trip within 48 hours after its
completion (https://www.weber.edu/WSUImages/COE/Charter
%20Procedures/Field%20Trip.pdf).

How much have you learned?

1. Recite the principles each embedded in the approaches or

strategies discussed.

2. Discuss the differences between the approaches or

strategies discussed.

How do you apply what you have learned?

1. Pick one topic in culture or geography and construct a plan

on how you are to present the subject matter to the learners using
any one of the discussed approaches/strategies.

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