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35 views82 pagesEIOT Upto 3unit
Uploaded by
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 82
SYLLABUS
ve €S3691 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS AND IOT
"UNIT I 8-BIT EMBEDDED PROCESSOR
8-Bit Microcontroller — Architecture - Instruction Set and Programming —
Programming Parallel Ports - Timers and Serial Port - Interrupt Handling,
UNIT II EMBEDDED C PROGRAMMING
Memory And 1/O Devices Interfacing ~ Programming Embedded Systems i
C- Need For RTOS - Multiple Tasks and Processes - Context Switching -
Priority Based Scheduling Policies.
UNIT III IOT AND ARDUINO PROGRAMMING
Introduction to the Concept of IoT Devices - IoT Devices Versus Computers
= IoT Configurations — Basic Components ~ Introduction to Arduino ~ Types
“of Arduino - Arduino Toolchain ~ Arduino Programming Structure - Sketches
= Pins — Input/Output From Pins Using Sketches ~ Introduction to Arduino
Shields - Integration of Sensors and Actuators with Arduino.
Communication Models and APIs - loT Communication Protocols -
tooth = WiFi ~ ZigBee ~ GPS - GSM modules — Open Platform (like
ing ~ Accessing GPIO
~ Connecting to the
of Embedded Systems — Develo,
pment of
ion — Smart Agriculture ~ Smart IoT Applications
Cities ~ smart Healthcare.
UNIT-I: 8 BIT EMBEDDED PROCESSOR ..
Introduction to Embedded Systems
Ll
12
13
“14
2
3
12.1
1.22
Instruction Set and Programming
1.4.1 Data Transfer Instructions.
1.4.2 Arithmetic Instructions
1.4.3 Logical Instructions.
1.4.4 Logical Instructions
1.4.5. Boolean or Bit Manipulation Instructio
1.4.6. Program Branching Instructions
1.4.7, Instructions and Progranis
1.4.8 BCD Number System
CONTENT
Key Characteristies of Embedded System
Applications of Embedded System
Oscillator and Clock
‘Address, Data & Control Bus a Embedded Systems and lor
C2
1,5 Programming Parallel Ports...
Port 0
Port
Port 2
Port . es
1.5.5 Programming the Ports of 8051
1.6 Timers and Serial Port .
1.6.1. Timers...
1 Timer Mode
1.6.1.2 Counter Mode
1,3 TMOD Register
1.6.2. Serial Port
1.6.2.1 Seri
1.6.2.2 RS 232 Standards
1.6.2.3 MAX232.
1.6.2.4 8051 Ser
Interrupt Handling...
‘Communication
Port Programming.
LT
1.7.3. Interrupt Priority Register (IP).
UNIT-II : EMBEDDED C PROGRAMMING ....
2.1 Memory and 1/0 Devices Interficing .
2.1.1 Memory Interfacing.
2.1.2 UO Devices Interfacing
2.1.2.1 LED - Light Emitting Diode...
2.1.2.2 7—Segment Display.
.2 Programming Embedded Systems in C
.3\. Need for RTOS.
Content C3
(eh a ee
2.4 Multiple Tasks and Mi
2.4.1 Task:
2.4.2 Processes
le Processes...
2.5. Context Swi ;
2.6 Priority Based Scheduling Policies....
2.6.1. Preemptive Priori
2.6.2 Non Preemptive Priority Schedul
UNIT- III: IOTAND ARDUINO PROGRAMMING.
3.1 Introduction to loT Devices.
3.1
3.1.2
3.13
3.1.4 Challenges and Considerations ..
3.1.5 ToT Devices Vs. Computers:
Introduction to Computers
Understanding IoT Devices
Funk
jonality and Purpose ..
Computing Power and Resources ..
32
Distributed 1oT Configuration
Edge Computing Configuration.
Hybrid loT Configuration..
Considerations for loT Configurations.. & Embedded Systems and lor
3,3. Components of loT
33.1 Introduction to loT Components
33.2. Sensofs and Actuators
33.3. Connectivity Technologies
33.4 DataProcessing and Analyti
3.3.5. Communication Protocols
3.3.6 Security and Privacy Measure
3.4 Introduction to Arduino..
3.4.1 Examining the Arduino Ar
3411
tecture
‘The ATmega AVR Microcontt
35
3.5.2 Arduino Mega
3.33. Arduino Micro
3.5.4 Arduino Leonard.
3.55. Arduino Nano.....
3.5.6 » Arduino Due
3.5.7 Arduino Pro Mini
3.5.8 Arduino Esplora..
3.5.9 Arduino Yon
3.5.10 Arduino Ethemet.
3.6
37
3.8 Introduction to Arduino SI
3.8.1 Exploring Arduino Shields
3.8.2 Connecting with the Ethemet Shield...
content
3,9 Arduino program structure and execution-sketche:
3.10 VO pin setuy
3.10.1 Comy
3.10.2 Commonly used in-b
ling, Loading and Running a Sketch .
C Sketch Functions
3.11 Input/Output from pins using sketches...
UsingaS
3.11.2 Usinga Switch
43.12. Integration of sensors and Actuators with Arduino
Interfacing of a humidity and temperature sensor
with your Arduino boar
3.12.2 Integration of a Motor Based Actuator.
UNIT- IV : IOT COMMUNICATION AND OPEN PLATFORMS ..4.1 ~ 4.63
4.1 10T Communication Models and API
IOT Communication Models
2. WebSocket-based commu
4.2. 10T Communications protocols:
4,3 Bluetooth
4.3.1 Bluetooth Architecture
4.3.2 Bluctooth Protocol
44 WiFi
44.1 IEEE 802.11 Architecture
4.4.2. Frame Format of IEEE 80:
4.4.3 IEEE 802 Protocol Architecture
4.4.4 IEEE 802.11 Serviees.. Embedded Systems and toy
coe ES
‘Types of ZigBee Devices
General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard ..
Operating Frequency Band
Zigbee Topologies.
Zigbee protocol architecture
4.5.6 Zigbee Addressing Mode...
4.6 Comparison of Zigbee, Bluetooth, and Wi
4.7 Raspberry’
4.8 Raspberry Pi Architecture.
4.9 Accessing Raspberry Pi’s GPIO
4.40
441
483
443
oo 448
oe 48
4.49
4.53
4.10. Raspberry Pi interfaces.
4,11 Sending and Receive signals using GPIO pis.
4.12. Programming Raspberry Pi with Python ..
4.12.1 Controlling LED with Raspberry]
4.12.2 Interfacing an LED and switch with Raspberry Pi
4.12.3 Interfacing a Light Sensor (LDR)
4.13 Connecting to the cloud
4.14 The GSM module
4.14.1 Extended Coverage GSM for Internet of Things 458
4.15 Global Positioning System 4.60
UNIT-V: APPLICATIONS DEVELOPMEN 1-524
5.1 Complete Design of Embedded Systems
‘What Is an Embedded System?
An Introduction to Embedded Systems Ai
3. The Embedded Systems Model...
lopment of loT App!
Content
pect
5.3 HomeAutomationusingloT
5.3.1 Appl
5.3.2. Home Automation Component
ions ofhome automat
5.3.3 Home Automation Protocol
5.3.4 Home Automation: Which Protocol is the Best?
5.3.5 Home Auto:
5.3.6 Home Auto:
5.3.7 Home Auto:
5.4 Smart Agriculture
5.4.1 What is Smart Agriculture?
5.4.2 Howto Utilize Al for Yield Predi
‘Two Marks Question and Answer
‘Model Question Paper A) 8 BIT EMBEDDED PROCESSOR
7 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
4.4.1 Definition
‘An embedded system is a specialized computer system designed to perform specific
integration into a larger
designed to perform dedicated
tasks and often operates in e, meaning it must respond to inputs and produce
outputs within strict time constraints.
‘The hardware components of an embedded system typically include a microcontroller
‘or microprocessor, memory, input/output interfaces, and various sensors and actuators.
‘The software running on the embedded system is responsible for controlling the hardware,
executing specific tasks, and interacting with the larger system.
Figs1.1 Embedded Systems Embedded Systems and IoT
12
ted resources (e.t.
ime responsiveness,
ints during the design and
nemory,
‘has.
[Embedded systems often have constraints suc
processing power), power efficiency requirements, and re
Therefore, developers need to careful
phases to meet the system's speci
y consider these const
ns.
4.4.2 Key Characteristics of Embedded System
“The key characteristics of embedded systems include:
ed resources: Embedded systems often have
‘memory, storage, and energy resources compared to general-purpose computers,
in these constraints
‘They are designed to operate efficiently wit
4, Hardware-softwar
of hardware and software components. The software is specifically
lowing for optimal
integr
developed to run on the embedded hardware platform,
performance and efficiency.
5. Reliability; Embedded systems often need to operate reliably over extended periods
without failures. They are built with robustness and fa
stable operation.
1.1.3 Applications of Embedded System
Embedded systems can be found ina wide range of appl
electronics, automotive systems, medical devices, industrial automation, aerospace and
defense systems,and more. They are used to control and monitor vari
-
embedded Processor 13
Examples of embedded systems include microcontrollers in household ap
e pacemakers, industrial
\s
‘automotive engine control units (ECUs), medical devices
ess control systems, and smart home automa
n syst
proc
‘of systems and devices. They br
ions, contributing to enhanced ef
a
72 6-BIT MICROCONTROLLER
1.2 B-BIT MICROCONTROUER
ler is a type of microcontroller that has an 8-
fed circuit that combines a microprocessor core, memory, and various peripherals.
he width ofthe data bus, which determines
>. The 8-bit designation refers
the size of data that can be processed by the microcontroller ina single operation.
4.2.1 8051 Microcontroller
versati
sophisticated real
provides extra features like interrupts, bit addressability,
‘and computer peripherals.
very powerful and cost effective.
‘and anenhanced set of instructions which make the
1.2.2 Features of 8051 Microcontroller
+ sbi CPU
+) On-chip oscillator
+ 4KBof ROM (Program memory)
+ 128 bytes of RAM (Data memory)
+ 21 Special function registers
32 1/0 lines (Ports PO to P3) Embedded Systems and IOT
15
g Bit Embedded Processor
is.embedded Processor
G4 KB address space for external data memory «
4.3.4 CPU Core
«G4 KBaddress space for program memory :
Y Accumulator: The 8051 has a single 8.
itaccumulator (ACC) used for arithmetic
ter A, is used for all arithmetic and
ofeach calculation
main memory. Accesso
ke the accumulator because the
main memory is slower than access toa registe
: technology used forthe large main memoryis slower (but cheaper) than the technology
7.3 ARCHITECTURE
sture of the 8051 microcontt
thas separate program memory and data memory. -
banl
used fora register.
ide
Register Banks/ The “R” Registers: . A total of 32 bytes of RAM are set
for the register banks and the stack. These 32 bytes are divided into fourregister
which each bank has 8 registers, RO-R7. RAM locations from 0 to 7 are
ide for bank 0 of RO-R7 where RO is RAM location 0, R1 is RAM location
set
extemal
1, R2is location 2, and so on, until the memory location 7, which belongs toR7 of *
oncnP
ee bank 0:The 8051 has four register banks (RO-R7), each containing eight 8-bit general-
ose ORAM purpose registers. These registers function as auxiliary or temporary storage registers
(akoytes) (126 oon) in many operations.
: Tntemal bus. 127 7FH
t Direct 8a 20
ee peal addressing.
7 (Bi
TT TT mr hres
PFT urpieres 9 PT FP PS 2480 oH
- dataladdress nl
aun Higher orde J L, Register 16 B9 0 Ke
ormay 1.0562 Mz biger ede al etona eae 104
7 Bank 4
ig: 1.2 Architecture of 8051 Microcontrol ler 7 Bank 0
9 Ro____toont
The architecture of the 8051 microcontroller is based on the Harvard architecture.
Which means it has separate program memory and Fig:1.3 Register Bank of 8051 Microcontroller Embedded Systems and IoT
yp ere
v
B~Register: The “B”
it may hold an 8- bi
-pisteris very si
byte) value. The
instructions: MULAB and DIV AB, To quickly and e
another number, you may store the other number in’
instructions. Apart from using MUL and DIV instr
used as yet another temporary storage register, much
to the Accumulator in the sense that
is used only by two 8051
Data Pointer (DPTR): The Data Pointer (DPTR) is the 8051's only user-accessible
16-bit (2-byte) register. The Accumulator, RO-R7 rej
1 -byte registers. DPTR is meant for poi
access external memory using the addre:
rs and B register are
used by the 8051 to
indicated by DPTR. DPTR is the only
16-bit register available and is often used to store 2-byte values.
ng to data. It
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): It performs arithmetic and logical operations on
data stored in the accumulator or other registers.
Program Status Word (PSW):
Bit no. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 oO
Psw ey | ac | Fo [ rst | rso [| ov | x P
P= Odd Panty Flag
FO = User Flag 0
St Rso
0 0 bank 0
0 1 bank 4
1 ° bank 2
1 1 bank 3
information about the current
‘State of the ALU operation of microcontroller and influences
Here are the components of the PSW in the 805 1 architecture:
£
g Bit Embedded Processor 7
1), (Carry Flag (CY): The Carry flag is used to indicate carry or borrow conditions
during arithmetic and logical operations. I
ccan be used form
set when a carry or borrow occurs and
te arithmetic operations.
2. Auxiliary Carry Flag (AC): The Auxiliary Carry flag is used in BCD (Binary Coded
Decimal) arithmetic operations. It indicates acary from bit 3 to bit 4 during addition
‘ora borrow from bit 4to bit3 during subtraction.
3, Overflow Flag (OV): The Overflow flagis used to indicate signed arithmetic overflow
conditions. Itis set when the result ofa signed arithmetic operation exceeds the
range of asigned value.
4. Parity Flag (P):
of the last operat
i Parity flag indicates the party of the accumulator or the result
set ifthe number of set bits in the accumulator or the result
is odd,
is even and cleared if
5, Register Bank Select (RSI and RS0): The Register Bank Select bits are used to
select one of the four register banks in the 8051 microcontroller. The register bank
determines which set of eight registers (RO-R7) is currently accessible.
6. User flag 0 Bit (F0): The User-defined bit can be used by the programmer for any
purpose. They can be set or cleared as needed.
‘The PSW register can be accessed like any other register in the 8051 microcontroller.
Instructions are available to manipulate the individual bts or the entire PSW register. For
example, the INC (Jump if No Carry) instruction can be used to conditionally jump
based on the state of the Carry flag.
“The PSW is essential for managing control flow, arithmetic operations, and decision-
‘making in the 8051 microcontroller. Itallows programmers to react to various conditions
and take appropriate actions based on the status flags and control bits it provides.
¥ Program Counter (PC): The Program Counter (PC) isa register to store a2-byte
address which tells the 8051 where from the next instruction to be executed can be
found (in the memory). PC starts at 0000h when the 8051 initializes and is
incremented every time after an instruction is executed. P
by 1. Some instructions may require 2 or 3 byte:
isnotalways incremented
such eases, the PC will be
incremented by 2 or 3. 7 embedded Systems aid joy
18 ,
i peas oad the Program Counter Wihan adres gg
Not power-onsest will ause al values ng
Cis 0 upon eset, foreing the CPU to fetch y,
means we mst place the fist byte of opcode,
CPU expectsto find the first instruction
Activating a
than the next sequential locati
register tobe lost. Itmeans the value of the
first opcode from the ROM location 0000. I
ROM location 0000 because that is where the
‘except DPTR and PC, may hold an 8-bi
‘rand can address memory addresses of range OOH to FFH. When the conten
led a PUSH operation. When thy
called a POP operation,
content ofa stack is stored in a CPU register,
“The Stack Pointer tells the location from where the next value is to be removed fiom
the stack. When a value is pushed onto the stack, the -value of SP is incremented and then,
the value is stored at the resulting memory location. When a value is popped off the
stack, the value is returned from the memory location indicated by SP, and then the value
of SPis decremented.
This order of operation is important. SP will be
initialized. Ifa value is pushed onto the stack at the
the internal RAM address 08H because the 8051
(Grom 07H to 08H) and then will store the pushed value at that memory address (08H)
‘SPis modified directly by the 8051 by six instructions: PUSH, POP, ACALL, LCALL,
RET, and RETI. It points to the top of the stack, used for storing return addresses and
local variables during subroutine calls. .
1.3.2 Memory
Internal RAM: The 8051 has 128 bytes of on-chip RAM (Internal RAM) fo:
storing data and variables,
Internal Program Memory: The 8051 has 4 KB of on-chip ROM or flash memon}
an aha ares the program instructions. This memory
Scat Program even when power is tamed off. _
ny: The 8051 can access up to 64 KB of external data memory
nal storage requirements,
lized to 07H when the 80:
the value will be sto
first increment the value of SP
¥
g Bit Embedded Processor 19
ea SSSS——SSSS _ 9
1.3.3 VO Ports
The 8051 microcontroller has four 8-1 ional I/O ports (Port 0, Port 1,
Port 2, Port 3) that can be used to interface with external devices. Each port pin can be
‘configured as an input or output,
1.3.4 Timers/Counters
‘The 8051 has two 16-bit timers/counters (Timer O and Timer 1) that can be used for
various timing and counting applications. The timers can operate indifferent modes,
including timer mode, counter mode, or asa baud rate generator for serial communication.
1.3.5 Serial Communication
ted UART (Universal
‘The 8051 supports serial commur
tocommunicate with
Asynchronous Receiver/ Transmitter
other devices using asynchronous serial protocols.
1.3.6 Interrupts
‘The 8051 supports both external and internal interrupts. It has five interrupt sources
that can be individually enabled or disabled. When an interrupt occurs, the microcontroller
the corresponding interrupt service routine,
transfers cont
1.3.7 Oscillator and Clock
XTALI
GND
Fig:1.4 Clocking circuit of 8051 Microcontroller Embedded Systems and 1oy
111
it - Bit Embedded Processor
requires an external ental or ck source foritsoperatig, SLE A CCC
generate the system clock, The 7 Data Transfer Instructions
or pins XTALI and XTAL2 which are provided for connecting
hhavinga frequency range from I MHZ to
Logical Instructions
¥ Boolean or Bit Manipulation Instructions
¥ Program Branching Instructions
8051 has on chip osci
resonant network to from an oscillator crystal
24 MHZ.
1.3.8 Address, Data & Control Bus DATA | ARITHMETIC | LOGICAL | BOOLEAN] PROGRAM
‘The address bus in 8051 microcontrollers is consisting of 16-bit address lines which IrRANSFER| BRANCHING
carrie the 16-bitaddresses of memory locations. is generally be used for transfering © | ADD ANE GR MP
the data from Central Processing Unit to Memory. The 16-bit address bus ae 2 Move ape aan an an
64K (2°16) memory space and a separate 64K byte of data memory space. Whilethe | 0.) cane a Row SIMP
data bus in 8051 microcontrollers is consisting of lines which carries data PUSH INC cunt Ic Z
between processor and other components. Data bus is bidirectional. The control bus BOP Bee con INC JNZ
manages the information flow between various components (ALU, registers, memory, | yy mae mC a ONE
VO etc.) indicating whether the operation is a read or a write and ensuring that the — | yyy) Di RLC INB DINZ
operation happens at the right time. x DAA RR JBC NOP
7.4 INSTRUCTION SET AND PROGRAMMING RRC ANL LCALL
‘ . SWAP ORL ACALL
‘To perform any task by a microprocessor or a microcontroller it is to be programmed con Har:
using specific instructions from its set. Writing a program for any microcontroller is nothing RETI
but giving a set of commands to the microcontroller in particular order in which they se
must be executed in order to perform a specific task. These commands to the
4.4.1 Data Transfer Instructions
‘The Data Transfer Instructions are associated with transfer of data between registers
orexternal program memory or external data memory. The Mnemonics associated wi
computer or microcontroller. 8051 microcontrollers instruction setis also known as M
‘of 8051microcontrollers use 8.
Data Transfer are given below.
v MOV
instruction set can be up to 28 = 256 instruct ions. However, depending upon the types of vy MOVC
instructions (groups) and addressing modes there 49 instruction Mnemonics in the 8051 y¥ MOVX
Microcontroller. These 49 Mnemonics are divided into five groups, aoa
Based on theo they perform, all the instructions inthe 8051 Microcontrollet feel :
Instruction Set are divided into five groups. They are: Bes 0H
¥ XCHD £&
Embedded Systems and Ioy
112 ‘it Embedded Processor aa
Mnemonic Description F Memonic] Instruction Description ‘Adaressing] Not | No. of]
‘MOV Move Data Mode _| Bytes | Cycles
Movc Move Code be DPTR Immediate | 3 2
Mocx Move External Data #Datal6 #Datal6
PUSH. Move Data to Stack jOVC | A@A+ A€ Code pointed Indexed | 1 2
POP Copy Data from Stack DPTR by A+DPTR
XCH Exchange Data between two Registers A@A+PC | A'-Code pointed | Indexed | 1 2
XCHD Exchange Lower Order Data between two Registers by AHPC
“The following table lists outall the possible data transfer instructions along with A@Ri ‘A
OL A, #Data A©AORData__| Immediate | 2 | 1
A.Rn ‘A CAORRn Register | 1 | 1
+ RL A,Direct_| A AOR (Direct) | Direct Zt
+ RLC . A.@Ri ACAt@Ri indirect | 1] 1
fa Direct, A | Direct) < (Direct) OR] — Direct Zag] 2
A
+ RRC Direct,#Data | (Direct)<—(Direct) OR | Direct a] a
+ SWAP #Data
XRL, ata 5
cae Dacription A, #Dat AAXRLData_| Immediate | 2 | 1
A.Rn AC AXRLRa Register | 1 [7
ANL Logical AND ‘A.Direct_| A (SP);ADDR16 - PC
LCALL, TCALL | ADDRIG Tong Subroutine call 3 2
ACALL PC+3-9(SP); ADDRI6->PC
ET jun tine
ae f Ri Return from subrout T 2
> (SP) > PC
: RET ;RETI = Return from Interrupt 1 2
+ IMP ~AmMP_[ADDRI_ + Absolute JumpADDRI6 —> PC 2 2
fiuaaiar UMP [ADDRI6_|~_Long JumpADDRIG > PC 3 z
SUMP Short Jump PC+2+rel—>PC 2 2
LIMP IMP ‘A+DPTR->PC T z
‘AJMP > ‘Absolute Jump (Uncons | [gaz TFA=0, Jump to PC +rel z Z
IMP Short Jump (Unconditional) INZ TFA #0, Jump to PC+el 2
Sang fA oqaal 06 | CINE |A, Direct, rel, | Compare (Direct) withA, 3 2
INZ Jump ifAisnot equal to0 | A, Data, rel Compare # Data with A, 3 z
CINE Compare and Jump if Not Equal | Jump to PC +rel if not equal
DINZ Decrement and Jump ifNot Zero | A, Data, rel Compare #Daa ya Ro s Z
Jump to PC +rel if not equal
‘NOP No Operat
oe K, Data, | rel Compare #Data with @Ri, > | 2
Lea Jump to PC +rel if not equal
ACALL Absolute Cal to Subroutine (Unconditional) DINZ |~ Rayrel Department Rn, 2] 2
RET Retum from Subroutine Jump to PC +relif not Zero
RETI ‘Retum from Interrupt Direct, rel Department (Direct) , 3 2
fae ; Jump to PC+ rel ifnot Zero
lump oan Address (Unconditional) NOP No Operation 7 T dded Systems and Ioy
am ee
4.4.7 Instructions and Programs
Arithmetic Instructions
Addition of Unsigned Numbers
=A+ source
ADDA, source ;
‘The instruction ADD is used to add two operands
nn operand isalways in register
fate data, or in memory
+ Desting
+ Source operand can be a register, immedi
operations are never allowed in 805)
+ Memory-to-memory arithmet
Assembly language
ceris affected by the following instruction
show how the flag rey
MOVA,#0FSH ;A=FS hex
ADDA,#0BH
sA=F5+0B=0
Solution:
FSH. 1111 0101
00001011
0000 0000
& 2. Assume that RAM locations 40— 44H have the following values. Write a program
to find the sum of the values. At the end ofthe program, register A shiould contain the |
low byte and R7 the high byte.
Solution:
40 =(7D)
41 =(EB)
42=(C5)
43 = (5B)
44=(30) f
it Embedded Pr.
Mov RO,#40HR2, #5 load pointer
Mov A sload counter
CLR caso ee
Mov RIA selear R7 's
AGAIN: ADD A,@RO add the byte ptrto by RO ie
INC NEXT CY=0don'tadd carry ¢
INC R7 skeep track of carry
NEXT: INC RO increment 0
pointer DINZ.R2, AGAIN; repeat until R2 is \
zero cea
ADDC and Addition of 16- Bit Numbers a
+ When adding two 16-bit data operands, the propagation ofa carry from lowe?
byte to higher byte is concerned
When the first byte is added
(E7+8D =74, CY =1).
3c £7
+ 3B_8D ‘The carry is propagated to the
7874 higher byte, which result in
3C+3B+1=78 (all in hex)
1.4.8 BCD Number System
¥ — The binary representation of the digits 0 to 9 is called BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
+ Unpacked BCD
+ In unpacked BCD, the lower 4 bits of the number represent the BCD
number, and the rest of the bits are 0
+ Ex, 00001001 and 00000101 are unpacked BCD for 9 and $
+ Packed BCD
+ Inpacked BCD, a single byte has two BCD number in it, one in the lower
the upper 4 bits
packed BCD for 59H
4 bits, and one
+ Ex.0101 1001
nisin 9487 Embedded Systems andig,
|
126
Digit gy2) 8H2) |
0 pool errs |
I go10 1000
2 coll il |
ool
3 2 F
a vs
5 91d |
6 pool |
7 |
8 1000
9 1001
¥? Adding two BCD numbers must give a BCD result
v Mov AK, #17
ADD A,#28H
‘Adding these two
number
¥ Theresult about should have been 17+28=45 (01000101). To correct this problem, |
the programmer must add 6 (0110) to the low di
DA Instruction
DAA; decimal adjust for addition
+ TheDA instructi
with BCD addition
+ TheDA instruction will add 6 to the lower nibble or higher nibble ifneed
Example:
MOVA, 47H
6CH
MOV B,/#25H
72H
not after INC
DA works only after an ADD, but
:3F +06=45 H.
provided to correctthe aforementioned problem associated |
3A=47 H first BCD operand
+ B=2SH second BCD operand
shex (binary) addition (A =6 CH
adjust for BCD addition
(a=rH)
git Embedded Processor
127
ae
‘The “DA” instruction works only on A. In other word, whi
jon must be in register A in order for DA to
operand of any addressing mode, the dest
work.
© Summary of DA instruction
+ Afteran ADD or ADDC instruction
1.
lower 4 bits.
2. Ifthe upper nibble is greater than
the source can be an
f the lower nibble (4 bits) is greater than 9, orifAC=1, add 0110to the
9, or if CY=1, add 0110 to the upper
bits.
HEX BeD
(0010 1001,
+ + 9001 1000
0100 0001 AC=1
+ + ono
47 ‘1000111
AC=l after the
n, “DAA” will add 6 to the lower
nibble, The final result is in BCD format.
GS 3. Assume that 5 BCD data items are stored in RAM locations starting at
40H, as shown below. Write a programto find the sum ofall the numbers.
‘The result must be in BCD.
40= (71)
41s (11)
42= (65)
43= (59)
44= (37) |
embedded Systems and toy
we
Solution:
MOV —RO,#40H —_; Load pointer
MOV R2,#5 jLoadcounter |
CLRA
MOV RIA ear R7
AGAIN: ADD A,@RO add the byte pointer; to by
ROJNCNEXT -C¥=0 don’t; add carry
INC RT ceep track of carries
NEXT: INC’ RO increment pointer
DINZR2, AGAIN repeat until R2 is 0
Subtraction of Unsigned Numbers
¥ _Inmany microprocessors there are two different instructions for subtraction;
SUB and SUBB (subtract with borrow)
* Inthe 8051 we have only SUBB |
+ ‘The 8051 uses adder circuitry to perform the subtraction
SUBB A, source; A= A-source-CY
¥ Tomake SUB out of SUBB, we have to make CY = 0 prior to the execution of the
instruction
+ Notice that we use the CY flag for the borrow
SUB when CY =
1, Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend (source operand)
2. Additto the minuend (A)
3. Invert the carry
CLR Cc
MOV A, #4C jload A with value
4CH SUBB A, #6EH subtract 6E from A
JNC ‘NEXT ifCY=0 jump to
NEXT cPLA 3ifCY=1, take 1’s complement
INC A
i and inerementto get's comp
NEXT:MOV — RLA jsaveAin RI
a Bit Embedded Processor
1.29
Solution:
4c
= OE.
22
CY=0, the result is posi
CY=1, the res
and the dest
2’s complement ofthe result
+ SUBB when CY=1
borrow of the lower operand
CLR C
MOV 4/462H ;A=62H
SUBB A, #96H 62H - 96H = CCH with CY=1
MOV R7,A_ ; save the result
MOV A#271
. #12H; 27H-12H-12H-1 = 14H
Solution:
We have 2762H - 1296H = 14CCH
This instruction is used for multi-byte numbers and will take care of the
Ors
complement
0100 ah
oa] Te
QOinvert carry
A= @2H-96H-0= CCH
A=27H-12H-1= 4HCY= bedded Systems and io,
er
139
Unsigned Mi et
“The 8051 supports byte by bytem ie ick
. Te tyearcasunedio be unset aa UAB By 16-bit
A
Mov A#25H Joad 25Hto ree-A
Mov —-B.#6SH Joad 65H t0re8. B
MUL. AB :25H * 65H= £99 where
;B=OEHand A= 99H
Unsigned Mi jon Summary | (MULAB)
Mulipicaion Operand! Operand2 Result
Byte x byte A B ° B=highbyte
A=lowbyte
Unsigned Division
+ The 8051 supports byte over byte
+ The byte are assumed to be unsigned data
131
g Bit Embedded Processor
Beit Embedded Processor
(a) Weite a program to get hex data in the range of 00 — FFH fromport I and convertit
R7,R6 and RS.
(b)_ Assuming that PI has. value of FDH for data, analyse program.
Solution:
(@)
Mov A#OFFH
Mov PLA smake P1 an input port
Mov APL ead data from PA
Mov ByI0 B=OA hex
DIV AB videby 10,
Mov RIB ssave lower digit,
Mov BAO
DIV AB vide by 10 once more
Mov R6B ve the next di
Mov RSA jsave the last
i by 10 repeatedly until the
MOY A,#95.—_jload 95toreg.A
MOV B#10 load l0toreg. B (b) Toconverta binary (he) valu to dee
DIVAB;Aby BAB = tis less than 10. After each division the remainder is saves
R
DIVAB; divide A by B,A/B
ya ma FD/OA=19 3 (lowdigit)
MOV A,##95. jload95to eg. A 19/0A=2 — S(middledigit)
MOV B#10 ;load10t0 = eg, B 2(ighdigi)
MUL AB; A=09 (quotient) and ‘Therefore, we have FDH = 253.
;B=05 (remainder) a | Signed Arithmetic Instructions
wm Summary (DIV AB), | Signed 8-bit Operands
‘Numerator | Denominator | Quotient | Remainder D7 (MSB) is the sign and DO to D6 are the magnitude of the number
Byte/byte A B in 5 IfD7=0,the operandis pastive, andifD7=1,itisnegatine
> D7] pe ps | p+] ps | p2 | pi _| Do
CYisalways 0 |
IfB # 0,0V=0 Sign [Magnitude
IfB=0, 0V=1 indicates er | : & Embedded *¥StEMs and ig,
pS oe embedle Processor 133
SSS
Positive numbers are 0 to +127 aa 3
: fon (2’s complement) e | Solution: be ° oll
Negative mumberrepresetation @SCOMPIMET a sgn) ae qu ee! ow,
1. Write the magnitude of the number in, ao 9210
+ +70 0100 o110 °
2. Inverteachbit | 06
3. Add Ltoit | E 166° 1010 0110 and OV=1 ye
34H Solution: e | 4 2.
© ‘Show how the 8051 would represent | 0000 0010 According to the CPU, the result is -90, which is wrong. The CPUsets OV=1 to
1. 00110100 —_34H/givenin inary L111 11.0} | indicatethe overflow
2 1100 1011 inate cointey 1! iyo OV Flag
3; 11001100 add 1 (whichis Ao In 8-bit signed number operations, OV is set to 1 if either occurs:
ion of 34 in2's complement is CCH |
jigned number representation of -34 in aatl 1. There isa carry from D6 to D7, but no carry out of D7 (CY= 0)
Decimal aS a 2, There is acarry from D7 out (CY=1), but no carry from D6 to D7
128 1000.00 7m MOV A,i-128—;A=1000_000(A=80H)
"127 1000 0001 eee
| MOV R42 1110(R4=FEH)
7126 1000 0010 82 —
ADD ARS 1110(A=7EH=+126,INVALID)
= - -128 1000 0000
2 T1110, FE 3
1 u FF * a Hn 1110
-130 oul Vet
! E 0 (0000 0000) 00 | 1110 and OF
+ (0000 0001 ol OV=1
42 (0000 0010 2 The result + 126 is wrong}
MOV A, #2 ;A=II11 1110(A=FEH)
127 ont it TF. | MOVRI,#-5 — ;R1=1111 1011(RI-FBH)
Overflow Problem ADDA,RI— A=III1 1001(A=F9H=-7,
7 (irseresut ‘of an operation on signed numbers is too large for the register. sCorrect, OV = 0)
An overflow has occurred and the programmer must be is) | 2 Ut 1110
sO Examine the following code and analyze the result. + 5 + Mi, 1011
i SREY ya ee T- gh. NEXT sjumpit
>
INZEXIT- jump if Ais noto Rs < 80 [CY flag always checked for
NEXT <1” ; eases of greater or less than
7 Fi but only after it is determined
both registers have the same value, 00 that they are not equal
placed in A. INZ and JZ test the contents | |
of the accumulator Embedded Systems and I0t | ee
138 g pit Embedded Processor
3 entation mae —_—__—___
Instruction and Data Seriatizaq,
ation
Compare Carry Flag | Rotate
ase cy=0 | rotating Right and Left
Jestnation source cy=1 | RRA} oe ae
= #. + Inrotate right
+ Notice in the CINE instruction that any Rn register ean be compared with an + The Sbits oft
Pee {The Sito theacumultrarroutedsighton bit nd
Bit DO exits from the LSB and enters into MSB, D7
+ There is no need for register A to be involved
‘except that the operands remain
+ Thecompare instruction is really a subtraction,
unchanged
aT MSB > LsB
+ Flags are changed according to the execution of the SUBB instruction
29). Writea program to read the temperature and est it for the value 75.According to Mov AM6H =A = oo on
the test results, place the temperature value into the registers indicated by the following. a in ‘A © pdt ton
IfT=75 thenA= RR A Ey ee cn
751ET <75 then RI | Ag a A= 1100 0110
RR A A=
=TIfT>75 then a reno
RLA rotate left A
© Inrotate left
Solution: + The 8 bits of the accumulator are rotated left one
+ Bit D7 exits from the MSB and enters into LSB, DO
MOV P1,#0FFH smake P1 an input
port: MOVA,P1 sread PI port
jump ifA isnot 75
MSB <— LSB
CINEA#H75,OVER
R2=T
and
‘SJMP EXIT jA=75, exit
OVER: JNCNEXT sifCY=0 then A>75 | Rotating through Carry
MOVRLA sCY=1, A<75, save in RI | RRCA;rotate right through carry
SJMP EXIT sandexit | MOV A#f72H A = OMIT 0010
RL A A = 1110 0100
= 1100 1001
NEXT: MOV R2,4, 3A>75, save it in R2
} RL A A Embedded Systems and Ioy
Mo ee
+ InRRCA
+ Bitsare rotated from left to right
+ They exit the LSB to the carry flag, and the carry lag enters the MS,
MSB > LSB oY,
CLRC ;makeCY=0
MOV A#26H A = 00100110
RRC A A = 0001 Cane
RRC A A = 0000 1001 CY = 1
RRC A A = 1000 0100 CY = 1
RLCA jrotate left through carry
+ InRLCA
+ Bitsare shifted from right to left
+ They exit the MSB and enter the carry flag, and the carry flag enters the LSB.
oH
MSB< LSB
5 ‘Write a program that finds the number of Is ina given byte
Mov R140
Mov R7#8;count=08
MOV A,#97H
AGAIN:RLCA
INCNEXT check for CY
INCRI CY=1 add to
‘count NEXT: DINZ R7,AGAIN
a pit Embedded Processor
Serializing Data
Serializing data isa way of send
single pin of microcontroller
+ Using the serial por
ing a byte of data one bit ata time through a
iscussed in Chapter 10
‘To transfer data one bit at atime and control the sequence of data and
‘spaces in between them.
‘Transfer a byte of data serially by
18 CY toany pin of ports PO—P3
Using rotate instruction
@ Write a program to transfer value 41H serially (one bit ata time) via pin P2.1,Put
‘wo highs atthe start and end of the data. Send the byte LSB first.
Solution:
MOV A, #411
SETBP2.1 igh
SETBP2.1 high MOVRS, #8 AGAIN:
RRCA
MOV P2.1, C ; send CY to P2.1 DINZRS,
HERE
SETBP2.1;
Pin
Reiser A | cy { ma |
D7 DO
1.8 PROGRAMMING PARALLEL PORTS
ARAL EL PORTS
1.5.1 Port 0
Port 0 is one of the four I/O ports available on the 8051 microcontroller. Itis a1
8-bit bidirectional port, which means that each bit of Port O can be individually configure
as either an input or an output. 142 Embedded Systems and [97
Address and SFR Name:
+ Portis associated with Special Function Register (SFR) PO
+ Theaddress of PO in the memory space is 0x80 (128 in decimal).
Open-Drain Output:
Y Port 0 isan open-drain output port. It means that it can only pull the output pins Loy
(sink current) and relies on external pull-up resistors to drive the pins high. |
YTouse Port 0.as an output and to drive the pins high, youneed to connect external
pull-up resistors to the corresponding pins.
Default Input Mode:
Y Atpower-up or reset, Port 0 is configured as an input port by default.
Y When used as an input, the port can be used to read the state of external devices o-
signals connected to the pins,
Nee
10k
eHow
OO
pull-up resistors = 10k
Fig:1.5 Port 0 with internal pull up resistors
Input Mode with Internal Pull-u
¥ Port 0 also provides an internal pull-up resistor feature, which can be enabled by
setting the POPU (Port 0 Pull-Up) bits of the POM] and POMO SFRs.
Y When the internal pull-up resistors are enabled, the input pins of Port 0 are internally
pulled up to VCC, providing a default logic high state when no external device is
connected,
a Bit Embedded Processor
eee tts
External Interrupts:
¥ Port 0 (PO.2, PO.3) also servesas the inter
ipt input for external interrupts INTO
and INTI, respectively 7
¥ Theextemal interrupts can be triggered ona filling edge, ising edge, or level change,
depending on the configuration,
bit Manipal:
¥ Individual bts of Port Ocan be manipulated using bitwise operations.
¥ Forexampl
set PO.5 high, you can use the instruction SETB PO.5.
¥ Toclear PO.3 (set it low), you can use the instruction CLR P0.3.
¥ Totoggle PO.7, youcan use the instruction XRLPO.7, #1
4.5.2 Port1
configured as either an inputoran output.
‘Address and SFR Name:
¥ Port | is associated with Sp Function Register (SFR) P1.
¥ The address of P1 in the memory space is 0x90 (144 in decimal).
Output Mode:
Y Port 1 can be used as a general-purpose output port.
When configured as an output, the port can be used to drive external devices or
signals connected to the pins.
Default Input Mode:
¥ Atpower-up or reset, Port | is configured as an input port by default,
When used as an input, the port can be used to read the state of external devices or
signals connected to the pins.
External Interrupts:
Port | (P1.2, P1.3) can serve as the interrupt input for extemal interrupts INT2 and
INT3, respectively.
¥ Theexternal interrupts can be triggered ona falling edge, rising edge, orlevel change,
depending on the configuration. Embedded Systems and lor
For example, to set P1.
Y Toclear P1.3 (set it low), you can use the instruct
Y Totoggle P1.7, you can use the instruction XRL-
1.5.3 Port2
san 8-bit bidirectional port, which means that each bit of Port 2 can be individually
‘configured as either an input oran output
Address and SFR Name:
Y Port 2isassociated with Special Function Register (SFR) P2.
Y Theaddress of P2 in the memory space is 0 A0 (160 in decimal)
Output Mode:
Y Port 2 can be used as a general-purpose output port,
Y When configured as an output, the port can be used to drive external devices or
signals connected to the pins.
Default Input Mode:
Y Atpower-up or reset, Port 2 is configured as an input port by defa
¥ When used as an input, the port can be used to read the state of external devices or
signals connected tothe pins,
External Interrupts:
¥ Port 2(P2.0, P2.1) can serve as the interrupt input for external interrupts INTO and
INTI, respectively.
Y Theextemal interrupts can be triggered ona falling edge, rising edge, or level change,
ise operations,
n‘SETB P25’,
Tow), you can use the instruction “CLR P2.3,
‘To toggle P2.7, you can use the instruction “XRLP2.7, #1°
to set P2.5 high, you can use the
To clear P2.3 (set
g pit Embedded Processor
as
4.5.4 Port3
Itisan bt bidirectional port, which me
configured as either an input oran output,
‘Address and SFR Name:
ans that each bit of Port 3 can be individually
Port is associ
¢ Theaddress ofP3
‘Output Mode:
'd with Special Function Register (SFR) P3,
‘the memory space is 0xBO (176 in decimal).
Y Port 3 can be used asa general-purpose output port,
When configured as an output, the port can be used to drive external devices or
signals connected to the pins
Input Mode:
‘orl 3 is configured as an input port by default.
the port can be used to read the state of extemal devices or
als connected to the pi
External Interrupts:
jerTupts can be triggered ona f
he configuration,
wise operations.
instruction *SETB P3.5°
Alternate Functions:
¥ — Insome variants of the 8051 microc :mbedded »ystems ae T
146 E
Port3Pin ‘Alternate Function
P3.0 RXD (Serial Receive Data)
P3.1 "TXD (Serial Transmit Data)
P32 INTO (External Interrupt 0)
P33. INTI (External Interrupt 1)
P34 TO (Timer O extemal input)
P35 TI (Timer | external input
P3.6 WR’ (Extemal data memory write strobe)
P37 RD* (External data memory read strobe)
‘Dual-Function Pins:
“Some pins of Port 3 may have dual functionality, meaning they can serve as both
general-purpose UO and address‘data bus pins when interfacing with extemal memory
or peripherals.
‘The dual-functionali
and the specific configuration.
determined by the mode of operation of the microcont
4.5.5 Programming the Ports of 8051
‘To program the pons of the 8051 microcontroller, you need to manipulate thespeci
function registers (SFRs) associated with each port. The 8051 microcontrol
VO ports, labeled as PO, P1, P2.and P3. Each port is 8 bits wide and can
be configured as cither input or ouiput.
Here isan overview of how you can program the ports of the 8051 microcontro|
1. Set the Port
¢ Toconfigure a port as an inpul
cer (PO, PI. P2, oF P3)t0 1.
et the corresponding bits in the port's direction
|
¥ To configure port asan output, set the corresponding bts in the port's direction |
a pit Embedded Processor
Se
Read from an Input Port:
‘To read the current state ofan input por, si
ut port, simply read the i
port register (PO, Pl, P2, or P3), ply read the value ofthe corresponding
Write to an Output Port:
To write data to an output port assign the desired value to the corresponding port
register (PO, P1, P2, or P3).
Manipulate Individual Pins:
‘To manipulate individual pins of a port, you can use bitwise operations. Each bitin
the port register corresponds to a pin on the port.
Y Toset.a pin high (logic 1), use the bitwise OR operation (\) with the desired bit
mask.
¥ Tocleara pin (set it low; logic 0), use the bitwise AND operation (&) with the
‘complement of the desired bit mask.
To toggle the state of apin, use the bitwise XOR operation (*) with the desired bit
mask.
Here’s an example code to illustrate seting Port I (P1)as.an output and manipulating
ividual pins:
3 Set Port 1 as output (P1.0-P1.7)
MOV P1.1, #0; Set
XRLPI.2, #1 ; Toggle P1.2
In the example above, *MOY* instructions are used to set the port direction, and
‘MOV* and *XRL¢ instructions are used to manipulate individual pins of Port 1 Embedded Systems and 1oy
as git Embedded Processor -
7.5 TIMERS AND SERIAL PORT imer Timer 1 Mode Timer 0 Mode
Dj|paDenails |Gate(@] CF — Dg
aR imers | Bit Details GOT | wr ‘°
at timer registers. These registers are known a, MO |Gate(@)| CAT] Mi [Mo
3] two 16-bil
ae es canbe used in two modes, These modes ary
ean
Timermose and the Counter mode. The ely difference between these two modesis thy
source for incrementing the timer regis =
1.6.1.1 Timer Mode
In the timer mode, the intemal machine cycles are counted. So this regi
incremented in each machine eyele. So when the clock frequency is 12MHz, then
timer registers incremented in each millisecond. In this mode it ignores the extemal ti
inpurpin
4.6.1.2 Counter Mode
Inthe counter mode, the extemal events are counted. In this mode, the timer
is incremented foreach 1 10 0 transition of the external input pin. This type of transitions
istreated as events. The extemal input pins are sampled once in each machine cycle, and
to determine the Lor 0 transitions, another machine cycle will be needed. So in this
mode, at least two machine cycles are needed. When the frequency is12MHz, then the
smacimum count frequency will be 12MHz/24 = 500KHz. So for event counting the time
durations? ps.
There are four different modes of the Timer or Counter. The Mode 0 to Mode 2 are
forboth of the Timer/Counter. Mode 3 has a different meaning for each timer register.
There isa register called TMOD. This register can be programmed to configure these
timers or counters.
‘The Serial poris used for serial communication in mode 1 and 3. Timer! is used for
senerating the baud rate. So only Timer0 is available for timer or counter operations.
Cys TMOD Register
‘TMOD(Timer Mode) is an SFR. The address of this register is 89H. This is not bit-
addressable.
‘Now, letus see the circuit that controls the running of the mer.
Bit Details High value (1)
oF Configure for the Counter
operations
Timer0 of Timer!
Run Mode
Gate (G),
Bit 00 1 10 i
Details
Mi Mo
This is Mode 3
‘(The function
depends on
Timer0 or
“Timoet
‘e+ To timer increment input
Run control
1=>Run
0 => Stop.
Git
INTs Toputpin
it will be high when the timer or counter is in mode 0 to 2, Embedded Systems and loy |
so
Examples
inter and Timer! as 8-|
1 To configure the Timer 0 as 16-bit event cou
tern 0.010010
pattern, we can use t
reload counter, we can use the bit p
want to program the TMOD register wi
MOV TMOD, #25H
‘The above instruction is executed, then the tim«
re the system as hardware controlled mode, then the gate bits wil
1=ADH we can use this instru
ier/counter will be cont
software. To confi
be 1. So the bit patterns will be 1010110
MOV TMOD, soap }
Opearting Modes of Timer/Counter
pre-scaler. So
of THO@rTI
SetTFL
conditions are met
Inthis example the Timerlis selected, ase, every 32 (25)event for counter
operations or 32 machine cycles for timer operation, the THI register will be incremented |
by 1. When the TH overflows from FFH to 00H, then the TF of TCON register will be
, and it stops the timer/counter. So for an example, we can say that if the TH.
I be high after 10H * 32= 512 machi
MOV TMOD, #00H
MOVTHI, #OFOH
MOVIE, #88H SETB
TRI
In the above program, the Timer! is configured as timer mode 0. In this case
Gate =0, Then the THI will be loaded with FOH, then enable the Timer] interrupt. At |
- last set the TR1 of TCON register, and start the timer. |
|
it Embedded Processor
a Bi
are using Mode 1 for'Timer 0,
) 60
cycles. When the clock frequency is 12MHIz, then the following instructions generate an
interrupt 16 1s after Timer0 starts rus
MOVTMOD, #01H
MOVTLO, #0FOH
MOVTHO, #0FFH
MOVIE, #82H SETB
TRO
In this case
In the above program, the Timer0 is configured as timer mode
Gate = 0. Then the TLO will be loaded with FOH and THC
‘enable the Timer0 interrupt. At last set the TRO of TCON register, and start the timer.
Mode2 of Timer/Counter
‘The Mode 2 operation
diagram, we are using Mode 2for Timer!
‘case every event for counter operations or machine cycles for timer operation,
incremented by 1. When the register pair overflows from FFH to
be reloaded with the
Content of TH and starts the operation ag2"7._ embedded Systems and 1Or
wa Lee
t
MOVTMOD, #20H
MOVTLI, #0FOH
MOVTHI, #0FOH
MOVIE, #88H
SETBTRI
In the above progr
Gate = 0, Then the TL1 and THI are loaded with FOH. then enable the Timer! interrupt.
At last set the TRI of TCON register, and start the timer.
Timer! in mode2 generates the desired baud rate when the serial port is working on
Mode 1 or 3
ram, the Timerl is configured as timer mode 2, In this ease
Mode3 of Timer/Counter
Mode 3is different for Timer 0 and Timer!. When the Timer 0 is working in mode 3,
led by the standard
Bit, embedded Processor
es
Timer
irement
input
To
Run contol
1S Run
0= Sup
TRI
When the Timer! is working in Mode 3, i
imply holds the count but does not run,
‘configured in one of the mode 0, 1 and 2. In this
ramming of THOis controlled by TR! bitonly. Sth gat bitin this mode for Timer Ohas
nospecific role.
‘The mode 3 is present for app!
Mode 3 of Timer 0, the 8051 hi
timer/counter by TLO, and one 16-1
imer by THO, another8-bit
ner/eounterby Timer.
deacti
vated when the gate is
ial Ports
Serial Communication
LZ ‘When a microcontroller communicates with the outside world, it provides the data
‘in byte-sized chunks. In some cases, suchas printers, the informati
“fom the 8- bit data bus and presented to the 8-bit data bus of the printer. This can work
only if the cable is not too long, since long cables diminish and even distort signals. Embedded Systems and 107
git Embedded Processor
) shows serial versus parallel data transfer. The fay
data line instead ofthe 8-bit data line of paras
Fon towark, the Byte of data must be conver,
When the distance is short, the digital signal can be transferred as iti
wire and requires no modulation. However, for long-distance data transfers, serial day
communication requires a modem to modulate (convert to Osand 1s to audio tones) an
‘demodulate (converting from audio tones to 0s and 1s).
jon uses two methods, asyitchronous and synchronous. The
synchronous method transfers a block of data(characters) at atime, while the asynchronow
method transfers a single byte at a time. There are special IC’s made by many
. These chips are commonly referred to as
‘manufacturers for serial data comm
UART (universal asynchronous receiver transmitter) and USART (universal synchronous
asynchronous receiver transmitter).
Parallel Transfer
Serial Transfer
Do
Receiver
Reeeiver ] | sender
‘D7
‘ i
computer only sends data. Duplex transmissions can be half full duplex, depending on
whether or not the data transfer canbe simultaneous. I datas transmitted one way aa
time, itis referred toas half duplex. Ifthe data can go both ways atthe same t
duplex. Full duplex requires two wire conductors for the data lines, one for transmission
and one for reception, in order to transfer and receive data simultaneo
‘Simplex
. [4 Receiver
a YW o_9fet
. Transmitter ake nly
Half Duplex —————_~_] — Receiver
a
Receiver —
L__“eewer 5 ‘Transmitter
T i |
Full Duplex ransmitter Receiver
Receiver, im] >
Fig:1.7 Serial communication forms
‘Asynchronous Serial Comm 7
nat the receiving end ofthe data line in a serial data transfer is all
jcult to make sense of the data unless the sender and:
‘The data cor
aset of rules, a protoc
‘and when the data begins and ends.
Fig:1.8 Asynchronous Serial Communication data framing
widely-used for character-o
Asynchronous serial data communi
transmissions, In this method, each characteris placed between start and stop
in data framing for asynchronous communications, the data such as ASCII
butthe
called frami
characters, are packed between astart bit an
stop bit can be one or two bits. The start bi
Look at below figure in wt 1 ASCII character “A
between the start bit and astop bi { the LSB is sent out first.
x stop bit. The start bits always one i Embedded Systems and Io,
ase
Data Transfer Rate
he rate of data transfer in s
second), Another widely used terminology
jology and s defined as the mur
for bpsis baud rate.
eof signal changes per second,
Fnput and output voltage levels are not TTL compat ible. For this reason, to connect any
RS232 toa microcontroller system we must use voltage ‘converters such as MAX232 tg
convert the TTL logic levels to RS232 vollage levels, and viee versa. MAX232 IC's are
commonly referred toas line drivers.
S232 pins
S232 cable commonly referred to as the DB-25 connector has 25 pins. Since not
all the pins are used in PC cables, IBM introduced the DB-9 version of the seri
‘standard, which uses 9 pins only.
‘Current terminology classifies data communication equipment as DTE (data terminal
equipment) or DCE (data communication equipment). DTE refers to terminals and
computers that send and receive data, while DCE refers t communication equipment,
le for transferring the data, The simplest connec
DIE DTE
TxD xD:
rx0->-axo
ground
Fig:1.9 RS232 Pinout
git embedded Processor
ot?
18232 pins description
Description
Data carrier detect (-DCD)
Received data (=D)
“Transmitted data (T*D)
‘To ensure fast and reliable data transmission between two devices, the data transfer
must be coordinated. Many of the pins of the RS232 connecter are used for handshaking
CTS (Clear'To Send): In response to RTS, when the modem has room forstoring the data
sends out signal CTS tothe DTEto indicat thatit can receive the data now.
DCD (Data Carrier Detect): The modem asserts signal DCD to inform the DTE that a
valid carrier has been detected and that contact between it and the other modem is,
established, Therefore , DCD is an output from the modem and an input to the PC.
lephone is ringing, However if the PC is in
RI (Ring Indicator):
charge of answering the phone, this signal can be used. Embedded Systems and Ig
158 _ |
1.6.2.3 MAX232
Since the RS232 is not compa
microcontrollers, we need a voltage converter (line
tible with today’s microprocessors any
driver) to convert the RS232's signay,
1d RxD pins,
to TTL voltage levels that will be acceptable 10 the ee sn einen ey
example of such converter is MAX232. Itconverts from eer i
voltage levels and vice versa, One advantage of the MAX: v
‘ource voltage for the 8051.
power source which is the same asthe s
‘The MAX232 has two sets of line drivers for transferring and rece
shown in fig(S). The lin drivers used for TXD are called TI and 72, while th
tedasR1 and R2. MAX232 requires four capacitors ranging
data,
drivers for RXD are d reso
from 1 to 22 uF. The most widely used value for these capacitors is 22 HF.
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at} . 8051:
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