Olive A.

Amparado
Sasha Anne L. Valdez
OUTLINE FOR MODULE 3:
I. Prokaryotic cell vs. Eukaryotic cell

II. Archaebacteria

III. Bacteria

IV. Protozoans

V. Fungi

VI. Virus
Module 3: Anatomy of Cellular Microorganisms
Module Objectives:

1. Differentiate a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell.

2. Describe the basic structure of a typical prokaryote.

3. Describe important differences in structure between Archaea and

Bacteria.

4. Describe, identify and differentiate the different structures of a

Bacteria.

5. Describe the basic structure of protozoans, fungi and virus.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
osbiology2e/chapter/structure-of-prokaryotes-
bacteria-and-archaea/
Prokaryotic Cell vs Eukaryotic Cell

https://sites.google.com/site/laurelbiology/c
ells/prokaryotes-vs-eukaryotes
https://www.expii.co
m/t/eukaryotic-cell-
definition-examples-
10021
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/208150814003276588/
Domain Eukaryota or Eukarya; their name comes from
the Greek eu, “true" and karyon, "nut" or "kernel“.

• A typical eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a plasma

membrane and contains many different structures and
organelles with a variety of functions. The major groups
of microorganisms (fungi, protozoa and algae), as well as
parasitic worms and mites, and all plants and animals up to
and including humans all belong to this group.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/eu
karyotic-cells-definition-lesson-for-
kids.html
Eukaryotic cell structures and functions
Cell wall and pellicle Strengthen and give shape to the cell
Photosynthesis—trapping light energy and formation of
Chloroplasts
carbohydrate from CO2 and water
Cilia and flagella Cell movement
Environment for other organelles, location of many metabolic
Cytoplasmic matrix
processes
Endoplasmic reticulum Transport of materials, protein and lipid synthesis
Packaging and secretion of materials for various purposes,
Golgi apparatus
lysosome formation
Lysosomes Intracellular digestion
Microfilaments, intermediate
Cell structure and movements, form the cytoskeleton
filaments, and microtubules
Energy production through use of the tricarboxylic acid
Mitochondria cycle, electron transport, oxidative phosphorylation, and
other pathways
Nucleolus Ribosomal RNA synthesis, ribosome construction
Nucleus Repository for genetic information, control centre for cell
Mechanical cell boundary, selectively permeable barrier with
Plasma membrane transport systems, mediates cell-cell interactions and
adhesion to surfaces, secretion
Ribosomes Protein synthesis
Temporary storage and transport, digestion (food vacuoles),
Vacuole
water balance (contractile vacuole)
https://www.pharmapproach.com/differences-between-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/
Prokaryotes or procaryotes is coined from two Greek
words pro, before, and karyon, nut or kernel.

• used to describe unicellular (single-celled) organisms that

lack true nucleus and membrane-bound cell organelles.
This means that the genetic material in prokaryotes is
not bound within a nucleus.

• divided into two domains, bacteria and archaea.

• Archaea tend to live in harsh environmental conditions

(such as high temperatures, extremes pH or salinity etc.)
and often possess unusual modes of metabolism.
Common prokaryotic cell types. Prokaryotes fall into three basic categories based on their shape, visualized here
using scanning electron microscopy: (a) cocci, or spherical (a pair is shown); (b) bacilli, or rod-shaped; and (c)
spirilli, or spiral-shaped. (credit a: modification of work by Janice Haney Carr, Dr. Richard Facklam, CDC; credit c:
modification of work by Dr. David Cox; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/structure-of-prokaryotes-bacteria-and-archaea/

Cluster of Methanobrevibacter
coccoid
methanogens
ruminantium

http://faculty.college-
prep.org/~bernie/sciproject/pr
oject/Kingdoms/Bacteria3/met http://202.114.65.51/fzjx/wsw/newi
hanogens.htm ndex/tuku/MYPER/a2/750.htm
Prokaryotic cell structures and functions

Capsules and slime layers Resistance to phagocytosis, adherence to surfaces

Gives bacteria shape and protection from lysis in dilute

Cell wall
solutions

Endospore Survival under harsh environmental conditions

Fimbriae and pili Attachment to surfaces, bacterial mating

Flagella Provides the power of motility or self-propulsion

Gas vacuole Buoyancy for floating in aquatic environments.

Inclusion bodies Storage of carbon, phosphate, and other substances

Nucleoid Localization of genetic material (DNA)

Contains hydrolytic enzymes and binding proteins for

Periplasmic space
nutrient processing and uptake’

Selectively permeable barrier, mechanical boundary of cell,

nutrient and waste transport, location of many metabolic
Plasma membrane
processes (respiration, photosynthesis), detection of
environmental cues for chemotaxis

Ribosomes Protein synthesis

https://www.pharmapproach.com/differences-between-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/
Phylum Proteobacteria is one of
up to 52 bacteria phyla.

Proteobacteria is further
subdivided into five classes,
Alpha through Epsilon. (credit
“Rickettsia rickettsia”:
modification of work by CDC;
credit “Spirillum minus”:
modification of work by
Wolframm Adlassnig; credit
“Vibrio cholera”: modification of
work by Janice Haney Carr, CDC;
credit “Desulfovibrio vulgaris”:
modification of work by Graham
Bradley; credit “Campylobacter”:
modification of work by De
Wood, Pooley, USDA, ARS, EMU;
scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
osbiology2e/chapter/structure-of-
prokaryotes-bacteria-and-archaea/
Other bacterial phyla.
Chlamydia, Spirochetes,
Cyanobacteria, and Gram-
positive bacteria are described
in this table.

Note that bacterial shape is not

phylum-dependent; bacteria
within a phylum may be cocci,
rod-shaped, or spiral. (credit
“Chlamydia trachomatis”:
modification of work by Dr.
Lance Liotta Laboratory, NCI;
credit “Treponema pallidum”:
modification of work by Dr.
David Cox, CDC; credit
“Phormidium”: modification of
work by USGS; credit
“Clostridium difficile”:
modification of work by Lois S.
Wiggs, CDC; scale-bar data
from Matt Russell)

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
osbiology2e/chapter/structure-of-
prokaryotes-bacteria-and-archaea/
https://www.siswapedia.com/perbedaan-
archaebacteria-dengan-eubacteria/
 Earliest Prokaryotes
• Most numerous organisms on Earth

• Include all bacteria

• Earliest fossils date 2.5 billion

years old
Archaea are separated into
four phyla:

• Korarchaeota
• Euryarchaeota
• Crenarchaeota
• Nanoarchaeota

(credit “Halobacterium”:
modification of work by
NASA; credit
“Nanoarchaeotum equitans”:
modification of work by Karl
O. Stetter; credit
“Korarchaeota”: modification
of work by Office of Science
of the U.S. Dept. of Energy;
scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
osbiology2e/chapter/structure-of-
prokaryotes-bacteria-and-archaea/
ARCHAEABACTERIA

Cells that lack peptidoglycan, tend to live in harsh

environments. Extremophiles:

1) Methanogens – produce methane as a result of

respiration

2) Halophiles – live in areas of extreme salinity

3) Thermophiles – live in extremely hot environment

4) Others can survive in extreme pH

 • evolved from a common ancestor

• more standard energy

production • less standard energy
production

https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/archaebacteria-are-more-similar-to-eukaryotes-rather-than-eubacteria/
https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-examples-of-eubacteria-and-archaebacteria
ARCHAEABACTERIA

• unicellular organisms without nuclei

• No organelles
• Have cell walls
• Lacks peptidoglycan
• DNA is more similar to eukaryotes, denotes lineage.
• Live in extreme environments
- No oxygen
- hot springs, deep ocean
• Energy: Chemosynthesis*
* is the biological conversion of one or more carbon-containing molecules
(usually carbon dioxide or methane) and nutrients into organic matter using
the oxidation of inorganic compounds (e.g., hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide)
or ferrous ions as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis.
https://www.biologyexams4u.com/2013/07/archaebacteria-cell-wall-structure-and.html#.X2hPJRAzbIU
 Major Types of Archaebacteria Cell Wall

(a) Type 1:

•The most common type of archael cell wall is an S layer composed of

either protein or glycoprotein.

• Thickness: 20-40nm thick

• S-layer cell walls are present in some Methanogens like Methanococcus,

Halophiles and Extreme Thermophiles like Sulpholobus and Pyrodictium
etc.

https://www.biologyexams4u.com/2013/07/archaebacteria-cell-
wall-structure-and.html#.X2hPJRAzbIU
(b) Type 2:

• Additional layers of material are present outside the S-layer. In

Methanosprillum, there is a protein sheath external to the S-layer.

(c) Type 3:

• In Methanosarcina, S-layer is covered by a chondroitin like material

called as mathanochondroitin.
https://www.biologyexams4u.com/2013/07/archaebacteria-cell-
wall-structure-and.html#.X2hPJRAzbIU
(d) Type 4:

• In some Archae like Methanothermus and Methanopyrus, S-layer is

the outermost layer and is separated from the plasma membrane by
a Peptidoglycan like molecule called psuedomurien.

• Psuedomurien differ from Peptidoglycan in having

N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid instead of N-acetyl muramic acid,
L-amino acids instead of D-amino acids that cross links and Beta
(1->3) glycosidic linkage instead of Beta (1->4) glycosidic linkage.

https://www.biologyexams4u.com/2013/07/archaebacteria-cell-
wall-structure-and.html#.X2hPJRAzbIU
(e) Type 5:

• In this type, S layer is absent. Instead archeal cell wall is single

thick, homogenous layer resembling Gram positive bacteria. These
archeae often stain gram positive. This type is present in
Methanobacterium, Halococcus etc.

https://www.biologyexams4u.com/2013/07/archaebacteria-cell-
wall-structure-and.html#.X2hPJRAzbIU
https://slideplayer.com/slide/8940283/
The outer covering is the cell wall; a semi-rigid layer that maintains cell shape
and chemical equilibrium. Peptidoglycan cell wall of eubacteria is absent. Cell
walls are unique in archae bacteria and considerable differences are found in
different groups.

In archae bacteria, S-layer is often seen just outside the plasma membrane.
Biological Functions:

• Protecting cell against ion & pH fluctuations, osmotic stress

, degrading enzymes or predacious bacteria.

• helps in maintaining shape & envelope rigidity of the cell.

• it promotes cell adhesion to surfaces

• it contributes to the virulence of bacteria

• widely studied recently especially in connection with

nanotechnology due to their ability to self assemble protein
units without the aid of enzymes.

Future Prospects:
• S-layer could be used technologies such as drug delivery
systems & novel detection systems for toxic chemicals.
What are S-Layers (Surface Layers) in bacterial cell envelope?

• a regularly structured crystalline layer present on the surface

of many bacteria and archaebacteria.

• composed of protein or glycoprotein

• In Gram + bacteria, S-layer is associated with peptidoglycan

surface. In Gram –
it is associated with
the outer membrane
(LPS) layer.

• In archae, S-layer
proteins are arranged
in different ways in the
cell envelope. https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2F
arijabuhaniyeh%2Fchapter-3-microbiology-8th-
edition&psig=AOvVaw3F3Hfr0jLHaOAFOMd21pBd&ust=1600779223458000&so
urce=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCIjyrN-k-usCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
 Size
• prokaryotic (bacteria) cells are very small compared
to eukaryotic cells
• prokaryotic cells are the most abundant form of life
on earth
• prokaryotic cells can survive in conditions that are
too extreme for eukaryotic cells
• Bacteria are Prokaryotic, unicellular that do not
contain chlorophyll.
• Size of bacteria may range from 0.2-1.5 micrometer
in diameter and 3-5 micrometer in length
 SIZE OF BACTERIA
• Unit for measurement : Micron or micrometer (μm): 1μm=10-3mm
• Size: Varies with kinds of bacteria, and also related to their age
and external environment.

http://www.boruhealthmachine.org/what-is-meant-by-the-resolving-power-of-a-microscope.html
 https://www.sites.google.com/site/danielsapbiology2011/prokaryotes/eubacteria

⚫ Cocci: sphere, 1μm

⚫ Bacilli: rods , 0.5-1 μm in width -3 μm in
length
⚫ Spiral bacteria: 1~3 μm in length and 0.3-0.6
μm in width
 Classification of Bacteria based on their Shape

Cocci
any bacterium or archaeon that has a spherical, ovoid, or generally round
• shape.

• Bacilli rod-shaped bacteria.

possessing a curved-rod shape (comma shape), several species of which can
• Vibrio cause foodborne infection, usually associated with eating undercooked
seafood.

• Spirilla spiral bacteria (singular form is spirillus)

Spiral-shaped bacteria, some of which are serious pathogens for
• Spirochetes humans, causing diseases such as syphilis, yaws, Lyme disease,
and relapsing fever.

• Actinomycetes are rod shaped or filamentous. Those that are rod

shaped may form long, branching, chains of cells.
• Mycoplasma Many actinomycetes form true filaments that branch
and form colonies that look like fungi, although the
Mycoplasma species are the
diameter of the filaments is much smaller than that of
smallest bacterial cells yet
discovered, can survive without the fungi.
oxygen, and come in various
 Cellular
Arrangement

https://www.slideshare.net/ShahanRahman/size-shape-and-
arrangement-of-bacterial-cell
 Actinomycetes

https://laboratoryinfo.com/various-shapes-and-arrangements-of-bacterial-cells/
https://www.slideshare.net/HusseinAltameemi2/medical-microbiology-laboratory-bacterial-shapes-arrangement-
and-staining-techniques
https://www.slideshare.net/aramae30/cell-arrangement-
of-bacteria
 Spiral
(Vibrio, Spirillum, Spirochete)

Vibrio: “curved or bent rods that resemble

commas”

Spirillum: “a corkscrew shape with a rigid cell wall

and hair-like projections called flagella that assist
in movement”

Spirochete: “a flexible cell wall but no flagella in the

traditional sense. Movement occurs by
contractions (undulating) of long filaments
(endoflagella) that run the length of the cell.”
https://www.slideshare.net/RaNaMB1/bacterial-anatomy-and-its-component
 Structure of a Bacterial Cell
(Bacterial Anatomy)

• Examination of a bacterial cell reveals

components of structures

• Some external to cell wall

• Others internal to cell wall

• Bacterial nuclei “have no nuclear
membrane or the nucleolus” , hence
known as nucleic material or nucleoid, one
to several per bacterium.

• Genome consists of a single double

stranded DNA.

• Might be a Circular form or may be open

under certain condition to form a long
chain.
 Cytoplasm
• Colloidal system of variety of organic
and inorganic solutes in Viscous watery
solution

• No ER and Mitochondria

• Contains Mesosomes, Inclusions and

Vacuoles
http://cpbiologytas.wikifoundry.com/page/Mesosome+%28B5%29
 Mesosomes
• Vesicular, convoluted invaginations of the
plasma membrane
• Prominent in GM+ bacteria
• Principal sites of Respiratory enzymes
• Analogous to mitochondria in Eukaryotes
 • Formed by extensions of the cell
membrane into the cell.

• Help in respiration and secretion

processes.

• Help to increase the surface area

of cell membrane as a result
increases the enzymatic content
of the cell.

https://educationbiz.xyz/order?rid=0cda00814f11853c
 Structure of the cell wall

• Bacterial cell wall provides structural integrity to the

cell.

• The bacterial cell wall differs from that of all other

organisms by the presence of Peptidoglycan.

• Peptidoglycan (Mucopeptide) is composed of

alternating chains of :
- N -Acetyl Glucosamine and N-Acetyl Muramic
acid, which is cross linked by Peptide chains
 Structure of Peptidoglycan

• Peptidoglycan is responsible
for the rigidity of the
bacterial cell wall and for
the determination of cell
shape

• Based on the composition of

cell wall & Staining
bacteria are classified into
“Gram positive” and “Gram
Negative”

https://www.creative-proteomics.com/services/peptidoglycan-structure-analysis.htm
 Functions of Cell Wall
• Maintaining the cell's characteristic shape- the rigid wall
compensates for the flexibility of the phospholipid membrane and
keeps the cell from assuming a spherical shape

• Countering the effects of osmotic pressure

• Providing attachment sites for bacteriophages (type of virus that

infects bacteria. It literally means "bacteria eater," because
bacteriophages destroy their host cells)

• Providing a rigid platform for surface appendages- flagella,

fimbriae, and pili all emanate from the wall and extend beyond it

• Play an essential role in cell division

• Be the sites of major antigenic determinants of the cell surface。

• Resistance of Antibiotics
 The Gram staining method, named
after the Danish bacteriologist who
originally devised it in 1882
(published 1884), Hans Christian
Gram, is one of the most important
staining techniques in microbiology.
https://www.celebrityborn.com/biog
raphy/hans-christian-gram/16333

The Gram reaction

reflects fundamental
differences in the
biochemical and
structural properties of
bacteria.

https://microbenotes.com/differences-between-gram-positive-and-gram-negative-
bacteria/
 GRAM
STAINING
PROCEDURE

https://rsscience.com/observing-bacteria-under-the-
microscope-gram-stain-steps/
https://www.mcqbiology.com/2013/02/mcq-
on-gram-staining.html#.X2jF0BAzbIU
 Gram positive bacteria vs Gram negative bacteria

Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia coli

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Gram-stain-of-E-coli-bacterium-A-
https://www.medicalimages.com/mainMenu.do?redirected=1 gram-stain-of-shows-gramnegative-bacilli-in-an_fig4_319130632
Gram Positive and Gram Negative
Cell wall

https://www.easybiologyclass.com/difference-between-the-cell-wall-of-
gram-positive-and-gram-negative-bacteria/
 Gram Positive Cell Wall
• The Gram positive cell wall is characterized
by the presence of a very thick Peptidoglycan
layer
• 20-80 nm thick
• Cell wall contains 90% Peptidoglycan and
10%Teichoic acid

• anionic glycopolymers
• These polymers play crucial roles in cell shape determination,
regulation of cell division, and other fundamental aspects of gram-
positive bacterial physiology.
• Interwoven in the cell wall of gram-positive are Teichoic
acids and lipoteichoic acids.
• Teichoic acids composed of polymers of glycerol,
phosphates, and the sugar alcohol- ribitol.
https://www.quora.com/How-do-Gram-positive-bacteria-have-a-cell-wall-
however-it-is-made-up-of-only-the-inner-membrane-which-is-made-up-of-the-
cell-membrane

• Teichoic acids constitute for the major surface antigens. https://pixels.com/featured/1-

streptococcus-bacteria-
cnriscience-photo-library.html

e.g.: In Streptococcus pneumoniae (Gram positive) Teichoic acid bears the

antigenic determinants called the “Forssman antigen”
 Gram Negative Cell Wall

• Gram negative cell wall contains a thin

Peptidoglycan layer adjacent to the
cytoplasmic membrane,

• In addition to the Peptidoglycan layer, the

Gram negative cell wall also contains an
additional outer membrane composed by
phospholipids and Lipopolysaccharide which
face into the external environment.
The LPS present on the Gram negative cell wall
consists of 3 regions:
• Polysaccharide determining O antigen
• Core Polysaccharide
• Glycolipid portion /Lipid A
https://www.festivalclaca.cat/view/53664/
• All the three factors are responsible
for the endotoxic activities………

• LPS Endotoxin causes a form of Septic

Shock for which there is no direct
treatment.

https://link.springer.com/chapter/1
0.1007/978-3-030-17148-3_22
 https://slideplayer.com/slide/4220705/

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/381680137149195973/
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/mod/oucontent/vi
ew.php?id=75460&section=4.1
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4365061/
http://immense-immunology-insight.blogspot.com/2014/04/cell-wall-of-
gram-positive-and-gram.html
https://microbeonline.com/gram-staining-
principle-procedure-results/
 Acid Fast Staining: Ziehl-Neelsen Stain (ZN-Stain)
• also called the hot method of AFB staining, is a type of
differential bacteriological stain used to identify acid-fast
organisms, mainly Mycobacteria.
https://laboratoryinfo.com/zn-stain/
The ZN staining technique is based on the work of five people. Koch,
Ehrlich, Ziehl, Rindfleisch and Neelsen, but it is popularly known as
the ‘Ziehl-Neelsen’ method.

Robert Koch stained tubercle bacilli by immersing in a hot alkaline

solution of methylene blue for 24 hours (1882)

Ehrlich discovered the distinctive property of acid-fastness i.e., ability

to resist decolourisation with acid (1882). He stained bacillus with
basic fuchsin in the presence of aniline oil as mordant and used dilute
mineral oil for decolorization.

Ziehl used carbolic acid as the mordant instead of aniline oil (1882).

Rindfleisch heated the slide for few minutes instead of putting into a
hot solution and reduced the staining time (1882).

Neelsen combined Basic fuchsin and carbolic acid together and used
these as a single solution (1883).
Acid fast organisms - are those which are capable of
retaining the primary stain when treated with an acid
(fast=holding capacity).

• Members of the Actinomycetes, genus Nocardia

(N. brasiliensis and N. asteroides are opportunistic
pathogens) are partially acid-fast. Oocysts of coccidian
, such as Cryptosporidium and Isospora, are also acid-fast.

• Organisms such as Mycobacteria are extremely difficult

to stain by ordinary methods like Gram Stain because of
the high lipid content of the cell wall.
Isospora belli (20 - 30 μm long by 10-19 μm
Cryptosporidium sp.: oocysts (intense
wide) - immature oocyst (modified acid fast
red, modified acid-fast stain) stain)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Cryptosporidium-sp-
https://microbenotes.com/habitat-and- oocysts-intense-red-modified-acid-fast- https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/smallbowelisosp
morphology-of-mycobacterium-leprae/ stain_fig6_23445584 ora.html
1) Phenolic compound carbol fuchsin is used as the primary stain because it is
lipid soluble and penetrates the waxy cell wall.

2) Staining by carbol fuchsin is further enhanced by steam heating the

preparation to melt the wax and allow the stain to move into the
cell.

3) Acid is used to decolorize nonacid-fast cells; acid-fast cells resist this

decolorization. The ability of the bacteria to resist decolorization with acid
confers acid -fastness to the bacterium.

4) Following decolorization, the smear is counterstained with malachite

green or methylene blue which stains the background material, providing a
contrast colour against which the red AFB can be seen.

*Acid alcohol can also be used as decolorizing solution, resistant organisms are
referred to as Acid Fast Bacilli (AFB) or Acid Alcohol Fast Bacilli (AAFB).

Results and interpretation:

Acid Fast Bacilli : Red, straight or slightly curved rods, occurring singly or in
small groups, may appear beaded
Cells : Green (malachite green) or Blue (methylene blue)
Background material : Green (malachite green) or Blue (methylene blue)
List of Acid Fast organisms Isospora belli

Mycobacterium spp: Acid Fast

Cyst of Cryptosporidium: Acid Fast
Cyst of Isospora: Acid Fast
Nocardia spp: Partial Acid Fast
Rhodococcus spp: Partial Acid Fast
Legionella micdadei: Partially acid fast in https://www.k-
state.edu/parasitology/625tutorials/Ooc
tissue ysts04.html

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

https://microbenotes.com/laboratory-diagnosis-of-leprosy-caused-by- https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Tuberculous-bacilli-acid-fast-
mycobacterium-leprae/ bacilli-present-in-large-quantities-within-the_fig5_303129346
 Cytoplasmic Membrane

• It is a thin layer lining the inner surface

of the cell wall.

• Semipermiable membrane controlling

the flow of metabolites

• Chemically, consists of Lipoprotein and

carbohydrates. Sterols are absent
 Appendages literally means
“Parts of the body that
protrude out from the main
body”.

https://atgventure.com/cell-wall-appendages-the-glycocalyx/
https://www.slideshare.net/SantoshYadav225/bacterial-anatomy-65851163
There are two types of Glycocalyx based on their
structure and adherence to the bacterial cell wall, namely:

Capsule

When glycocalyx is tightly bound to the cell wall of

bacteria, it is referred to as capsule. It is gelatinous in
nature and cannot be easily stained and removed from the
bacterial cell wall

Slime Layer

The glycocalyx called “slime layer” is loosely bound to the

cell wall of bacteria. Slime layer is irregular and can easily
be removed via centrifugation from the bacterial cell wall.
https://slideplayer.com/slide/5677854/
Slime layer

Streptococcus

The slime layer of Gram+ Streptococcus mutans allows

it to accumulate on tooth enamel (yuck mouth and one
of the causes of cavities).

Other bacteria in the mouth become trapped in the

slime and form a biofilm & eventually a buildup of
plaque.
 Capsule

• is a sharply defined, organized structure

(e.g.: Pneumococcus)

Colorless capsule surrounding the

• Most bacterial capsules bacterial cell
are composed of
Polysaccharides
e.g.: Klebsiella pneumoniae

• A few capsules are

Polypeptides
e.g.: Bacillus anthracis
https://www.britannica.com/science/bacteria/C
apsules-and-slime-layers
Functions of Capsules

• Antiphagocytic,thus contribute “Virulence”.

• Protects against “Lysozyme”

• Promote attachment of bacteria to

surface(e.g. Streptococcus mutans).

• Permits bacteria to adhere to Medical

Implants & Catheters.
 Klebsiella pneumoniae

https://www.inds.co.uk/produ
ct/capsule-stain-klebsiella-
pneumoniae-smear-
specially-stained/ https://www.slideshare.net/nagendragowda143/capsule-staining
https://www.slideshare.net/nagendragowda143/capsule-staining
Functions of Glycocalyx

Disease: It is a virulence factor in most bacteria, and it contributes to

their ability to cause diseases in their host.

Protection: Glycocalyx protects bacteria from antibiotics, chemicals

and against the lytic and phagocytic activities of host’s white blood
cells.

Adherence to surfaces: The sticky nature of the glycocalyx enables

bacteria to attach themselves firmly to the surface of their
host. Streptococcus mutans, the causal agent of tooth decay adheres
to the surface of decaying teeth with the help of glycocalyx.

Avoidance of desiccation: Glycocalyx (especially capsule) contains

water as its constituent. This help to prevent dryness of the bacterial
cell.

In cell-cell recognition: The glycocalyx carries receptors on their

surface that allows them to bind to other cells of close species.
https://slideplayer.com/slide/14169284/
 SURFACE APPENDAGES
https://www.easybiologyclass.com/tag/cell-surface-appendages/
 ⚫Some bacterial species are
mobile and possess
locomotory organelles -
flagella. Flagella consist of
a number of proteins
including flagellin

⚫The diameter of a flagellum

is thin, 20 nm, and long with
some having a length 10
times the diameter of cell.
Due to their small diameter,
flagella cannot be seen in the
light microscope unless a
special stain is applied.
Bacteria can have one or
more flagella arranged in
clumps or spread all over the
cell.
https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/bacteriacell.html
 Flagella
• Unbranched, long ,filaments ,made up of protein “Flagellin”

• Organs of locomotion

• Found in all motile bacteria except Spirochetes

• Flagella are highly antigenic,

• Termed as the ‘H’ Antigen.

• Some of the immune responses are directed against these

proteins.
 Structure of Flagella
• 3-20 Micrometer.

• Each flagellum consists of 3 parts

1.Filament
2.Hook
3.Basal body

https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/bacterial-
flagella-structure-types-function/
 - Vibrio cholerae

- Spirillum

- Alkaligens faecalis

- E. Coli, Salmonella and

Bacillus spp.

http://botanystudies.com/structure-and-function-of-bacterial-flagella/
https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Swarming_Motility_of_Pseudomonas_aeruginosa
Kinds of Motility:

• Darting motility :
V.cholerae
• Tumbling motility:
L.monocyctogenes
• Cork &screw motility:
T.pallidum
• Stately motile :
Clostridium spp.
• Serpentine motility:
Salmonella
(Except
S.gallonarum pullorum)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa swarm motility

https://engineering.nd.edu/portfolios/jshrout/pseudomonas-aeruginosa-swarm-motility/image_view_fullscreen
Counterclockwise rotation of a monotrichous polar flagellum pushes the
cell forward with the flagellum trailing behind, much like a corkscrew
moving inside cork.

Flagella are left-handed helices, and bundle and rotate together only
when rotating counterclockwise.

When some of the rotors reverse direction, the flagella unwind and the
cell starts "tumbling".

Even if all flagella would rotate clockwise, they likely will not form a
bundle.

➢ "tumbling" may happen occasionally,

leading to the cell seemingly thrashing
about in place, resulting in the
reorientation of the cell.

http://virtuallaboratory.colorado.edu/BioFun
-Support/labs/Adaptation/section_02.html
The clockwise rotation of a flagellum is suppressed by
chemical compounds favorable to the cell (e.g. food), but
the motor is highly adaptive to this.

Therefore, when moving in a favorable direction, the

concentration of the chemical attractant increases and
"tumbles" are continually suppressed; however, when the
cell's direction of motion is unfavorable (e.g., away from a
chemical attractant), tumbles are no longer suppressed and
occur much more often, with the chance that the cell will
be thus reoriented in the correct direction.
Listeria

https://creativemeddoses.com/topics-list/listeria-
monocytogenes-with-rocket-tail/
 Swimming

Bacterial cells like Escherichia.coli swim by rotating a 'propeller'

made from a bundle of long thin filaments.

The bacterial flagellar motor is the tiny nanomachine that rotates

these filaments.

When all the motors at the base of each filament rotate counter-
clockwise together, the filaments bundle to form a propeller that
rotates counter-clockwise, and the bacterium swims through its
environment rotating subtly the other way while it moves to where
life is better.

https://phys.org/news/2008-11-
https://phys.org/news/2019- bacteria-physicists.html
09-flagellar-bacterial-
motility.html
Twitching / crawling

Is a form of crawling bacterial motility used to move over surfaces.

Twitching is mediated by the activity of hair-like filaments called type

IV pili which extend from the cell's exterior, bind to surrounding solid
substrates and retract, pulling the cell forwards in a manner similar to
the action of a grappling hook.

https://www.nature.com/arti
cles/s41598-019-51101-3
 This type of movement
has been observed in
Phylogenetically diverse
bacteria, such
as cyanobacteria,
myxobacteria,
cytophaga and
mycoplasmas, and
may play an important
role in biofilm
formation, bacterial
virulence and
chemosensing.

https://slideplayer.com/slid
e/3922865/
Sliding

Mechanism of sliding motility, the expansion powered by

the pushing force of dividing cells.

https://jcs.biologists.org/content/132/7/jcs227694.figures-only
Brownian motion

• is the random, uncontrolled movement of particles in a

fluid as they constantly collide with other molecules

• They are in part responsible for facilitating movement

in bacteria that do not encode or express motility
appendages, such as Streptococcus and Klebsiella
species.
Detection of motility and presence of Flagella:

• Direct observation by hanging drop method

• Dark field microscopy

• Motility media (such as Sulfide Indole Motility Media)

• Flagellar staining

• Electron microscopy

https://biologyreader.com/motility
• Immunological detection of “H” antigen -test.html
 a. Common pili or fimbriae:
fine , rigid numerous,
related to bacterial
adhesion

b. Sex pili: longer and

coarser, only 1-4,
related to bacterial
conjugation

https://microbiologynotes.com/differences-
between-fimbriae-and-pili/
 Pili
• Short protein appendages
– smaller than flagella
https://microbeonline.com/bacterial-pili-fimbriae-
characteristics-types-and-medical-importance/
• Adhere bacteria to surfaces
– E. coli has numerous types
• K88, K99, F41, etc.
– Antibodies to it will block adherence.

• F-pilus; used in conjugation

– Exchange of genetic information https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiolog
y/Book%3A_Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_I
ntroduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_C
ell_Anatomy/2%3A_The_Prokaryotic_Cell_-
_Bacteria/2.5%3A_Structures_Outside_the_Cell
_Wall/2.5C%3A_Fimbriae_and_Pili
Fimbriae
• Hair like surface appendages

• 0.5-10 nm thick

• Shorter thinner than flagella

https://www.easybiologyclass.com/differenc
e-between-flagella-and-fimbriae-of-
bacteria-a-comparison-table/

• Formed of protein subunits – Pilin • Organs of adhesion

• Forms “Pellicles”
• Hemagglutination –
Clumping of RBC’s
(Escherichia,Klebsiella)
• Special type of Fimbriae
called Sex pili,help in
attachment to other
bacteria
https://microbiologynotes.com/differences-
between-fimbriae-and-pili/
• Found in Bacillus, Clostridium

https://slideplayer.com/slide/10516662/
 Endospores ⚫ Identification of
Bacteria
(spores) ⚫ Pathogenesis
⚫ Resistance

• Dormant cell
• Resistant to adverse
conditions
- high temperatures
- organic solvents

• Produced when starved https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-

spore-and-vegetative-cell/

• Contain calcium
dipicolinate
DPA, Dipicolinic acid
https://slideplayer.com/slide/5789729/
 Position of Spores

Clostridium botulinum

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/13510867618800611/ https://www.jaypeedigital.com/book/9789350251508/chapter/ch3
https://biomedres.us/fulltexts/BJSTR.MS.ID.003500.php
https://www.slideshare.net/kaberinath123/spore-staining
 https://microbiologyinfo.com/endospore-staining-
Spore Staining principle-reagents-procedure-and-result/

Principle of Endospore Staining

In the Schaeffer-Fulton`s method, a primary stain-malachite green is forced into the spore
by steaming the bacterial emulsion. Malachite green is water soluble and has a low affinity
for cellular material, so vegetative cells may be decolourized with water. Safranin is then
applied to counterstain any cells which have been decolorized. At the end of the staining
process, vegetative cells will be pink, and endospores will be dark green.
 Importance:

Plasmids • Their presence confers

certain special characters……
• Toxigenicity
• Extra chromosomal DNA • Antibiotic Resistance
• Ability to use certain unusual
components as nutrients

• Circular capable of autonomous replication.

• Transferred from one bacterium to another.

https://byjus.com/biology/r-factor/
Basic Structure of a protozoan

https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/protozoan.html
• composed of cytoplasm (cellular fluid) divided into two parts: a thin, clear, gel-like
outer layer that acts as a membrane (ectoplasm); and an inner, more watery grainy
mass (endoplasm) containing structures called organelles.
- in the endoplasm = food synthesis
takes place; & food is stored in the
form of glycogen or protein called
chromatoidal bodies.

- ectoplasm = envelopes the cell; fxns

as the locomotor apparatus for the
procurement & ingestion of food, in
respiration, discharge of metabolic
wastes & protection of the org.
- locomotory organelles arising from the
ectoplasm may vary from:

a) Cilia – in Ciliates; numerous short threads

distributed over the surface of the body.
b) Pseudopodia – false feet; in Amoebae
(crawling movement)
c) Flagella – in flagellates; hair-like https://courses.lumenlearning.co

projections
m/wm-biology2/chapter/cell-
structure-and-motility/
PROTOZOANS
- Absorb liquid nutriment from the medium or
ingest bacteria & cells at any site of the body
surface.
- Others have specialized cell mouth called
CYTOSTOME usu. located in anterior end of
the body.
- Ciliates have in addition a cell anus or
CYTOPEGE at the posterior end of the body
& through which particulate food wastes
are discharged.

-The typical life stages of protozoans: Cyst and

trophozoite
 Trophozoites – are vegetative or feeding
forms

http://www.medical-labs.net/entamoeba-
Endosome /Karyosome histolytica-trophozoite-1366/

- A more or less central body in the vesicular nucleus of

certain protozoa (for example, trypanosomes, parasitic
amebae), with the chromatin.
 vacuole

https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/entamoeba-histolytica-morphology-
life-cycle-pathogenesis-clinical-manifestation-lab-diagnosis-treatment/

Endosome

Chromatoidal body

Cysts – non-motile
-Usually the infective stage
- highly resistant
https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/amebi https://www1.udel.edu/mls/dlehman/me
dt372/E-hist.html
asis/index.html
 Usually there are 2 types of food inclusions in the
unripe & ripening cyst:

1) a mass of glycogen with hazy margins; and

2) highly refractile objects, the chromatoidal

bodies, long or short rods with rounded ends.

Entamoeba histolytica cyst

Chromatoidal body

http://www.med-chem.com/para-
site.php?url=org/entahist
Iodamoeba butschliii cyst Other protozoans would
have pronounced
structures such as a called
iodinophilous vacuole (glycogen stains
with iodine, hence also called
glycogen vacuole.

This striking feature helps in the

identification of the amoeba.
http://www.med-chem.com/para-
site.php?url=org/iodabuts
 https://microbewiki.kenyon
.edu/index.php/The_Role
_of_Giardia_lamblia_in_D
ay_Cares

https://www.slideshare.net/farooqmarwat/lact-8-protoza
 Characteristic features of the stained trophozoite include:

1) two nuclei (Nu) with central karyosomes (k),

2) fibrils running the length of the parasite –

axonemes (Ax), and

3) Median Bodies (MB)/ Parabasal bodies

Giardia lamblia,
trophozoite
https://www.tulane.edu/~wiser/pr
otozoology/notes/intes.html

• The function of the median bodies are

not known, but most believe they are
somehow involved with the adhesive disk
and its formation.

• Adhesive disk plays a role in the

attachment of the trophozoite to the https://mykindofscience.com/2016/11/23/li
intestinal epithelium. fe-under-the-microscope-giardia-lamblia/
CILIATES
https://musculoskeletalkey.com/protozoa-the-basic-facts/

https://microbiologyinfo.com/diff
erences-between-cilia-and-
flagella/
Fungi can be single celled or very complex
multicellular organisms.

They are found in just about any habitat but most

live on the land, mainly in soil or on plant material
rather than in sea or fresh water.

Types of fungi

Fungi are subdivided on the basis of their life

cycles, the presence or structure of their fruiting
body and the arrangement of and type of spores
(reproductive or distributional cells) they produce.
The three major groups of fungi are:

• multicellular filamentous molds

• macroscopic filamentous fungi that form

large fruiting bodies. Sometimes the group is
referred to as ‘mushrooms’, but the mushroom is
just the part of the fungus we see above ground
which is also known as the fruiting body.

• single celled microscopic yeasts

https://www.sciencesource.com/CS.aspx?VP3=LoginRegi Penicillium notatum on agar media
stration&L=True&R=False

Penicillium chrysogenum is also known

as Penicillium notatum, the first Penicillium fungi
used for the isolation of penicillin antibiotics,
which is used for the treatment of Gram-positive
bacteria. It is also used in the production of
other β-lactam antibiotics.
https://www.slideshare.net/scuffruff/fungi-520780
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4014468/
 https://www.britannica.com/science
/Saccharomyces-cerevisiae

https://www.sciencephoto.
com/media/951727/view/y
east-saccharomyces-
Yeasts are small, lemon-shaped single cerevisiae-illustration
cells that are about the same size as
red blood cells. They multiply by
https://alchetron.com
budding a daughter cell off from the /Saccharomyces-
original parent cell. cerevisiae
 Yeast on agar medium
Cell structure of a yeast

http://www.labm.com/product.asp?id
=1656

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-69126-8_2

http://blog.microscopeworld.com/2014/05/kids
-science-microscope-activity-yeast.html
https://www.correlation-
net.org/hep_c_trainers_manual/Module01/slides/slide1_07.PNG
https://www.slideshare.net/AshishRanghani/virus-structure-77468676
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-5-evolution-and-biodi/53-
classification-of-biodiv/virus-classification.html
https://www.slideshare.net/lhenparungao/
virology-lecture-2-viral-structure
https://za.pinterest.com/pin/828803137647046059/
https://in.pinterest.com/pin/732538695626642962