1

PROJECT REPORT
ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION

Under the Guidance of-

Mr. Rajesh Kumar Sinha (CM at E&T)
Submitted by-
Shakshi Kumari

________________________ ____________________________
Student Signature (Signature)

Mr. Rajesh Kumar Sinha

Chief Manager at E&T
BCCL Koyla Bhawan, Dhanbad
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PREFACE

This report document is the outcome during the Industrial Training at

Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL), Dhanbad under the supervision of
Mr. Rajesh Kumar Sinha CM(E&T)
The report first shall give an overview of the tasks completed during
the period of training with technical details. Then the results obtained
shall be discussed and analyzed. Report shall also elaborate the future
works which can be persuaded as an advancement of the current
work.
During, this period I got the real, firsthand on experience of working in
the actual environment. Most of the theoretical and practical
knowledge that has been gained during the course study is put to test
here. Apart from this I got an opportunity to learn the latest
technology which will immensely help me in building my Career.
I have tried my best to keep report simple yet technically connect. I
hope l succeed in my attempt.
SHAKSHI KUMARI
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BHARAT COKING COAL LIMITED

A Mini Ratna Company
Koyla Bhawan, Koyla Nagar, Dhanbad – 826005

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project titled as TELECOMMUNICATION AND

VTS is an original work carried out by SHAKSHI KUMARI student of Dr.
B. C. Roy Engineering College, Durgapur during the training in Bharat
Coking Coal Limited (BCCL), KOYLA BHAWAN, DHANBAD from
07/07/2022 to 07/08/2022 (4 weeks)
The matter furnished in the Internship is an authentic work done by
the student that has been submitted to any University/Institute for the
fulfilment of any course of study.

Mr. Rajesh Kumar Sinha

Chief Manager at E&T
Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL)
Koyla Bhawan, Dhanbad
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The project report on TELECOMMUNICATION AND VTS is an outcome

of guidance, moral support and devotion bestowed on me throughout
my work. For this I acknowledge and express my profound sense of
gratitude and thanks to everybody who has been a source of
inspiration.
First and foremost, I would like to offer my gratitude to Human
Resource Development (HRD) Department of BCCL for granting me
the permission to carry out this Internship.
My sincere thanks to Mr. RAJESH KUMAR SINHA (CM at E&T) for
approving this internship. I would also like to thank Mr. SAURAV
CHOUDHURY who helped me understand all the work and provided
me with the knowledge of the whole system. I would like to thank
them for guiding me throughout this project. Without them, this
Internship would not have been successful.
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INDEX

Table Topic Page No.

1 Flowchart 6-11
2 GPS (Global Positioning System) 12-13
3 Weigh Bridge (WB) 14-18
4 MPLS (Multi-Protocol Label Switching) 19-23
5 CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) 24-26

6 EPABX (Electronic Private Automatic Branch 27-34

Exchange)
7 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) 35-37
8 Underground Communication 38-40
9 IRNSS System 41-43
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FLOWCHART OF ELECTRONICS &

TELECOMMUNICATION

BCCL/Coal Industry

Communication Industrial Application Safety/Security

Underground Surface Weigh Vehicle CCTV Environmental

RFID Boom
communication communication bridges tracking telephony
barrier
system system in UG
mine

Sound power
telephone
(Magneto phone)
Radar Based O.B Monitoring
system Slope stability system
Land Hailing

Auto cum Manual

U/G Communication

Shaft Cage
communication
(Wireless)

Wi-Fi based
communication
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Surface communication

VHF GPRS Exchange

(Mobile)

Point To Point Point to multipoint

Walkie- Talkie MARR-------- MART

(Hand held)

Analog Digital

Mobiles

Very high frequency (VHF) :- VHF refers to the radio frequency of electromagnetic waves
ranging from 30 to 300 MHz with corresponding wavelengths ranging from 1 m to tens of
meters. VHF is widely used for FM broadcasting, television broadcasting, military and local
mobile radio transmissions, traffic control long communications, radars, radio modems, as
well as in marine and air navigation systems.

The frequency band of VHF Communication is 30 MHz to 300 MHZ. The frequency allotted
by Wireless Planning and Coordination (WPC) wing of ministry of communication in VHF in
the band for free and for paid -

(a) 85.5 to 86.5 MHz (b) 146.2 to 167.95 MHz

Paid Licenced Base-

Each licence category has certain privileges allotted to it, including the allotment of
frequencies, output power, and the emission modes. This article lists the various
frequencies allotted to various classes, and the corresponding emission modes and
input DC power. They have to pay yearly basis as licence fee.
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There are two types of VHF-

1) Point to Point- A point to point communication (also known as P2P) is an established

connection between two nodes that can be used to communicate back and forth. The most
prominent example of point to point communication is a simple telephone call, where one
phone is connected with another, and both nodes can send and receive audio.

Early on in the advent of telecommunication, these P2P connections were established

using circuit-switched landlines. However, nowadays point to point communication in
modern networks is made possible by complex optical-fibre networks. Different types of
P2P connections can transmit different types of information, be it digital or analog signals.

One of the best examples of Point to Point Connection is Walkie talkie.

Walkie-talkies resemble a telephone handset, with a speaker built into one end and a
microphone in the other (in some devices the speaker is also used as the microphone) and
an antenna mounted on the top of the unit. They are held up to the face to talk. A walkie-
talkie is a half-duplex communication device. Multiple walkie-talkies use a single radio
 9

channel, and only one radio on the channel can transmit at a time, although any number
can listen. The transceiver is normally in receive mode; when the user wants to talk, they
must press a "push-to-talk" (PTT) button that turns off the receiver and turns on the
transmitter. Smaller versions of this device are also very popular among young children.

2) Point to Multipoint- In telecommunications, point-to-multipoint communication

(P2MP, PTMP or PMP) is communication which is accomplished via a distinct type of one-
to-many connection, providing multiple paths from a single location to multiple locations.
Point-to-multipoint telecommunications is typically used in wireless Internet and IP
telephony via gigahertz radio frequencies. P2MP systems have been designed with and
without a return channel from the multiple receivers. A central antenna or antenna array
broadcasts to several receiving antennas and the system uses a form of time-division
multiplexing to allow for the return channel traffic.
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There are two types of point to multi point :-

1. MARR- Multi Access Rural Radio Analog System in the VHF/UHF Band is intended for
efficient telecommunication facilities in areas where use of conventional open wire lines
are neither feasible or economical.

MARR consists of one Base Station Unit (BSU) and 36 Remote Subscriber Units (RSU).

2. MART-

(a) Analog- An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time-varying feature of
the signal represents some other time-varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time-
varying signal. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the
signal varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves.

(b) Digital- A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values;
at any given time, it can only take on, at most, one of a finite number of values. This
contrasts with an analog signal, which represents continuous values; at any given time, it
represents a real number within a continuous range of values.
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UPS

Power supply Exchange MDF

D.P. Box D.P. Box

D.P. Box

D.P. Box
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GPS (Global Positioning System)

GPS stands for Global Positioning System. It is a global navigation satellite system that
provides geo location and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the
Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. Obstacles
such as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS signals.

The GPS does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates independently of
any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the
usefulness of the GPS positioning information. The GPS provides critical positioning
capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world.
The GPS concept is based on time and the known position of GPS specialized satellites. The
satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized with one another and with
the ground clocks. Any drift from true time maintained on the ground is corrected daily. In
the same manner, the satellite locations are known with great precision. GPS receivers
have clocks as well, but they are less stable and less precise.
Each GPS satellite continuously transmits a radio signal containing the current time and
data about its position. Since the speed of radio waves is constant and independent of the
satellite speed, the time delay between when the satellite transmits a signal and the
receiver receives it is proportional to the distance from the satellite to the receiver.

Evolution of GPS
The Global Positioning System, formally known as the Navistar Global Positioning System,
was initiated as a joint civil/military technical program in 1973. The joint program
combined the best aspects of several service-centric capabilities including TRANSIT,
TIMATION, and Project 621B to reduce the proliferation of navigation aids. GPS became
attractive to a broad spectrum of users worldwide. The Global Positioning System has been
successful in virtually all navigation and timing applications, and because its capabilities
are accessible using small, inexpensive equipment, GPS is being used in a wide variety of
applications across the globe.
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Trilateration
Trilateration is determining a position by knowing your distance from at least 3 known
points. In GPS those known points are the satellites themselves. It is important to
understand that this is a simple exercise in trilateration itself, and not an exact
representation of how the process of GPS positioning works

How to find a position using GPS

GPS positioning works on two basic mathematical concepts. The first is called trilateration,
which literally means positioning from three distances. The second concept is the
relationship between distance travelled, rate (speed) of travel and amount of time spent
traveling, or –

Distance = Rate × Time

When a GPS fails

When a GPS navigator receives insufficient satellite data because it’s not able to track
enough satellite, trilateration fails. Obstruction such as large buildings or mountains may
also block weak satellite signals and prevent the accurate calculation of location. The GPS
device will alert the user in some way that it is unable to provide correct position
information.
Satellites may also fail temporarily. Signals may move too slowly due to factors in the
troposphere and ionosphere, for example – Signals might also ping off certain formations
and structures on the Earth, causing a trilateration error.
The global Positioning System (GPS) is a technical marvel made possible by a group of
satellite in Earth’s orbit. It transmits precise signals, allowing GPS receivers to calculate and
display accurate location, speed, and time information to the user. GPS is owned by the
U.S.
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Weigh Bridge
A weighbridge or a truck scale is a set of scale which is used to weigh bulk items. It is a set
of scale which is mounted by the weighbridges manufacturer on a concrete surface. It has
an electronic or digital monitor which displays the weight of the vehicle weighed.
Weighbridges are mainly used for weighing large vehicles like trucks or rail containers
where movement of goods is done through vehicles. Reliable and accurate weighing helps
the industry by giving them the exact figures to maintain their goods inward and goods
outward.

Weigh Bridge (WB)

Operation Wise Technology Wise

Fully Electronic WB
Static WB In Motion WB Semi Electronic WB
Mechanical WB
Rail WB Rail WB
Road WB Road WB

Based on operation it is of two types-

1. Static Weigh Bridge-
The static weigh bridge is used for measuring the total weight of vehicles in
motionlessness. That's why we call it the static weigh bridge. It excels in high accuracy. It's
used in agriculture, food industry, processing plants, etc.
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There are two types of Static Weigh Bridge –

(a) Rail Weigh Bridge - Not in use.

(b) Road Weigh Bridge – Different size, different capacity, and different number of load
cell.
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Component of Road Weigh Bridge -

• Weigh Bridge Platform
• Load cells
• Yoke as per load cell
• Junction box
• Digitizer
• PC and Printer
• Display Board

Size of platform No. of load cell Capacity of Weigh Bridge

(9 x 3) Mt or 4Mt 4 40T, 60T
(14 x 3) Mt or 4Mt 6 60T, 80T, 100T
(16 x 3) Mt or 4Mt 6 100T & Above
(5.5Mt + 5Mt + 5.5Mt) = 16Mt 8 100T & Above

2. In Motion Weigh Bridge-

In motion weigh bridge is used for measuring the total weight of vehicles in motion. That’s
why we call it in motion weigh bridge. It is used to measure the road or rail vehicles.
There are two types of Motion Weigh bridge-
(a) Road Weigh Bridge – Less accuracy
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(b) Rail Weigh Bridge –

Based on technology it is of two types-

1. Fully Electronic- In fully Electronic weigh bridge, weight of vehicles are measured
automatically by electronic devices.
2. Semi Electronic- Not in use
3. Mechanical- Not in use
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Block diagram of a weigh bridge:-

PC

Printer

Digitizer

Junction
Box

Load Cell 3m Load Cell

8m 8m

WB Platform
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Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) is data forwarding technology that increases the
speed and controls the flow of network traffic. With MPLS, data is directed through a path
via labels instead of requiring complex lookups in a routing table at every stop.

Scalable and protocol independent, this technique works with Internet Protocol (IP) and
Asynchronous Transport Mode (ATM).

When data enters a traditional IP network, it moves among network nodes based on long
network addresses. With this method, each router on which a data packet lands must make
its own decision, based on routing tables, about the packet’s next stop on the network.
MPLS, on the other hand, assigns a label to each packet to send it along a predetermined
path.

How Does Multiprotocol Label Switching Work?

Label Switched Paths (LSPs) are predetermined, unidirectional paths between pairs of
routers across an MPLS network.

1. When a packet enters the network through a Label Edge Router (also known as an
“ingress node”), it is assigned to a Forwarding Equivalence Class (FEC), depending on
the type of data and its intended destination. FECs are used to identify packets with
similar or identical characteristics.

2. Based on the FEC, the ingress node will apply a label to the packet and encapsulate
it inside an LSP.

3. As the packet moves through the network’s “transit nodes” (also known as Label
Switch Routers), those routers continue to direct the data by the instructions in the
packet label. These in-between stops are based on the packet label, not additional
IP lookups.

4. At the “egress node,” or final router at the end of the LSP, the label is removed and
the packet is delivered via normal IP routing.

A label stack is made up of at least four parts:

⚫ Label value: holds the information for routers to determine where the packet should
go next

⚫ Traffic class field: sets Quality of Service priority and Explicit Congestion Notification

⚫ Bottom of stack flag: indicates the last label in the stack

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⚫ Time-to-live (TTL) field: limits the lifespan of the data, or how many hops it can make
before it’s discarded

⚫ Labels can also be stacked. The top label controls packet delivery; when it reaches its
destination, that label is “popped,” and the label underneath takes over for direction.

MPLS Terminology
o Forwarding Equivalence Class (FEC) – As noted in RFC 3031(MPLS architecture), this
group of packets are forwarded in the same manner (over the same path with the
same forwarding treatment).

o MPLS Label Switch Router (LSR) – Performs the function of label switching; the LSR
receives a labelled packet and swaps the label with an outgoing label and forwards
the new labelled packet from the appropriate interface. The LSR, depending on its
location in the MPLS domain, can either perform label disposition (removal, also
called pop), label imposition (addition, also called push) or label swapping (replacing
the top label in a label stack with a new outgoing label value). The LSR, depending
on its location in the MPLS domain, might also perform label stack imposition or
disposition. The concept of a label stack is explained later in this section. During label
swapping, the LSR replaces only the top label in the label stack; the other labels in
the label stack are left untouched during label swapping and forwarding operation
at the LSR.

o MPLS Edge-Label Switch Router (E-LSR) – An LSR at the border of an MPLS domain.
The ingress Edge LSR performs the functions of label imposition (push) and
forwarding of a packet to destination through the MPLS-enabled domain. The egress
Edge LSR performs the functions of label disposition or removal (pop) and
forwarding an IP packet to the destination. Note that the imposition and disposition
processes on an Edge LSR might involve label stacks versus only labels.

o MPLS Label Switched Path (LSP) – The path from source to destination for a data
packet through an MPLS-enabled network. LSPs are unidirectional in nature. The LSP
is usually derived from IGP routing information but can diverge from the IGP's
preferred path to the destination (as in MPLS traffic engineering, which is discussed
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in Chapter 9, "MPLS Traffic Engineering"). In Figure 1-4, the LSP for network
172.16.10.0/24 from R4 is R4-R3-R2-R1.
o Upstream and downstream – The concept of downstream and upstream are pivotal
in understanding the operation of label distribution (control plane) and data
forwarding in an MPLS domain. Both downstream and upstream are defined with
reference to the destination network: prefix or FEC. Data intended for a particular
destination network always flows downstream. Updates (routing protocol or label
distribution, LDP/TDP) pertaining to a specific prefix are always propagated
upstream. This is depicted in Figure 1-5 where downstream with reference to the
destination prefix 172.16.20.0/24 is in the path R1-R2-R3, and downstream with
reference to 172.16.10.0/24 is the path R3-R2-R1. Therefore, in Figure 1-5, R2 is
downstream to R1 for destination 172.16.20.0/24, and R1 is downstream to R2 for
destination 172.16.10.0/24

Figure 1-5. Upstream and Downstream:

o MPLS labels and label stacks – An MPLS label is a 20-bit number that is assigned to
a destination prefix on a router that defines the properties of the
o prefix as well as forwarding mechanisms that will be performed for a packet destined
for the prefix.

The format of an MPLS label is shown in Figure

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MPLS Label

An MPLS label consists of the following parts:

o 20-bit label value

o 3-bit experimental field
o 1-bit bottom-of-stack indicator
o 8-bit Time-to-Live field

The 20-bit label value is a number assigned by the router that identifies the prefix in
question. Labels can be assigned either per interface or per chassis. The 3-bit experimental
field defines the QoS assigned to the FEC in question that has been assigned a label. For
example, the 3 experimental bits can map to the 7 IP precedence values to map the IP QoS
assigned to packets as they traverse an MPLS domain.

A label stack is an ordered set of labels where each label has a specific function. If the
router (Edge LSR) imposes more than one label on a single IP packet, it leads to what is
called a label stack, where multiple labels are imposed on a single IP packet. Therefore, the
bottom-of-stack indicator identifies if the label that has been encountered is the bottom
label of the label stack.
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The Benefits of MPLS Networks:

Improve Uptime - By sending data over an alternative path in less than 50 milliseconds (if
one exists). MPLS also reduces the amount of manual intervention your network provider
has to do to create a WAN, reducing the likelihood of human error bringing down your
circuit.
Create Scalable IP VPNs - With MPLS it's easy to add an additional site to the VPN. There
is no need to configure a complex mesh of tunnels, as is common with some traditional
approaches.
Improve User Experience - By prioritizing time-sensitive traffic such as VoIP. Multi-
Protocol Label Switching offers multiple Classes of Service, enabling you to apply separate
settings to different types of traffic.
Improve Bandwidth Utilization - By putting multiple types of traffic on the same link, you
can let high priority traffic borrow capacity from lower priority traffic streams whenever
required. Conversely, when the lower priority traffic needs to burst beyond its usual
amount of bandwidth, it can use any capacity that's not being used by higher priority
services.
Hide Network Complexity - An MPLS connection between two sites can be configured to
act like a long ethernet cable, with the hops involved hidden from view. This is sometimes
known as VPLS (Virtual Private LAN Service).
Reduce Network Congestion - Sometimes the shortest path between two locations isn't
the best one to take, as congestion has made it less attractive (at least for the time being).
MPLS offers sophisticated traffic engineering options that enable traffic to be sent over
non-standard paths. This can reduce latency (the delay in sending/receiving data). It also
reduces congestion on the paths that have just been avoided as a result of traffic
engineering.
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Closed-circuit television (CCTV)

Closed Circuit Television (CCTV), also known as video surveillance, is the use of video
cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs
from broadcast television in that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it may
employ point-to-point , point-to-multipoint (P2MP), or mesh wired or wireless links. Even
though almost all video cameras fit this definition, the term is most often applied to those
used for surveillance in areas that require additional security or ongoing monitoring.
(Videotelephony) is seldom called "CCTV".
Surveillance of the public using CCTV is common in many areas around the world. In recent
years, the use of body worn video cameras has been introduced as a new form of
surveillance, often used in law enforcement, with cameras located on a police officer's
chest or head.] Video surveillance has generated significant debate about balancing its use
with individuals' right to privacy even when in public.

In industrial plants, CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process from a
central control room, for example when the environment is not suitable for humans. CCTV
systems may operate continuously or only as required to monitor a particular event. A
more advanced form of CCTV, using digital video recorders (DVRs), provides recording for
possibly many years, with a variety of quality and performance options and extra features
(such as motion detection and email alerts). More recently, decentralized IP cameras,
perhaps equipped with megapixel sensors, support recording directly to network-attached
storage devices, or internal flash for completely stand-alone operation.

CCTV is commonly used for a variety of purposes, including:

• Maintaining perimeter security in medium- to high-secure areas and installations.

• Observing behaviour of incarcerated inmates and potentially dangerous patients in
medical facilities.
• Traffic monitoring.
• Overseeing locations that would be hazardous to a human, for example, highly
radioactive or toxic industrial environments.
• Building and grounds security.
• Obtaining a visual record of activities in situations where it is necessary to maintain
proper security or access controls (for example, in a diamond cutting or sorting
operation; in banks, casinos, or airports).
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CCTV is finding increasing use in law-enforcement, for everything from traffic observation
(and automated ticketing) to observation of high-crime areas or neighbourhoods. Such use
of CCTV technology has fuelled privacy concerns in many parts of the world, particularly in
those areas in the UK and Europe where it has become a routine part of police procedure.

Basic components of CCTV:

• Security
• Cables
• Video recorders
• Storage units
• Display

Benefits Of Using a CCTV System

1. Determine Criminal Activity –

This is the biggest and most recognized benefit for those who choose to add CCTV systems
to their property. Outside of being able to monitor your premises, CCTV cameras are an
excellent deterrent for burglars.
2. Improved home insurance rates –

By deterring criminal activity, CCTV security systems reduce your home and property
insurance costs. You are less of a target, so the risk is lowered, which means the price of
your insurance decreases too.

3. Peace of mind –

A camera system provides people with an increased sense of security and reassurance,
particularly in areas where the crime rate is high. Many of the more sophisticated models
are wireless, meaning they can be viewed and monitored from your smartphone or tablet.

4. Cost effective –

A CCTV system is a cost-effective form of security. Once the system has been installed, they
are very easy to maintain and require little reparations. Ensure that your cameras are
cleaned in order to receive the best performance from your system. Other than this, CCTV
systems will keep your premises secure for years.
 26

Types of CCTV:

The 9 most popular types of CCTV cameras available are:

• Dome CCTV Cameras

• Bullet CCTV Cameras
• C-Mount CCTV Cameras
• PTZ Pan Tilt & Zoom Cameras
• Day/Night CCTV Cameras
• Infrared/night vision CCTV Cameras
• Network/IP CCTV Cameras
• Wireless CCTV Cameras
• High Definition (HD) CCTV Cameras

PTZ Pan Tilt & Zoom Cameras

With a PTZ (Pan Tilt & Zoom) camera, your
security team can have complete control on
what is recorded. At the touch of a button,
the camera lens can pan left and right, tilt up
and down or zoom in and out. It’s the ideal
choice if you have a security guard who is
monitoring a live video feed on site.

Main benefits:

• Optical zoom on these cameras means you can focus closely in on subjects
• Pan and tilt feature provide 360-degree field of vision
• Image resolution is usually impeccable so facial features can be distinguished
• Security team have full control of recording and can react to live situations

Bullet CCTV Cameras

Bullet CCTV cameras have an iconic design that is highly visible. They are cylindrical in
shape and are capable of observing long distances. Bullet cameras are most commonly
placed outdoors so their casings are made resistant to water, dust and dirt.
Main benefits:

• Highly visible so acts as a deterrent

• Resistant to dirt in challenging environments
• Provides surveillance over long distances
• Casing also protects against glare and rain
 27

EPBAX
EPABX stands for Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange which is a private
telephone network used by the organizations and the companies for various types of
communication, either between the employees or outside the clients. PBX which is Private
Brand Exchange is a telephone exchange which is used by a particular office or business,
opposite to the one that a common carrier or telephone company operates for many
companies and businesses for the general public. Private Branch Exchange (PBX) is also
known as (PABX) Private Automatic Branch Exchange and (EPABX) Electronic Private
Automatic Branch Exchange.

EPABX is essential equipment that has made daily working in the offices and organizations
much smoother and simpler, especially the area of communication. This system is a
switching system which has enabled both internal and external stitching functions for any
organization. To select an appropriate EPABX one need to have proper knowledge about
the traffic pattern inside the office.

With the right utilization of the EPABX, all the internal and external requirements of the
organization are adequately served. With the advancement in the field of computers along
with the advent of microprocessors, the EPABX incorporates a lot of helpful features. The
boss can establish a hotline with his or her immediate
subordinates.

How does this system work?

This telephone system helps businesses to cut cost by using a private branch exchange.
With the help of this system, businesses aren’t required to run a line from every phone in
the building to the telephone company’s central office.
The PBX Setup: Initially during the 20th century, PBX used to run on Analog technology,
but today it has gone digital. The typical private branch exchanges incorporate several
phone lines from outside the building which terminates at the company exchange.

It also includes several internal lines that lead to the exchange for the inside phones.
A computer is used that manages the calls and switches them to one line to another based
on the number dialled. This digital PBX doesn’t require a human operator.
 28

PBX functions:
Functionally, the PBX performs four main call processing duties:

• Establishing connections (circuits) between the telephone sets of two users (e.g.,
mapping a dialled number to a physical phone, ensuring the phone isn't already busy)
• Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them (i.e., channelling voice
signals between the users)
• Disconnecting those connections as per the user's requirement
• Providing information for accounting purposes (e.g., metering calls)
In addition to these basic functions, PBXs offer many other calling features and capabilities,
with different manufacturers providing different features in an effort to differentiate their
products.
Common capabilities include (manufacturers may have a different name for each
capability):

• Auto attendant
• Auto dialling
• Automated directory services (where callers can be routed to a given employee by
keying or speaking the letters of the employee's name)
• Automatic call distributor
• Automatic ring back
• Busy override
• Call blocking
• Call forwarding on busy or absence
 29

• Call logging
• Call Park
• Call pick-up
• Call transfer
• Call waiting
• Camp-on
• Conference call
• Custom greetings

• Customized abbreviated dialling (speed dialling)

• Direct inward dialling(DID)

• Direct inward system access (DISA) (the ability to access internal features from an
outside telephone line)
• Do not disturb (DND)
• Music on hold
• Night service
• Public address voice paging
• Follow-me, also known as find-me: Determines the routing of incoming calls. The
exchange is configured with a list of numbers for a person. When a call is received for
that person, the exchange routes it to each number on the list in turn until either the
call is answered or the list is exhausted (at which point the call may be routed to a voice
mail system).
• Interactive voice response.
• Local connection: Another useful attribute of a hosted PBX is the ability to have a local
number in cities in which you are not physically present. This service essentially lets you
create a virtual office presence anywhere in the world.
• Shared message boxes (where a department can have a shared voicemail box)
• Voice mail
• Voice message broadcasting
 30

Profits of EPABX:
• Cost Reduction:

There is no need to buy extra boards or expensive add ons while sharing this system. It can
easygoing scale and it’s easier to add more lines or increase severe capacity. You can also
opt for different vendors by eliminating the need to buy from a single vendor and reducing
the cost on moves and changes to the system.

• Choice:

There are various options to choose from the Internet server to the vendors. You can
choose which server or device to use your system z. You can choose the operating system
and also a variety of phones from different manufacturers.

• Flexibility:

Expand the network when there is a need. Even when you move premises or expand to
different places., they can easily shift without a change in the number. It can easily connect
employees who work from home to the office network. This also helps employees connect
to the IP phone while travelling.

• Sharing of resources:

Within the office, the employees can share phone lines. Several extensions may be
connected to a single phone line, this reducing the overall phone expenses. In case of
external calls, they may be routed from a single incoming mode and directed to the client’s
extension number.

• Easy programming:

It is totally programmable. It facilitated complex installation procedures and other

integrated requirements for communication.
 31

Construction of EPBAX

• Customer service is handicapped:

It doesn’t not provide other necessary features and it’s time consuming when it comes to
install a new feature.

• Constant power supply:

It requires proper planning and designing of your infrastructure to minimize power

consumption and proper cabling to avoid power outages due to improper wiring.

• Does not provide communication connectivity to a mobile workforce:

This limits the capacity of businesses with a considerable amount of travelling employees.
A solution to this is to upgrade to this system with integrated gateways installed.

• Installation and configuration of the standard sys tem incurs a huge

investment cost:

• The initial set up and configuring of the devices take a considerable amount of time
and money. This can be mitigated by the use of virtual applications or by installing
an optimal network that avoids unnecessary equipment.
 32

Types of PBX Phone Systems:

1. Traditional PBX
The traditional PBX phone system is landline-based and relies on a physical hardware box.
The bulky conventional telephone lines enter your office and are then connected to a PBX
box. Then these phone lines are distributed to every desk in your office, thus achieving
efficient telephony.
Compared to the newer advancements, the Traditional PBX systems are extremely
expensive as compared to IP PBX systems to set up.
The traditional PBX phone system is a low-grade PBX that is sufficient for small businesses
only. It can’t handle the requirements of prominent companies operating from different
locations. Further, the components of PBX require adequate space and start wearing with
time. There is a requirement of regular maintenance to make it work effectively. Thus, a
shift to the digitization of PBX was realized to overcome the challenges of traditional PBX.

2. Digital PBX systems

A digital PBX system can deploy both a traditional analog PBX system as well as IP phones.
These systems can be upgraded by adding background music to entertain the customers
on hold or by integrating with a VOIP phone system. Compared to a traditional PBX phone
system digital PBX system offers better sound quality.
They come with digital answering assistants, voicemail, and call forwarding features. These
systems are a popular choice for businesses with older wiring, unsecured phone lines, and
unreliable internet connection. The digital PBX system still lacks the infinite power of the
internet.

3. Onsite IP PBX Phone system

An online IP PBX phone system uses the internet and SIP trunks. The main advantage of
using the VoIP phone system is that they are straightforward to set up: ethernet cables are
used to connect the telephones instead of traditional ones. This means that you don’t have
to go through the rewiring troubles if you want to rearrange your office.
Famous as the VOIP phone system, these PBX systems are very well aware of taking full
advantage of existing bandwidth and robust internet connection. With the inception of
the VOIP phone system and unified communication, the IP platform is considered the most
common PBX system type.
 33

It is equipped with advanced functionalities such as call stability, better call quality,
voicemail to email, video calling, mobile integration, etc. Some additional features include
advanced call routing, call accounting, disaster recovery, etc.

4. The cloud-based Virtual Phone system

Also known as Hosted PBX, this enterprise-level business phone system supports inbound
routing as well as outbound calls. The set-up is also easy-all you need to do is connect your
phones with an ethernet cable and manage your call routing settings online. It requires a
router with excellent internet that is the center of all inbound and outbound
communication.
The cloud-based virtual phone system is an ideal solution for companies that are
geographically dispersed.
Virtual phone numbers can help you gain the trust of prospects situated in various
countries by providing a number of the same country you want to contact.
Thus, all you need to do in the cloud-based Virtual phone system is to get a phone number
of the same area code you want to contact. It is a 100% centrally controlled system with
benefits of local area virtual phone number.
The most important advantage of using a Virtual phone number is that there is no
hardware to purchase or install. As a result, the initial cost is less compared to other PBX.

5. Virtual PBX Phone system

The virtual PBX phone system is the lighter version of the cloud-based Virtual phone
system. Using this PBX system, calls can be routed to VOIP extensions, landlines, cell
phones, etc.
Even though they may lack some of the features that come with a cloud-based virtual
phone system, it doesn’t matter much due to fewer users. It can be an excellent choice for
smaller businesses and those that utilize remote teams. The cost of setting up and
maintaining a virtual PBX phone system is the lowest of all PBX phone systems. The
hardware and other infrastructure requirement are also not as much of a traditional PBX
phone system as the early-age digital PBX phone system.

The Importance of PABX Systems in Communication

Definitively, a PABX (Private Automatic Branch Exchange), commonly known simply as PBX,
enables a company to create its own internal phone network. Internal calling and re-
routing of calls may be simplified as a result. PBX audio, video, instant messaging, and other
business communications are processed by a switch system that functions in the same way
as a modified traditional switchboard does.
34
 35

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

RFID refers to a wireless system comprised of two components: tags and readers. The
reader is a device that has one or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals
back from the RFID tag. Tags, which use radio waves to communicate their identity and
other information to nearby readers, can be passive or active. Passive RFID tags are
powered by the reader and do not have a battery. Active RFID tags are powered by
batteries.

RFID tags can store a range of information from one serial number to several pages of data.
Readers can be mobile so that they can be carried by hand, or they can be mounted on a
post or overhead. Reader systems can also be built into the architecture of a cabinet, room,
or building.

Uses:

RFID systems use radio waves at several different frequencies to transfer data. In health
care and hospital settings, RFID technologies include the following applications:

• Inventory control
• Equipment tracking
• Out-of-bed detection and fall detection
• Personnel tracking
• Ensuring that patients receive the correct medications and medical devices
• Preventing the distribution of counterfeit drugs and medical devices
• Monitoring patients
• Providing data for electronic medical records systems

The FDA is not aware of any adverse events associated with RFID. However, there is
concern about the potential hazard of electromagnetic interference (EMI) to electronic
medical devices from radio frequency transmitters like RFID. EMI is a degradation of the
performance of equipment or systems (such as medical devices) caused by an
electromagnetic disturbance.

How does RFID Work?

RFID belongs to a group of technologies referred to as Automatic Identification and Data
Capture (AIDC). AIDC methods automatically identify objects, collect data about them, and
enter those data directly into computer systems with little or no human intervention. RFID
methods utilize radio waves to accomplish this. At a simple level, RFID systems consist of
three components: an RFID tag or smart label, an RFID reader, and an antenna. RFID tags
contain an integrated circuit and an antenna, which are used to transmit data to the RFID
reader (also called an interrogator). The reader then converts the radio waves to a more
 36

usable form of data. Information collected from the tags is then transferred through a
communications interface to a host computer system, where the data can be stored in a
database and analyzed at a later time.

RFID tags and smart labels-

As stated above, an RFID tag consists of an integrated circuit and an antenna. The tag is
also composed of a protective material that holds the pieces together and shields them
from various environmental conditions. The protective material depends on the
application. For example, employee ID badges containing RFID tags are typically made from
durable plastic, and the tag is embedded between the layers of plastic. RFID tags come in
a variety of shapes and sizes and are either passive or active. Passive tags are the most
widely used, as they are smaller and less expensive to implement. Passive tags must be
“powered up” by the RFID reader before they can transmit data. Unlike passive tags, active
RFID tags have an onboard power supply (e.g., a battery), thereby enabling them to
transmit data at all times.
Smart labels differ from RFID tags in that they incorporate both RFID and barcode
technologies. They’re made of an adhesive label embedded with an RFID tag inlay, and
they may also feature a barcode and/or other printed information. Smart labels can be
encoded and printed on-demand using desktop label printers, whereas programming RFID
tags are more time consuming and requires more advanced equipment.

RFID Technology is employed in many industries to perform such tasks as-

–Inventory management
–Asset tracking
–Personnel tracking
– Controlling access to restricted areas
– ID Badging
– Supply chain management
– Counterfeit prevention (e.g., in the pharmaceutical industry)

RFID Applications-

Libraries-
Until the RFID technology appeared at the logistics scene, the inventories in libraries were
manual because barcode doesn’t identify a book but a complete edition of a title. From
then so on, books are automatically entered and removed from the library’s inventory
thanks to being identified with RFID labels one by one.
 37

Files and Archives-

The RFID tagging allows for controlling and locating important documents which need to
be physical papers and no digital documents. In some cases, the number of documents can
be huge, this is the reason some archives need an RFID system to trace all the documents.

Aviation Baggage control-

RFID systems enable more accurate tracking of baggage through an airport, and more
efficient loading and unloading of planes. Airport RFID systems help reduce lost luggage,
and also improve on-time departures resulting in lower costs and greater passenger
satisfaction.

Human traceability and access control in facilities-

Companies can manage the information regarding the personnel’s presence and
movement inside the facilities thanks to employees’ RFID cards. They can enable or not the
entering permission of some people in specific rooms. The RFID cards can have much
information linked in the employee’s profile.

Underground Communication
Communication is important in every industry and field, it assumes critical importance
when the communication is required to be made underground; in fields like mining and
tunnelling etc. The underground communication systems are required for ensuring safety
of workers and increasing the productivity. In underground applications (mining etc.), the
disasters like collapse of mines (especially in coal mines) is a frequent incident and a
reliable and effective communication system is essential for identifying the location of
trapped miners and their rescue from the debris.
An effective underground communication system increases productivity and reduces
operational costs by saving the machine breakdown time and providing immediate passing
of message from hundreds of feet under the ground to the concerned resources and
personnel above the ground. In the absence of an effective communication system a miner
has to wait for the message to be delivered and the mining operation has to be suspended,
which results in lost production. If such a scenario of suspended operations is repeated
dozens or hundreds of times per week, the loss in production would be substantial.

Two-way communications (voice, video & data) between underground and surface
personnel, a tracking system that allows surface personnel to determine the location of
anyone trapped underground and a system that can withstand disasters are essential
requirements of an underground communication system .In addition to the basic
application of miner communication with the staff above the ground and location
 38

information, the underground wireless systems are also used for a number of important
tasks, for instance, remote monitoring / control of mining equipment, data acquisition for
the various sensors throughout the mine (e.g. seismic monitoring) and real-time access to
mine operating information. These tasks involve communication with a mobile worker,
device or piece of equipment.

Underground Communication Systems – Wired vs Wireless

• In the past, almost all the underground communication systems were wired, which
posed serious limitations in meeting the essential requirements of an underground
communication system. The wired systems are difficult to deploy in inaccessible
places especially due to non-symmetric mine topology and complex mine structures.
Wired systems are also unable to withstand the disasters or accidents in
underground mines as the communication with the trapped miners is cut off.
• On the other hand, wireless communication systems are easy to deploy even at
inaccessible places under the ground and are able to withstand the disaster
conditions. Using appropriate wireless communication systems, location of each
trapped miner can be accurately determined resulting in successful search and
rescue operations. Therefore, wireless systems are the most optimal, convenient
and reliable communication systems for underground applications like mining and
tunnelling.
• However, the typical surface wireless communications do not work successfully in
underground scenarios, such as traditional cellular signals do not propagate through
rock. The radio waves for wireless communication, propagating underground suffer
 39

from dispersion, absorption, scattering and attenuation due to properties of the

mineral (like coal) and space limitations.
• Underground communication technologies lag behind the surface communication
technologies due to unfavourable and hazardous environment and lack of interest
in this area. Research to improve underground communication technologies and
overcome limitations is now being undertaken at a fast pace. The requirements in
underground communication are much different from the surface communication.
Therefore, underground wireless communication systems are optimized to meet the
specific needs of underground applications like mining and tunnelling.

Types of Underground Communication Systems

Conventional or Wired systems:

Some of the wired systems includes :-

• Magneto phones.
• Paging phones.
• Voice powered phones.
• Trolley carrier phone system.
• Hoist rope system.

Wireless Underground Communication Systems

RF (Radio Frequency) Transceivers- The RF transceivers are one of the most commonly
used and successful equipment in the underground mines especially for straight gallery
communications. Different frequency ranges from LF (Low Frequency) to VHF (Very High
Frequency) and UHF (Ultra High Frequency) are useful in different scenarios, especially
depending upon the structure of the mine and the type of mineral being extracted.

LF (Low Frequency) Transceivers- The attenuation of LF signal is comparatively lower

through coal as compared to signals with higher frequency. This is particularly useful to
establish a communication link between the trapped miners and rescue team while finding
out the actual location of trapped miner for rescue operation. Typical frequencies used in
the LF range are around 30 KHz. The low / medium frequency tone signal modulated over
RF signal 457 kHz can be transmitted through large thick blocks of coal.
 40

VHF (Very-High Frequency) Transceivers-Very high frequency (VHF) frequency modulated

(FM) transceivers are used in mines but the power output of radio frequency (RF) signals
are required to be kept low, as required by underground mining safety standards.

UHF (Ultra-High Frequency) Transceivers-In the UHF band, attenuation is relatively low in
the straight mine areas and is significantly higher when the signal propagates around a
corner or when a large machinery is in the propagation path. Corners and bends in
underground mine galleries act as obstacles to the propagation of UHF waves. The problem
cannot be resolved by adopting higher wattage of transceivers due to intrinsic safety limit
in hazardous areas (mines). To improve the communication, the signals are amplified by
placing active antennas near the turns of the path.
 41

IRNSS SYSTEM

SCOPE OF THE DOCUMENT

The Signal in Space (SIS) Interface Control Document (ICD) for Standard Positioning Service
specifies the interface between the IRNSS space segment and the IRNSS user segment for
SPS service.

IRNSS SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) is an independent, indigenously
developed satellite navigation system fully planned, established and controlled by the
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO).

IRNSS ARCHITECTURE
The IRNSS architecture mainly consists of:
➢ Space Segment
➢ Ground Segment
➢ User Segment
Figure 1 depicts the IRNSS architecture
 42

Figure 1: IRNSS Architecture

IRNSS SPACE SEGMENT

Based on various considerations the IRNSS constellation is worked out to be a combination
of GSO and IGSO satellites.

IRNSS GROUND SEGMENT

Ground Segment is responsible for the maintenance and operation of the IRNSS
constellation. The Ground segment comprises of:
➢ ISRO Navigation Centre
➢ IRNSS Spacecraft Control Facility
➢ IRNSS Range and Integrity Monitoring Stations
➢ IRNSS Network Timing Centre
➢ IRNSS CDMA Ranging Stations
➢ Laser Ranging Stations
➢ Data Communication Network
 43

USER SEGMENT
The User segment mainly consists of:
➢ Single frequency IRNSS receiver capable of receiving SPS signal at L5 or S band
frequency.
➢ A dual frequency IRNSS receiver capable of receiving both L5 and S band frequencies.
➢ A receiver compatible to IRNSS and other GNSS signals.

Figure 2 specifies the radio frequency interface between space and user segments. Each
IRNSS satellite provides SPS signals in L5 and S bands.

Figure 2: IRNSS Space Segment Interface with User Segment

IRNSS SERVICES
Standard Position Services (SPS), an open service without encryption and Restricted
Service (RS), an authorized with encryption are the basic services offered by IRNSS.