Topic 7

Coordination
Human biology june 2023
4HB
1/1/2023
Part 1
Reflex action and synapse

DR. Nihal Gabr

 Comparative form
Complete sentences

Nervous system Endocrine system

Faster speed of action Slower speed of action

Short lived effect Long lived effect

Localised action Wide spread action

Involves nerve impulses traveling Involves chemical messenger ( hormones )

through neurones traveling through blood

Nerve cells connected to

brain cranial nerves
Relay neurone

Nerve cells connected to

2
PNS spinal cord is called spinal
Sensory nerves
and motor
Structure of a neuron

885
↑
-
Cell body
Contain nucleus that
-
contains DNA to control
cell activities S Dendrites ..pick up the

"x*
electrical impulses from
near by neurones

Axon
Myelin sheath
Carry nerve
Electrical insulator preventing the loss of
impulse away
electrical impulses so electrical impulses
from the cell
can move faster
body

Nodes of Ranvier
Un myelinated parts of axon …allow
faster conduction of nerve impulses in
myelinated neurone By allowing
Motor end plates impulses to jump for one node of
They have Ranvier to the next.

synapse
 Sensory neurone 2
Carry impulse from the receptors in sense organs to the CNS
Structure :
1. Cell body not at one end
2. Cell body has no dendrites
3. Long dendron and short axon ( dont mention )
Receptors in sense
organs
Relay neurone In the CNS 1
Act as
Function is to carry the TRANSDUCERS ..they
convert the stimulus into
impulses from the sensory
electrical impulse
to motor neurone Synapses
Structure : 3
Non myelin sheath to carry
5
impulses slowly to allow Effector
modification of impulses Cary a response

4
Motor neurone
Function : carry impulses from the CNS to the effector ( muscle or gland )
Structure : cell body at one end with dendrites , long axon and myelin sheath .

State the function of each neurone

Draw the….neurone
Describe the structure
 Cell body
X~
·
1x& Short axon Long dendrone ~-

Skin receptors

8
-

el Cell body at one

end with
Describe pathway taken by a reflex action = reflex arc

*N
dendrites

7
1. Receptors in sense organs detect the stimulus
2. Act a transducers converting the stimulus into electrical
Axon impulses .
With no myelin 3. Then sensory neurone transmit impulses from receptors to the
sheath relay neurone in CNS
... 4. ACROSS SYNAPSE BY DIFFUSION OF
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
5. Relay neurone transmit impulses from sensory neurone to the
motor neurone ( across SYNAPSE ) .
6. The motor neurone transmit the impulse from the CNS ( spinal
cord ) to the effector which is muscle or gland .
Voluntary action Running away from an animal

Starts from the brain ……..motor neurone …….to the effector ……..across SYNPASE ………for effector to carry a response
2. To the effector 3. Effector in leg
1.Send impulses
across synapse muscles to contract and
across the motor
by diffusion of you start running
neurone
neurotransmitters

Voluntary action Read

Involuntary action
Start from the brain Starts from receptors in sense organs
Non automatic Mainly spinal cord
Involves conscious decision by the brain Automatic action with no need for
Same stimulus show different response conscious decision by the brain
Same stimulus show same response
 ·
Presynaptic neurone

D
Synaptic cleft
Synapse :
Junction between 2 neurones
across which the electrical

↑
Vesicles impulses pass by diffusion of
Containing neurotransmitters
neurotransmitters

mmm Post synaptic neurone

L
Receptors

1. When the nerve impulse reaches the end of the axon of the first neurone ( presynaptic
neurone )
2. Cause the vesicles to move and reach the end of the neurone
3. To fuse with presynaptic membrane ..
4. Release the neurotransmitters ( example : acetyl choline )
5. Which will diffuse across the synaptic cleft
6. Bind to the receptors on the post synaptic neurone ( second neurone )
7. Trigger a new impulse in the second neurone .
Name of a reflex action Stimulus Response

Contraction of the thigh muscle

Tapping tendon using
Knee jerk causing knee jerk
a rubber hammer

Hand withdrawal Contraction in the muscles

Heat / hot object
of the arm pulling hand
away

Pupil relex Bright light falling

on retina Contraction if circular muscles in iris
 ⑤

Stimulus Receptors in the tendons Electrical impulse is sent across the

Tap with rubber hamer convert the stimulus into sensory neurone to the relay neuron in
below the knee cap electrical impulse the spinal cord (CNS)

Across synapse by
diffusion of
Study as included in the syllabus neurotransmitters
but you wont find questions
including this part
To the effector through motor neurone ( thigh
muscle _ which will contract causing knee jerk
 White matter
Contain axons of nerve cells Made of cell

…due to presence of myelin bodies of

sheath nerve cells

Dorsal root

Dorsal root ganglion

Ventral root
Axons of the motor neurones
 Cell bodies of the nerve cells

Cell bodies of
White matter sensory
neurones
Contain axons
R

Axons of motor
How to draw ?
neurones

-55
-h
L
14/ 1/2023
Part 2
Investigation of distribution of
receptors
Eye
 Investigating the distribution of receptors in your skin

Use hair pin..either pin the other person

with 2 / 1 prong

Plan and describe an investigation

Students should be working in pairs
Get a hair pin and fix the distance between the prongs of hair pin 0.5 cm
Blind fold one person
The other person pin the folded one using hair pin either with one or two prongs
At the finger tips
The blind folded person should indicate whether he has been pinned with one or two prongs
And record his responses as correct and incorrect
Repeat at different parts of the hand ( back of hand , hand palm )
And repeat using different different distances between prongs

Highest responses indicates the presence of highest concentration of receptors is small surface area
Finger tips show more concentrated receptors in small area .
Different
people show
different
responses
70%

60%

10% 70%
 1. Cornea Eye structure
Transparent to allow the passage of light .
6. Sclera protect the eye.
Responsible for refraction of light entering the
eye

7. Choroid:
Dark layer to prevent light
2. Aqueous humor : reflection
Water fluid that supports the cornea
Fovea Contain blood vessels nourish for
Vitreous humor the retina cells .
3. Iris Lens
Muscle that controls the size of eye pupil to
control amount of light reaching the retina Blind spot
8. Retina
Part that contain the
4. Lens
photoreceptors ( rods nand
Attached to suspensory ligaments and
Fovea cones ) to detect ligh energy
ciliary muscle
Which together the convexity of lens for Part of the retina with and convert it to electrical
accommodation ( adjusting near and far highest concentration of impulses to be sent to the visual
objects) cones center of brain via optic nerve

5. Viterious humor 9. Optic nerve

Blind spot
Support the eye ball No rods and no cones , where no light Contain sensory neurones
help keeping its shape . is detected as its found at the exist To transmit electrical impulses to the
point to the optic nerve
visual center in brain
 Kinds of photoreceptors on the retina

Readefully
Rod cells:
Several rods may be wired to a
single sensory neurone in Optic
nerve, providing images lacking
details.

Cone cells:
Each cone cell is wired to a single
neurone in optic nerve, providing
detailed coloured images..

r
ab
Read only

Rods!
lG Cones"
iha
Large number Small number
120 millions 6 millions

More concentrated at edge More concentrated at the centre of retina in fovea( yellow
spot)
.N

Sensitive to dim light( light of low intensity) Sensitive ( detects) to high light intensity.

Provides black and white vision Able to distinguish between different colors of light.

Less accurate image( image lacking details), because each Provides detailed colored image because each cone is
group of rods share one sensory neurone in optic nerve. connected to one sensory neurone in optic nerve.
Dr

One type There are three different types that respond to different
Providing night vision. wave lengths (Red, Green, blue)

Both converys light energy to electrical impulses to be sent to brain via optic nerve.

How do we see colors?

RUB
There are three type of cones, that respond to different wave lengths(Red, Green, Blue)
converting light energy into electrical impulses sent to brain via optic nerve.
Brain then interprets impulses in terms of colours (red, green, blue)

107
 Pupil reflex

Stimulus
Receptors Sensory Motor Effector
CNS
Light Photoreceptors neurone neurone
Iris muscle
( rods and cones Visual
In Optic center in the
in Retina )
nerve brain

Circular muscle

Radial
muscles Dim light
RPc
Bright light

②
(())
5
Circular muscles relax
Circular muscles of iris will contract
Radial muscle contract eye pupil gets
Radial muscles will relax
wider ( dilate )
Eye pupil will get smaller ( constrict )
Allowing more light to reach the retina
Allowing less light to reach the retina
 Accommodation

Changing in the convexity of the lens to focus light on certain point on retina according to the distance of the
object from the eye .

Concave

Convex
2)
1.
1) Near object
Distant object

Ciliary muscle contract

*
Suspensory ligaments loosen
Ciliary muscle relax I Lens become more convex
M
Suspensory ligaments tighten So more light refraction
The lens become thinner and less convex
So less light refraction
How image is formed on retina

I
⑱

⑧
R
1. reflected light rays emerge from the object
2. Enter the eye through cornea which REFRACT light
3. Light pass through pupil
4. Light rays refract again by the lens , pass through vitreous humor
And focused on the retina
5. Image formed on fovea is inverted and smaller than normal size
6. The receptors in retina convert light rays to electrical impulse to be sent to the visual center of the
brain through optic nerve
7. In brain , interpretation takes place where a real image is formed with upright position and right
normal size .
Why do we have two eyes
&

· ·

1. Cancel the effect of blind spot

2. Provide wider vision ( gives slightly different view )and
stereoscopic 3D vision .
3. Good judgment of distance , depth of object

Get 3 people
Blind fold one eye for one person
Let the other person use his two eyes
Constant variables ….same light intensity , same distance from person that will throw the balls
Dependent …measure number of balls caught by each one and compare .
 Defect of vision

Accommodation mechanism for near / far objects doesn;t work properly .

Long sight Short sight

Lens is more convex / eye ball is longer
Lens is not convex enough , eye ball is short Focus on near object and find difficulty in focusing on far object .
Focus on far object , but its difficult in focussing on near object

Convex lens
To converge light

1. Lens is too convex / long eye ball

1. Lens is not convex enough / short eye ball 2. More converging of light
2. Less converging to light 3. Light rays will be formed in front of the retina
3. Light rays will be focused behind the retina 4. So difficult to focus on far objects
4. So difficult to focus on near object 5. Solution
5. Solution : Concave lens to diverge light rays before entering
MORE Convex lens to converge light before eye
entering the eye
 Short sight …..focus on near object
Long sight ……focus on far object
Lens more convex
Lens less convex
More refraction
Less refraction
More converging to light
Less converging to light
Light rays focused in front of the retina
Light rays focused behind the retina
Solution ..concave lens to diverge light
Solution …more convex lens to CONVERGE

Convex Concave

Lens convex More convex

Less refraction More refraction
Less converging More converging

Long sight Short sight

15/1/2023
Part 3
Eye ( astigmatism )
Ear
Astigmatism
Defeciency in surface or curvature of CORNEA / lens resulting in blurry vision

Curvature of the
Rounder in one
surface of cornea
direction than
is uneven in more
the other
than one direction

Occurs when either the front surface of the eye ( cornea ) or the lens inside your eyes has mismatched
curves
Instead of having on curve like a round ball , the surface is egg shaped
Causing blurry vision
 Regular astigmatism American Foot ball shaped Irregular astigmatism Egg shaped

1. Occurs when the surface of the cornea or

lens is not perfectly spherical shape like a 1. Where the curvature of the surface of
football , the cornea or lens is uneven in more
But is rounder in one direct than the other than one direction
2. This cant be corrected by glasses …but
2. This is easily corrected by wearing glasses or it can be corrected with contact lenses .
contact lenses
 Short sight
Solution ; concave lens

Long sight ( lens is les convex ) Curves of Cornea / lens are mismatched
Solution to use more convex lens becoming rounder in one direction than
the other .
 Cataract

Lens is cloudy so person can’t see clearly / blurry vision

Light rays can become scattered.
Corrected …by surgery remove the affected lens and replace it with artificial one.

Corneal transplant

Cornea diseased or damaged ….remove ….replaced by another cornea from a donor …highly
successful
In some cases they can use artificial cornea made from transparent plastics .
 Ear as a sense organ

5. Cochlea ( inner ear)

Contains fluid and Contain
organ of corti contain hair
Ear pinna m

receptors that convert the

Collect sound waves
am

sound vibrations into

-

electrical impulses to be sent

2. Auditory canal
m

to the brain via the auditory

Direct sound waves from ear nerve .
pinna to ear drum at the end of
the auditory canal

Incus
Malleus
3. Ear drum ( middle ear)
Stapes
4. Ear ossicles ( middle ear)
s*
Its a membrane that pick up sound
waves and vibrate 1. Collect vibrations from ear drum
2. Amplify the vibrations
3. Transmit the vibrations from the er drum to Oval
window found at one end of the Cochlea
1. Sound waves collected by ear pinna …reach the ear drum across the auditory canal ….cause ear drum to
vibrate .
2. Ear ossicles collect the sound vibrations …and amplify and transmit vibrations across middle ear to oval
window at one end of the cochlea ……oval window press inwards to push on the fluid of cochlea
3. Vibrations pass along the fluid filling canal of Cochlea
4. Vibrations are detected by hair receptors in organ of CORTI to be converted into electrical impulses
5. To be sent to the brain through auditory nerve …causing the round window to be pushed outwards

Function of the round window

As the stapes transmit vibrations to the oval window, where stapes foot plate moves into the oval window .
The round window membrane move out …thus allowing the movement of the fluid in cochlea so , inner hairs
moves …so you can hear clearly
21/1/2023
Part 4
Balance
Brain
 Upper part of the outer canal

·
Middle chamber ( endolymph)

Membrane

Organ of corti
Hairs

Lower part of the outer canal

( perilymph)
Eustachian tube :
1. Connecting middle ear by the throat If the Eustachian tube is blocked .
2. Allowing ventilation ( oxygen for respiring cells ) Pressure in the middle ear is not equal to the atmospheric

3. Equalise pressure on both sides of ear drum pressure ( pressure on both sides of ear drum is not
equalised )
4. Keep malleus in contact with ear drum
So cant hear well
In case air is not equalised on both sides of ear drum : Besides this would affect the movement of round window .

Ear drum will be pushed uncomfortably ( airplane outwards towards the canal / ear pinnae ….ve in sea bend
inwards towards the eustachian tube )
Aeroplane : chewing action open the eustachian tube and release air pressure to the throat thus equalising
pressure on both sides of the ear drum
 ÷
"
'
-
⇐
- . .

Increase in pressure on ear

Normal drum from inside ( eustachian
tube ) eardrum bend
uncomfortably outwards.

-
'

i.
Chewing / swallowing
i.
'
'
..
gaits action to open Eustachian
I
tube and release air .
 👨

How brain detects different frequencies of sound and

different amplitude ?

Amplitude : where the loudness is determined by brain according to

the amplitude of vibration of hair cells ( number of hair cells being
stimulated)
Low frequency-I

Frequency
……low frequency …..hair cells stimulated are nearer to the round
(**D
window
…… high frequency sound ….hair cells nearer to the oval
window will be stimulated

Investigation on the range of frequencies that can be detected by ear ?

1. Use the signal generator connected to.

Speaker and oscilloscope which shows the
shape of sound waves
Loud speaker 2. Generator will be used to produce sound of
different frequencies
Signal / sound generator Oscilloscope 3. Notice and record when the frequency can
Produce sound waves with Show the shape of be heard .
different frequencies the wave
 https://youtu.be/YMIMvBa8XGs
Balance
Semicircular canals Sacculus and utriculus

3 canals are fluid filled and arranged at right angle to one another
Contain hair cell receptors
Detect angular movement of the head
embedded in jelly containing calcium
Up and down / side to side / left and right
carbonate crystals ( otolith) ..upon
movement of head , otolith pull on
Ampulla at end of each semicircular canal hair cells …stimulated and send
In the Ampulla ….hair cells projecting in a
nerve impulses to brain about
gelatinous capsule called Cupula
position of head in respect to gravity
Upon movement of head
Fluid press on Cupula
Which in turn press on the hair cells which will be
stimulated to send nerve impulses to the
brain ..detecting position of the head .
 Ear drum rupture
Effect of loud sound Unable to hear clearly j
Damage delicate bones of ears
( impaired hearing )
Damage hair cells

Normal 1.noise induced hearing lose

sound less NIHL …….caused by damage to delicate hair cells in inner ear ( cochlea )
than 75 Gradual process that become worse by time .
decibels
Avoid exposure to sound above 85 decibels
Avoid activities involving loud sound
Wear ear plugs or ear protectors

Exposure to loud sound

Short period Long period

Rupture ear drum Hair cell receptors are damaged

Damage delicate ear bones Buzzing sound
Deafness
Person can recover
Explain what would happen if a person is working for many hours every day in a very
noisy environment such as near a runway of a busy airport ?

Loud noise cause large vibrations of ear drum

This cause large vibrations of middle ear bones ( malleus)
Ligament to middle ear bone ( malleus ) slacken
Damage to the tiny bones of ear ( ear ossicles )
Person can suffer from temporary deafness .

Can damage ear drum

Can suffer from impaired hearing for a time

Can lead to damage in hair cell receptors in cochlea

Noise induced hearing loss
Can suffer later from deafness
 Voluntary actions
Thermoregulatory center Sensory area
any ⑬ Motor area
Osmoregulatory center Memory

Secrete hormones
FSH, LH, GH, ADH des
Coordinating the
By
contraction of set of
muscles ( voluntary

⑬ actions) and
Control involuntary actions BALANCE
Heart rate and breathing rate
 Cerebrum

Frontal lobe ; memory and emotions

Parietal lobe : sensation
Occipital lobe : visual center
Temporal lobe : hearing center
22/1/2023
Part 5
Brain diseases

Dr. Nihal Gabr

 Brain diseases
https://youtu.be/twG4mr6Jov0
A) dementia ( Alzheimer’s disease , vascular dementia )
B) Parkinson’s disease .

3.2.Em
Alzheimer’s disease

Amyloid beta / B
Protein that accumulate in brain at the Tau build up in nerve cells
synapse ….damage cells in brain

Damage and kill the brain cells

The more the brain cells damaged
Symptoms of Alzheimer’s : The more the symptom’s of Alzheimer’s .
Forgetting faces , places , people, repetitive , don’t know the correct words to use , getting lost , unable to think and take
decisions , hallucinations ( affect the cognitive part )

Treatments :
Drugs increase neurotransmitters acetylcholine
Other drugs relieve symptoms + non drug treatment : activities involving thinking skills and group discussions .
 2) vascular dementia : Causes of dementia
Damage in blood vessels of brain Poor diet and less deep sleeping
time and stress
High fat intake / alcohol /
smoking increase risk of Stroke
Leak
Block which can cause vascular
Se reduce blood supply to brain cells so brain cells die dementia due to reduction in blood
Symptoms : memory loss , lower thinking skill ( dementia ) supply to brain cells
Treatment : drugs slow down development of the disease by statins …lowering blood Genes inherited at higher
cholesterol level , antihypertensives to lower blood pressure . frequency

B) Parkinson’s disease

Damage to the nerve cells in brain …

responsible for the release of Dopamine
neurotransmitter
J.Decreasing the level of dopamine…..abnormal brain activities
Less nerve impulses generated in muscles .

Symptoms: TREMORS , SLOW DOWN BODY MOVEMENT , DIFFICULTY IN WALKING < MUSCLE
STIFFNESS< PAIN AND POSTURE BECOMES BENT OVER .
Treatment

1. Drug:
A) levodopa ; natural chemical is converted to dopamine in brain
B) dopamine agonist : which mimics the action of dopamine in brain
C) chemicals that inhibit the enzymes that breaks down dopamine in nerve cells
D) chemicals the block the transmission of impulses to muscles to control tremors.

2. Deep brain stimulation

DBS ….by implanting electrodes inside the brain …..connected to a generator in the chest of the patient
….which send electrical impulses to the brain ….to help control / reduce tremors .

3. Aerobic exercise , healthy diet , physiotherapy .

Mental illness

Schizophrenia Dopamine level increase

Paranoia ( under threat ) Cause ; heredity ( genes)

Hallucination Stress
Delusions Drug abuse ( cocaine and cannabis)
Hearing sounds Diet , allergies. Virus
Avoiding people

Treatment : tranquilizers treat hallucination yet bad side effects ,

Non drug treatment : cognitive behavior therapy , family intervention therapy

Depression Intensive feeling of sadness that lasts for days or weeks

Symptoms : Causes :
1 unable to enjoy life Bad child hood experience
2. Unable to relate to others Trauma, stress , life changing
3. No self esteem event . Drug and alcohol
4. Sense of irritability abuse
5. Restless Treatment :
6. Thinking of committing suicide CBT , antidepressants
28/1/2023
Part 5
Drugs

Dr. Nihal Gabr

 Drugs Chemical substance taken into the body to modify / change chemical reactions inside the body

Legal drugs

Paracetamol medical Depressent

( medicinal ) Alcohol

Absorbed very quickly form the stomach and

Pain killer for treatment of headache ,
small intestine into the liver to be metabolised
toothache and lowering fever
into in toxic form
Prostaglandin
Chemical substance Effect : relieves anxiety , makes people more

my increase pain comfortable , reduce self control and increase

threshold . reaction time .

Side effects
COX 1
COX II
1. Slow down reflex action , blurry vision ,
Works by inhibiting the enzymes responsible for the production of impaired judgement which cause accidents
prostaglandin 2. Alcoholism
Which is a natural substance that causes pain and fever 3. liver cirrhosis / stomach ulcers
4. Unconsciousness with vomiting causing
suffocation .
 Illegal drugs https://youtu.be/Nlcr1jd_Tok

Cannabis :

• From cannabis sativa

• Dried and smoked as marijuana or hashish
• Psychoactive substance called THC ( tetra hydrocannabinol )

Effect : relaxation , cheerfulness , awareness of sounds and smells

Dangerous effect : hallucination , depression , anxious , dangerous to lungs , suicidal .

Cocaine https://youtu.be/CUSWpV0epo0 Dopamine / serotonin/ nor epinephrine …elevate the

Stimulant mood

J.:: · An
Yet has a medical use
Being used as local anesthetic

Increase in heart rate and blood pressure to

ins dangerous high levels
Cocaine inhibit re uptake of these neurotransmitters …
increase concentration of neurotransmitters in the Extreme happiness, mental
net
dary Nose bleeds, dizzness, nausea, fever,
synapse …so accumulate and bind to receptors on breathing difficulties, tremors .
alertness, unusual sensitivity

-
post synaptic neurones so continue triggering of the Addiction
nerve impulse ….increase frequency of
to sounds and touch ,
Break down of large intestine due to reduced
impulses ..increase mental aletrtness irritability, paranoia blood flow.
 rial neurotransmitters
Elevate Mood
A thirst hunger sensation.
Heroin

I L
-
C

Depressant slowing down brain functions , and thus reduce pain sensation :
Euphoria, cause deep drowsiness ( euphoria + intensively happy ) Heroin morphine a mimic action
ofendorphines
Narcotic : addictive drugs affecting mood
metabolised
in Brain So
bodystop
producing
endorphines.
Addiction : becoming dependent upon drug and can’t stop without suffering from withdrawal
symptoms ( nausea, chills, vomiting, headache , muscles cramps, anxiety and depression .

Tolerance : you need to keep increasing the dose to reach to same effect and pleasure feeling .

Physical and health problems

1. Addiction
2,. Skin infections and abscesses
3. Contaminated with other toxic substances added to dilute the drug for more profit
4. Overdosing cause death ...respiratory failure.
5. Sharing of needles with other users increase the risk of transmission of infectious diseases such
as HIV and hepatitis .

Medical use :
Modiified form of heroin called morphine ( medical name : diamorphine) is used as a strong pain killer
 🟠

Drugs

Legal Illegal

Cannabis Heroin Cocaine

Medicinal Alcohol
Cannabis sativa Depressant Stimulant
Paracetamol Depressant Euphoria Extremely happy
Pain killer ....inhibit slow down reflex THC
enzyme responsible action
Addiction and
for production poor judgement of
tolerance Medical use local
distance Cheerfulness
production of Narcotic anaesthetic
blurry vision Relaxation
prostaglandin
liver cirrhosis Less pain sensation
Medicinal use as a
Natural
Hallucination strong pain killer Still increase heart
chemical
Confusion ( diamorphine ) rate , blood
substance
Dangerous to lungs pressure
causing pain
Increase heart rate dangerously to high
and fever
levels, breathing
difficulties,
addictive , tremors
 Check list

1. Label And state the function of each part

A) ear pinnae
B) auditory canal .
C) ear drum
‘D) ear ossicles
E) oval window and round window
F) cochlea
G) semicircular canal
H) auditory nerve

2. Describe how we can hear sound

3. Function of round window
4. Draw the cochlea
5. Role of Eustachian tube
( aeroplane / under water / blocked eustachian tube )
6. Low and high frequency sound
7. Investigation of range of frequencies that can be detected by ear
8. Balance ( semicircular / sacculus and utriculus )
9. Effect of exposure to loud sound ( short time / long )
10. Brain diseases
A) dementia ( reasons of dementia generally)
1. Alzheimer’s disease ( reason , symptoms , treatment )
2. Vascular dementia ( symptoms , treatments)

B) Parkinson’s disease
Reason
Symptoms
Treatment ( drugs , DBS , physiotherapy )

11. Mental illness

A) schizophrenia 12. Drugs
Symptoms , causes , treatment Definition
B) depression A) legal drugs ( paracetamol , alcohol)
Symptoms , causes , treatment 1. Paracetamol mode of action
2. Importance

B) alcohol
Effect
Side effects
 1 . .1 4. 1

7 June 2012 Paper 1

r
ab
lG
iha
↑
.N
Dr

. 213
34.
8 The diagram shows a section through the eye.
5%
June 2021. 4HB1. Paper 1

The arrow is a near object. 01093850599

>

-!
>

(a) (i) Complete the diagram by continuing the rays from the arrow to show how the
image of the arrow appears on the retina.
(5)
(ii) Describe the function of the optic nerve in allowing a person to see the image
of the arrow.
(2)

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. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(b) (i) State where the image of the arrow would be formed for someone with the
condition of long sight.
(1)

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

(ii) Give a feature of the eye that can lead to long sight.
(1)

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18
*P67060RRA01820*