1 Title: Flexible formwork technologies: A state of the art review

2 W J Hawkins

3 PhD candidate in Civil Engineering, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath,
4 Bath, UK

5 Corresponding Author: w.j.hawkins@bath.ac.uk

6 M Herrmann

7 Str.ucture GmbH, Lindenspürstraße 32, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany

8 T J Ibell

9 Professor of Civil Engineering, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, Bath,
10 UK

11 B Kromoser

12 Research Associate, Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Structural Engineering, Karlsplatz 13,
13 E212-2

14 A Michaelski

15 Str.ucture GmbH, Lindenspürstraße 32, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany

16 J J Orr

17 Lecturer (Assistant Professor) in Civil Engineering, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering,
18 University of Bath, Bath, UK

19 R Pedreschi

20 Professor of Architectural Technology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH3 9DF

21 A Pronk

22 Assistant Professor in Innovative Structural Design, Eindhoven University of Technology

23 H R Schipper

24 Lecturer-researcher in Structural and Building Engineering, Delft University of Technology

25 P Shepherd

26 Lecturer in Digital Architectonics, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath,
27 Bath, UK

28 D Veenendaal

29 PhD Candidate, ETH Zurich, Institute of Technology in Architecture, Block Research Group
30 R Wansdronk

31 Architect, Wansdronk Architecture, Amsterdam, Netherlands

32 M West

33 Visiting Prof. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MA, USA

34
35
36 Abstract

37 Concrete is our most widely used construction material. Worldwide consumption of

38 cement, the strength-giving component of concrete, is estimated at 4.10 Gt per year,

39 rising from 2.22 Gt just ten years ago [1]. This rate of consumption means that cement

40 manufacture alone is estimated to account for 5.2 % of global carbon dioxide emissions

41 [2].

42 Concrete offers the opportunity to economically create structures of almost any

43 geometry. Yet its unique fluidity is seldom capitalised upon, with concrete instead being

44 cast into rigid, flat moulds to create unoptimised geometries that result in high material

45 use structures with large carbon footprints. This paper will explore flexible formwork

46 construction technologies which embrace the fluidity of concrete to facilitate the practical

47 construction of concrete structures with complex and efficient geometries.

48 This paper presents the current state of the art in flexible formwork technology,

49 highlighting practical uses, research challenges and new opportunities.

50 Keywords: Fabric formwork, Flexible formwork, Disruptive Innovation, Optimisation,

51 Construction.

52
53

54
55 1 Introduction

56 1.1 Overview

57 Concrete has been cast in rigid moulds since its invention in antiquity. The traditional

58 use of rigid, flat formwork panels has thoroughly embedded uniform cross-section

59 prismatic structural shapes into design codes and engineering and construction

60 methods. As a result, simple uniform cross section shapes have become practically a

61 forgone conclusion in concrete construction. Yet concrete is a plastic material that can

62 assume any shape, and uniform section prismatic shapes are not always the most

63 desirable, either in terms of aesthetics or in terms of structural and material efficiency.

64 Designers now have the ability to describe, analyse, and construct more complex and

65 efficient shapes in concrete, challenging those conventional assumptions that previously

66 restricted structural and architectural forms.

67 Fundamentally, using a flexible membrane in place of conventional rigid mould panels

68 simply replaces one material in a formwork assembly with another. However, even when

69 everything else – the formwork framing, the reinforcing, the concrete itself – remains

70 exactly the same, the approach is fundamentally altered. Inviting flexibility into the

71 casting process opens up new structural, architectural, and manufacturing possibilities

72 through a physically simple means. This paper explores the past uses, current research

73 and future prospects of this potentially transformative technology.

74 The use of flexible moulds is not new. Fabric moulds have been used successfully, and

75 profitably, in a wide range of structures since the late 1800s. Relatively new synthetic

76 fibre textiles and very new, rapidly evolving, digital modelling techniques have created a

77 vast array of new possibilities and fuelled recent interest and innovation.
78

79 Figure 1 – Flexible formwork creates a multitude of new possibilities for structural forms in concrete.
80 Photos: Mark West (C.A.S.T.)

81 Flexible moulds present new questions and complexities. In terms of structural design

82 and performance, more complex, curved or funicular geometries create the potential to

83 design more materially efficient structural forms. Structural design and analysis in this
84 case may include three-dimensional structural analysis, rather than the traditional

85 sectional methods that are native to both prismatic geometries and the slide rule. In terms

86 of architectural design, there are new formal freedoms that come with flexible mould

87 techniques. For construction, the questions are all about mould-making: the availability

88 of complex CAD/CAM multi-axis routers that can produce complex, variable section rigid

89 moulds may be weighed against the simplicity, and geometric limitations, of flexible sheet

90 moulds. The use of non-rigid moulds also requires consideration of geometric prediction,

91 control, and construction tolerance.

92 1.2 Energy efficient concrete construction

93 Climate change is a significant and growing threat to human prosperity and stability, as

94 extreme weather events become more frequent and natural systems struggle to adapt

95 to increasing average temperatures. Man-made greenhouse gas emissions are the

96 primary cause of climate change, and must be reduced if these widespread and

97 destructive effects are to be limited [3, 4]. In response, EU countries have agreed on a

98 binding target of a 40% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels by

99 2030, leading towards an 80% reduction by 2050 [5].

100 Concrete is the world’s most widely used construction material. The principle source of

101 embodied CO2 in concrete comes from Portland cement, the production of which was

102 estimated to account for 5.2% of global CO2 emissions in 2014 [2]. In the past decade

103 global cement production has increased from 2.22 Gt to 4.10 Gt, with the bulk of this

104 increase occurring in China [1]. There are two approaches to reducing the associated

105 emissions of concrete structures: 1) reducing the embodied CO2 of the materials through

106 improving manufacturing efficiency, reducing cement content or using alternative

107 binders, or 2) by designing more efficient structures which use less material through

108 optimisation of form, reinforcement layout and manufacturing process.

109 In even the simplest structures, the distribution of forces is predominantly non-uniform

110 and the required strength is therefore similarly variable. The curved geometries created

111 using a flexible mould present an opportunity not only for architectural expression but

112 also for considerable material savings through elegant structural optimisation, by placing

113 material where it is used most effectively. The amount of formwork material required is

114 also minimised, further reducing the embodied energy of the structure.

115 2 Applications

116 This section details existing examples of flexibly formed concrete structures,

117 introducing a wide range of commercial applications, novel construction techniques and

118 experimental structures. Flexibly formed concrete has a history in architecture and

119 structural engineering, across both academic research and industrial application.

120 Veenendaal et al. [6] and Veenendaal [7] present comprehensive overviews of historical

121 flexible formwork applications. The technique has seen a resurgence since the start of

122 the 21st century, driven in part by the widespread availability of high strength fabrics and

123 modern computational analysis techniques. This led to the founding of the International

124 Society of Fabric Formwork (ISOFF) in 2008, who aims include fostering communication

125 between researchers, contractors and manufacturers in both engineering and

126 architecture, communicating the advantages to the wider public and to helping to develop

127 innovative fabric forming solutions.

128 2.1 Typology

129 Two categories of flexible formwork emerge when the nature of the loading of the

130 formwork is considered [6], filled moulds and surface moulds (Figure 2). Tables 1 and 2

131 provide a reference for the flexibly formed structures featured in this paper for each of

132 these categories respectively.

133

134 Figure 2 – Flexibly formed structure classification (adapted from Veenendaal et al. [6])

135 2.1.1 Filled moulds

136 Concrete cast in a filled mould exerts a hydrostatic pressure on the formwork. The

137 flexible formwork assumes the geometry required to resist this load, which is dictated by

138 both this fluid pressure and internal stresses of the formwork material. In this way the

139 final shape of the cast can be controlled by prestressing the formwork or selecting the

140 desired formwork stiffness characteristics (by setting the orientation of the warp and weft

141 directions of a fabric mould, for example). Section 2.2 describes applications using filled

142 flexible moulds.

143 Table 1 – Filled mould flexible formwork applications

Year Reference Institution Type Description Design Concept

1899 Lilienthal [8] Terrast- Application In-situ floor slab cast on supporting Variable section slab with steel mesh
Floors and slabs

Baugesellsch beams reinforcement

aft
2012 West and C.A.S.T. Application Hospital entrance canopy with fabric Column to slab connections
Araya [9] University of formed columns and roof strengthened with ribs from buckling
Manitoba of fabric
2014 Lawton [10] Arro Design Architectural Cantilevered slab with undulating Variable depth allows stiffening and
application soffit created using fabric formwork local strengthening
2006 West [11] C.A.S.T. Architectural Trusses cast in plaster using the Structural depth following bending
University of research pinch-mould method strength requirements
Beams and trusses

Manitoba
2007 Ibell et al. University of Experimental Parametric study of cross sections Relationships formed amongst depth,
[12] Bath research using hanging moulds perimeter and breadth of section
2008 Garbett et al. University of Structural Form-finding of beams to resist shear Sectional analysis procedure led to
[13] Bath optimisation and bending optimised beams of various shape
2010 Foster [14] University of Form-finding Form-finding of beams under given Hydrostatic form-finding
Bath loading conditions successfully developed for hanging
moulds
 2011 Lee [15] University of Experimental Construction of 11 fabric formed Designed using British Standards and
Edinburgh research beams with focus on material verified with finite element
efficiency modelling and physical testing
2012 Hashemian C.A.S.T. Experimental Structural behaviour and Beams optimised for bending
[16] University of research optimization of moment-shaped strength, modelled using finite
Manitoba reinforced concrete beams element analysis and tested
2012 Orr [17] University of Experimental Pinch mould simply supported Beam optimised for bending and
Bath research variable section beams shear strength, confirmed as accurate
through structural testing
2012 Kostova et University of Experimental Variable section fabric formed beams Three beams constructed and tested
al. [18] Bath research with FRP reinforcement to ultimate load
2012 Lawton and Arro Structural Reinforced concrete arch for outdoor Use of conventional reinforcement
Miller- Design/Engin application pedestrian stair and uniform section
Johnson [19] eering
Ventures
2015 Morrow [20] StructureMo Application Fabric formed concrete frame Computational fabric form finding
de (columns and beams) for a school in with standard strength design
Cambodia methods (prismatic sections)
2016 Kostova [21] University of Experimental Successful anchorage of reinforcing Experimental verification that bars
Bath research bars using wedging can be anchored using splayed
anchorage
1934 Waller [22] Ctesiphon Application Circular, prismatic fabric-formed Similar outcome to conventional
Construction column formwork with reduced material
requirements
2004 West [23] C.A.S.T. Architectural Construction of fabric formed Cylindrical RC columns designed
University of research columns for private villa in Puerto using standard methods
Manitoba Rico
2008 Cauberg et WTCB, R&D project Cast columns, surface structuring Customisation of prefabricated
al. [24] University demo formwork allows control of column
Brussels, shape
Centexbel
2011 - Fab-form Fab-form Commercial ‘Fast-tube’ formwork for circular Similar design to standard column
presen [25] Industries application columns with savings in formwork weight and
Columns

t cost
2012 Verwimp et Vrije Experimental Slender columns with permanent Fire resistance of TRC allows
al. [26] Universiteit research formwork as reinforcement reduction of required section sizes
Brussel
2013 Pedreschi University of
Architectural Numerous non-prismatic column Allows control and customisation of
[27] Edinburgh research forms created using tailored fabric column geometry
sheets with plywood clamps
2014 Pedreschi University of Experimental Investigation of strength of non- Structural testing of convex and
and Lee [28] Edinburgh research prismatic columns created using concave columns of equal volume
fabric formwork
2015 Milne et al. University of Architectural Variable section columns with Physical prototyping to explore range
[29] Edinburgh research tailored fabric moulds of possible forms
2016 Kostova [21] University of Architectural Doubly-curved columns using Physical testing to determine
Bath research stitched fabric geometric possibilities
1969 - Veenendaal Independent Architectural Fabric formed precast facade panels Non-structural
2006 et al. [6] (Miguel application
Fisac)
1995 Redjvani and Flexible Structural 10m tall concrete wall using flexible Ties control wall thickness
Wheen [30] Formwork, application formwork
Walls and façade panels

University of
Sydney
1997 - Umi Umi Architectural Eight projects incorporating fabric Ties within the formwork keep the
presen Architectural Architectural application formed walls wall thickness uniform
t Atelier [31] Atelier
2007 - Lawton [10] Arro Design Architectural Multiple small projects using walls Fabric combined with a rigid frame
presen application constructed with fabric formwork
t
2008 Pronk et al. Eindhoven Structural/Ar Bone like structures in fabric Casting of bone structures, form of
[32] University of chitectural formwork the mould is based on the elastic
Technology application behaviour of the membranes
2011 Chandler University of Application 30m long fabric formed retaining Similar in form to a conventional
[33] East wall retaining wall
 London/Stud
io Bark
2012 Jack [34] Walter Jack Architectural 40 metre long concrete wall with Sculptural form created using a
Studio application large corrugated texture rubber membrane formwork
2012 West and C.A.S.T. Architectural Fabric formed corrugated walls cast Convex and concave curves formed
Araya [9] University of application horizontally using PVC pipes and hanging fabric
Manitoba/By
oung Soo
Cho
Architects
2000s Fab-form Fab-form Commercial ‘Fastfoot’ strip footing simplifies Conventional reinforcement and
Foundations

- [25] Industries application formwork similar in form to standard structures

presen
t

1960s Pilarczyk Various Commercial Double layered mattress for ground Filter points allow dissipation of
- [35] application applications groundwater pressures while
presen protecting against erosion
t
1980s Hawkswood Various Commercial Fabric pile jackets for marine Commonly used for repair of
Marine

- [36] application applications existing piles

presen
t
1990s Hawkswood Various Commercial Foundations to precast marine Flexible form ensures full contact
- and Alsop application structures with bed
presen [37]
t

144

145 2.1.2 Surface moulds

146 Surface moulds are used predominantly to form shell structures. Usually only a single

147 forming surface is required, onto which concrete is applied. If the surface is inclined, the

148 concrete must be self-supporting in order to prevent flow. Geometry is again dictated by

149 the relationship between applied forces and internal stresses in the formwork. When

150 casting concrete shells, the formwork can hang under the weight of the concrete, be

151 prestressed mechanically, supported by air pressure (in the case of pneumatic formwork)

152 or actuators (in the case of an adaptive formwork). These applications are described in

153 Section 2.3.

154 Table 2 - Surface mould flexible formwork applications

Year Reference Institution Type Description Design concept

1953 Waller and Ctesiphon Application ‘Ctesiphon' system of corrugated Fabric suspended between a series of
Roofs and

Aston [38] Construction shell roofs for medium spans parallel catenary arches and acting as
permanent reinforcement
vaults

2007 Pronk et al. Eindhoven Experimental Sprayed concrete textile reinforced Experiments with an alternative
[39] University of Structure prototype shell structure construction method using fabric
Technology
 formwork for the 1958 Philips
pavilion by Le Corbusier
2010 Tysmans Vrije Experimental Textile reinforced doubly-curved Demonstrated thin section
[40] Universiteit research shell structure possibilities using double curvature
Brussels and TRC
2012 Seracino et Belgian Experimental Doubly curved shotcrete shells with Formwork modelled using the force
al. [41] Building research comparison between textile and steel density method. Finite element
Research reinforcement modelling of shell with
Institute corresponding physical tests
2012 Adderley University at Architectural Double layered textile formwork Hanging form creates catenary
[42] Buffalo research filled with concrete and suspended. structure. Formwork material is
Each formwork layer is tied creating bonded and acts as permanent
a structure of uniform thickness. reinforcement.
2012 Belton [43] University of Architectural Rigid, fabric and cable formwork Finite element analysis used to
Florida research system combined to create spiralling calculate formwork stresses and
'bow-tie' column performance in-use
2013 Oldfield [44] University of Acoustics Parabolic shells to focus sound for Hanging mould used to create
Bath research sculptural, hospital and restaurant parabolic shapes
uses
2014 Pedreschi University of Experimental Catenary, hypar and domed concrete Inspired by work of Eladio Dieste
and Lee [28] Edinburgh research shells constructed using fabric and Felix Candela
formwork stretched from rigid
frames
2014 Veenendaal ETH Zurich Experimental Two prototype anticlastic shells Varying individual cable tensions
and Block research constructed using a hybrid cable-net allows fine control of shell geometry
[45] and fabric formwork system for improved performance
2015 Pedreschi University of Experimental Construction of two concrete shells Gridshell can be adapted to create
and Tang Edinburgh research using a hybrid flexible gridshell and shells of differing geometry
[46] textile formwork
2015 TSC Global TSC Global Application Thin shell concrete hyperbolic Concrete pasted onto fibre mesh to
[47] paraboloid roof create lightweight thin shell structure
1958 Ramaswamy Central Application Modular shells cast in fabric and Inversion of hanging shape creates
et al. [48] Building inverted optimal shape for under self-weight
Research
Institute
2009 West [49] C.A.S.T. Architectural Pre-cast sprayed GFRC barrel vaults Hanging form creates funicular
Floors

University of research acting as structure and formwork for mould which is inverted (no
Manitoba in-situ concrete floor numerical analysis)
2009 West [49] C.A.S.T. Architectural Cantilever floor shell structure Membrane prestressed and shaped by
University of research (plaster casts only) applying force at column locations
Manitoba
2009 West [49] C.A.S.T. Architectural Stiffened precast shell flooring unit Application of point load to fabric
University of research creates wrinkle
Manitoba
1934 Waller [22] Ctesiphon Application Fabric stretched over frames and Fabric remains in place as permanent
Walls

Construction plastered to create thin walls reinforcement

2009 West [49] C.A.S.T. Architectural Sprayed GFRC wall panel using Folds in fabric provide stiffness (no
University of research hanging geotextile formwork numerical analysis)
Manitoba
1926 Nose [50] Independent Commercial Pneumatic formwork for concrete Tubular formwork creates void for
application pipe or culvert construction in-situ casting
1941 Neff [51] Independent Commercial Concrete dome constructed using Waterproofing and insulation layers
application pneumatic formwork and sprayed added where required
concrete
1967 Bini [52] Binishells Application Reinforced concrete shell houses Reinforcement laid out flat and lifted
Pneumatic

into position upon inflation

1984 Nicholls [53] Independent Commercial Pneumatically formed domes of Cement and reinforcement applied
application multiple layered cement and fabric prior to inflation
composite
1986 Schlaich and Schlaich and Application Circular rainwater tank with ribbed Pneumatic formwork with additional
Sobek [54] partner segmental dome concrete roof cables creating stiffening ribs for
large span roofs
1990 South [55] Monolithic Commercial RC domes cast in-situ using Polyurethane foam applied to
Dome application pneumatic formwork formwork prior to concrete sets form
Institute and provides insulation
 2007 PRONK et Eindhoven Patent System for the production of Irregular shell structures made with
al. [56] University of irregular shell structures with standardised inflatables in
technology synclastic and anticlastic surfaces combination with a wire mesh
2008 Hove [57] Eindhoven Commercial System for the manipulation of an System to realise a catenary
University of application inflatable formwork optimized cross vault with an
Technology and patent inflatable mould in combination with
and ABT fibre reinforced shotcrete
2009 - Huijben [58] Eindhoven Research Vacuumatic formwork Form is adaptive and given stiffness
presen University of by the application of vacuum
t Technology pressure
2014 Kromoser Vienna Experimental Doubly curved domes created from Pneumatic formwork lifts precast
and University of structure flat segments segments into place when inflated
Kollegger Technology
[59]

2015 Bartlett Cloud Experimental Elliptical domed pavilion with large Double layered pneumatic formwork
School of 9/Bartlett structure organic voids with wooden void formers
Architecture School of
[60] Architecture
1863 Munro and Independent Patent First known patent on pinbed The tip of the pins describe points on
Walczyk [61] moulding a three-dimensional surface.
1952 Hawes [62] Independent Patent Single sided and singly curved Series of adjustable length
formwork for arch roofs supporting rods dictate arch profile
1969 Piano [63] Architect / Application / Doubly curved freeform pavilion in Flexible mat with mechanically
Milan Research fibre-reinforced plastics controlled actuators
Politechnical
University
1979 Eisel [64] Independent Patent Pin-bed double sided mould for Large number of adjustable pins
creating curved panels covered with plastic foil to create
variety of architectural elements
1998 Kosche [65] Independent Patent Pin-bed method for producing three Flexible mat with computer
dimensional shell sections controlled actuators
2003 Helvoirt [66] Eindhoven Experimental Doubly curved adjustable moulding Flexible mat with computer
Adaptive and supported moulds

University of research surface controlled actuators

Technology
2005 - Concrete Concrete Commercial Cement impregnated fabric which Durable layer used for erosion
presen Canvas Ltd Canvas application hardens upon hydration control, slope stabilisation and
t [67] waterproofing in civil engineering
applications
2008 Vollers and Independent Patent Doubly curved precast concrete Flexible mat with computer
Rietbergen cladding panels controlled actuators
[68]
2011 Kristensen Independent Patent Dynamically reconfigurable Specially constructed flexible mat
and Raun moulding surface consisting of a consisting of rigid rhomboidal
[69] flexible mat with actuators segments
2012 Grünewald et Delft Research Panels deformed after flat initial Careful control of concrete mix and
al. [70] University of casting using a flexible membrane rheology
Technology and multiple actuators
2015 Pronk et al. Eindhoven Research/app Flexible mould by the use of spring Flexible Moulding surface based on
[71] University of lication steel mesh rubber mat with weaving of a spring
Technology steel mesh. Surface can be
manipulated by actuators.
2015 Pronk et al. Eindhoven Research/app Moulding method for mass The combination of vacuum forming
[72] University of lication production of unique precast and adaptive moulding is used to
Technology concrete elements. produce formwork for unique doubly
curved elements in cast concrete.
2015 Hoppermann Delft Application Doubly curved precast concrete Flexible mat with computer
et al. [73] University of cladding panels controlled actuators
Technology

155
156 2.2 Filled Moulds

157 2.2.1 Floors and ceilings

158 In 1899 Gustav Lilienthal obtained a patent for a floor system marketed under the name

159 ‘Terrast Decke’, Figure 3. The system was constructed by hanging fabric or paper

160 between floor beams before pouring concrete on top [8]. Similar incarnations of this idea

161 were patented throughout the 20th century [6].

162

163 Figure 3 - Early flexibly formed concrete floor patented by Lilienthal [8]

164 A recent built example of a flexibly formed canopy is presented by West and Araya [9],

165 and shown in Figure 1f. Another example of a rib stiffened floor is given by the

166 architecture and construction firm ArroDesign [10], in the form of a cantilevered slab with

167 a profiled soffit.

168 2.2.2 Beams and trusses

169 Compared to floor systems, developments in fabric-formed beams and trusses occurred

170 more recently, most effectively by West [11] who developed several methods of

171 manufacture for the construction of beams with varying geometries and structural

172 characteristics. The formwork material is fixed rigidly along both sides of the beam, and

173 either hangs freely between these supports or can be drawn downwards to create a

174 deeper section by using the ‘spline’ or ‘keel’ methods. A development of this system led

175 to the pinch mould and the creation of concrete trusses (Figures 1c and 1d).
176 The primary focus of this work has been on structural optimisation, utilising the flexible

177 mould to place material only where it is required. Lee [15] developed a fabric formed

178 beam prototype and achieved 20-40% savings in embodied energy when compared to

179 the equivalent prismatic structure. Other work has shown 25-44% savings in concrete

180 compared to equivalent strength prismatic beams, and has included testing of T-beams,

181 combining flexibly formed beams with conventional slabs [17].

182 After considerable research activity, examples of practical application of fabric formed

183 beams have begun to appear. Flexible formwork has been used in the construction of a

184 school in Cambodia by London based StructureMode, Figure 4 [20]. Prismatic beams

185 and columns were cast using a woven marine geotextile supported on falsework, by a

186 team who had no previous experience in the technique. The principle advantages were

187 that the formwork could be constructed off site and transported easily, and that skilled

188 labour was not required for construction. This application demonstrates the efficacy of

189 the method, and its global potential.

190

191 Figure 4 - Fabric formed beams and columns. Photo: Lindsay Perth.

192 2.2.3 Columns

193 James Waller, arguably the most prolific inventor in the field of flexible formwork [74],

194 patented several ideas in the 1930s including that of a circular, prismatic, fabric formed

195 column [22]. Similar systems were patented in the 1990s and have been successfully

196 commercialised [23].

197 Providing that tensile strains in the fabric are small, a circular prismatic column can be

198 constructed using a very simple tube of fabric, significantly reducing the weight and bulk

199 of formwork material required compared to conventional methods. Initial work by West

200 [75] focused on various experimental methods to build and shape fabric formed columns,

201 departing from the simple prismatic column. Pedreschi [27] continued with even more

202 irregularly shaped columns by combining flexible and rigid formwork. Additional work by

203 Pedreschi and Lee [76] tested the load capacity of a series of variable section circular

204 columns, which were simply constructed by modifying simple tubular fabric formwork

205 (Figure 5). It was found that concave columns showed a higher axial load capacity than
206 prismatic columns using the same amount of material, demonstrating the potential for

207 material savings [77].

208

209 Figure 5 – Variable section columns. Photo: Remo Pedreschi

210

211 2.2.4 Walls and façade panels

212 From 1969 onward, Miguel Fisac used fabric formed panels in many of his projects in

213 Spain, employing smooth polyethylene sheets hanging from a rigid frame as formwork

214 for precast facade panels. More recently, West [78] cast several large fabric formed

215 panels and Pedreschi [79] a large array of smaller panels which were incorporated into

216 a proprietary cladding system.

217 The large fluid pressures arising from tall concrete pours require some method of

218 restraining the fabric in order to control wall thickness. This has been achieved either by

219 using a rigid frame in combination with flexible formwork, or by using the ‘quilt point’

220 method, restraining the fabric at points. Both techniques were pioneered by Kenzo Unno

221 in the late 1990s [80], whose practice Umi Architectural Atelier have successfully applied
222 these methods to many projects in Japan. Redjvani and Wheen [30] developed a 10m

223 tall fabric formed wall, poured monolithically without any scaffolding or bracing. Figure 6

224 shows a recent example of the quilt point method from a 2011 collaboration between

225 architects Studio Bark and the University of East London [33].

226

227 Figure 6 – Fabric formed retaining wall. Photo: Wilf Meynell/Studio Bark.

228 ArroDesign have also independently developed a frame-support method of flexibly

229 formed wall construction and have since applied this to several fabric-formed projects in

230 North America [10]. While the above systems are cast in-situ, the Spanish company

231 Arquitectura Vertida applies Fisac’s concepts for prefabrication in new building projects,

232 using flexibly formed façade panels which are cast horizontally and lifted into position as

233 the structural element in prefabricated sandwich walls.

234 2.2.5 Foundations

235 Flexible formwork can allow strip and pad footings to conform to ground profiles, as

236 illustrated in Figure 7. This reduces formwork complexity and is particularly useful where

237 ground is uneven and excavation is challenging. Patented in 1993, the ‘Fast-Foot’

238 system has been used in many buildings predominantly throughout Canada and the US

239 [25].
240

241 Figure 7 – Fabric formed strip footing. Photo: Fab-Form [25].

242 2.2.6 Marine applications

243 Flexible formwork has seen significant use in marine applications. Early patents for

244 concrete-filled burlap mattresses as river or coastal revetments [81] were followed by

245 pile jackets and bags, which are still produced today. The concrete mattress is in

246 essence a ground bearing slab cast between two sheets of fabric, and such systems

247 have been applied throughout North America since 1967 [82]. Typically the concrete is

248 fully contained by a porous fabric, which can be constructed on land, prevents washout

249 in use and improves concrete strength [83]. They can be filled in situ by pumping the

250 concrete from above the surface. Hawkswood [84] presents an overview of various

251 marine applications of fabric formwork, including porous mattresses for erosion

252 protection, pile jackets for repair of existing structures and foundations to precast

253 structure, as shown in Figure 8.

254

255 Figure 8 - Footing for precast marine structure. Photo: Proserve Ltd. [84].

256 2.3 Surface Moulds

257 2.3.1 Resistance through form

258 Efficient shells carry load primarily through membrane forces [85]. The absence of large

259 bending forces keeps stresses low, reducing material demand. A shell’s structural

260 performance is therefore dictated by its form, particularly its curvature. The fluidity of

261 concrete allows these required geometries to be realised. This was first exploited by

262 Romans to create unreinforced shell structures which have stood for millennia [86]. As

263 the use of steel reinforced concrete became commonplace in the early 20th century,

264 another period of innovation began. High material costs during two world wars drove the

265 desire for efficient designs, and the availability of cheap labour made more complex and

266 involved manufacturing methods economically viable. This led to the peak of concrete

267 shell construction during the middle of the century, driven by innovators such as Maillart,

268 Candela, Nervi, and Isler [87]. Offering both robustness and limitless possibilities of form,

269 concrete was the material of choice for bold and futuristic architecture during this period

270 of optimism and rapid technological advance.

271 Nevertheless, concrete shells all but disappeared form mainstream use after the 1960s.

272 Whilst it may simply be that this radical architecture was prematurely seen as old
273 fashioned, there are a number of other factors. The balance of labour and material costs

274 shifted significantly during this time. This made labour intensive formwork no longer

275 economically viable, and prioritised simplicity and speed of construction. In addition,

276 whilst being efficient structurally, shell forms require challenging detailing and can create

277 impractical or inflexible architectural spaces. Shell structures were also difficult and

278 costly to analyse before advances in computational power and methods, and the lack of

279 codified design rules added risk. Further improvements in glass and steel manufacturing

280 technology led to these materials becoming the most common for large span structures,

281 the primary advantages being reduced weight and increased natural lighting.

282

283 Figure 9 – Reinforced concrete canopy by Heinz Isler. Photo reproduced under CC-BY-SA/© Chriusha
284 (Хрюша) [88].

285 Modern technological advances in both digital analysis and manufacturing have gone

286 some way towards making modern concrete shells a more attractive proposition.

287 However manufacturing costs remain high [89]. Flexible formwork has the potential to

288 solve this key issue by simplifying the construction process.

289 Shell and membrane structures are constrained by the laws of physics, since their design

290 is based on the integration of force, geometry and material. Minimising bending moments

291 and shear forces optimises material utilisation, however the design of such a structure
292 requires a form-finding process that dictates the resulting shape [90]. Since membrane

293 or cable net structures can resist form through tensile in-plane forces only, the same

294 form inverted will act purely in compression [91], although bending stiffness is required

295 in practice for stability and to resist variations in loading arrangement. This principle of

296 ‘inversion’ forms the basis for the design of funicular shell structures, and therefore any

297 of the form-finding methods discussed in section 4.1 can also be applied to the design

298 of shells. This is most famously illustrated by the hanging models used by Gaudi [92]

299 and Isler [85] to design full-scale structures. These were not built using flexible formwork,

300 but flexible systems were instrumental in their design.

301

302 Figure 10-Recreation of Gaudi’s hanging model for the Sagrada Familia, Barcelona. Photo reproduced
303 under CC-BY-SA/© Canaan [93].

304 In practice, a shell’s form is often dictated by the construction method. The geometry

305 created with flexible formwork is dictated by the behaviour of the mould, and therefore it

306 may not be possible to reproduce an optimal compression only shape. The challenge in

307 creating shell structures with flexible formwork is to maximise structural efficiency using
308 only the family of forms which can be created using membranes. There are several

309 construction approaches which may be taken:

310 1) The formwork can hang freely under gravity. A flexible membrane hanging

311 under its own weight, or with the weight from freshly applied concrete, creates

312 a funicular geometry that is purely in tension. The structure can therefore be

313 inverted in order to create a compressive form [94]. As such, this method

314 cannot be used to create a shell in-situ. The inversion procedure is a practical

315 challenge which potentially limits the possible size of each element, as well as

316 introducing unusual temporary stress conditions where the shell is not

317 supported in its final configuration.

318 2) Concrete can be applied to a mechanically prestressed membrane. This gives

319 the formwork a degree of stiffness, and the resulting shells have anticlastic

320 (negative) curvature typical of a stressed membrane.

321 3) Air pressure can be used to support the wet concrete (pneumatics).

322 Curvatures are synclastic (positive), and can therefore create domed

323 geometries in-situ. Additional pneumatic equipment is however required on-

324 site for inflation of the mould.

325 4) The shell can be divided into smaller, precast elements, manufactured with

326 the use of a flexible mould. These elements are then assembled on site into

327 the final shell structure, by tensioning them together or casting an in-situ top

328 layer for example.

329 2.3.2 Roofs and canopies

330 Shells are well suited to domes and roof structures where height and free geometry are

331 relatively unrestricted. James Waller is known for constructing hundreds of fabric formed

332 shells in the mid-20th century [95], using fabric hanging from rigid arches to create ribbed
333 single-spanning domes. The work by Kersavage [96] and Knott and Nez [97] during the

334 1970s led to dozens of fabric formed roofs, most recently by TSC Global [47]. Here,

335 flexible reinforcing mesh is stretched around a timber frame and coated with concrete to

336 a thickness of 10mm. The prestress in the flexible mesh creates a doubly curved

337 anticlastic shell form, which, combined with a low self-weight, improves the structure’s

338 earthquake resistance [98].

339

340 Figure 11 – Ctesiphon shell constructed by James Waller. Photo: the Irish Architectural Archive (Waller
341 album).

342 In the past decade, prototype anticlastic flexibly formed shells have been constructed by

343 West [99], Pronk et al. [39], Tysmans [40], Pedreschi and Lee [28], Seracino et al. [41]

344 and Veenendaal and Block [45]. Veenendaal and Block [45, 100] have used a hybrid of

345 fabric formwork with an adjustable cable-net to provide increased flexibility of form, as

346 shown in Figure 12.

347

348 Figure 12 – Hybrid cable net and fabric formed shell Photo: Block Research Group, ETH Zurich [45].

349 2.3.3 Floors

350 Using shell structures for floors is made challenging by height restrictions, variations in

351 load patterning, robustness requirements and the need for a flat top surface. However,

352 floors are a suitable target for material savings, since they contain the majority of the

353 embodied energy in a typical multi-storey concrete building [101].

354 Ramaswamy and Chetty [74] developed and patented a method of casting medium-sized

355 doubly curved modular shells in fabric and inverting them as a flooring system [9]. This

356 system was adopted in the construction of thousands of buildings in their native India

357 and abroad [75], and was claimed to provide 20-50% material savings [74].

358 West [49] presents a number of concepts and manufacturing methods for pre-cast fibre

359 reinforced compression vaults using fabric formwork. Thin, lightweight pre-cast units act

360 as the principle structure as well as formwork for later in-situ concrete. An interesting

361 concept to create buckling resistant shells through selective prestressing of a flat fabric

362 sheet is also presented by West and Araya [94] as a flooring option. Large corrugations

363 in the fabric are created by applying prestress at points, which adds stiffness and stability

364 to the shell forms as shown in Figure 13.

365

366 Figure 13 –Funicular shell formwork created by selective prestressing. Photo: Mark West (C.A.S.T.)
367 [94].

368 2.3.4 Walls

369 Alongside the filled flexible moulds used to create reinforced concrete walls discussed

370 in §2.2.4, there are also some instances of flexible formwork being used to create thin

371 shell walls with concrete applied to the forming surface. In his 1934 patent, James Waller

372 describes stretching and plastering fabric over a framing to create walls or pitched roofs

373 [22]. The method was marketed under the name ‘Nofrango’, and was used in the

374 construction of terraced houses in Dublin as early as 1928.

375 West [49] again experimented with folds and corrugations in order to address the low

376 strength and stiffness of thin planar shells. Hanging sheets of fabric were sprayed with

377 fibre reinforced concrete to create wall panels as shown in Figure 14. Despite the

378 simplicity of the manufacturing process, a very complex form is created using this

379 method. Further investigation is required to predict the form and assess the performance

380 of these structures.

381

382 Figure 14 – Thin shell precast wall panel created with sprayed concrete. Photo: Mark West (C.A.S.T.)
383 [49].

384 2.3.5 Pneumatic moulds

385 One of the first applications of pneumatic formwork was a method of producing cylindrical

386 concrete pipes patented by Nose [50] in 1926. Since then a common application of

387 pneumatic formwork has been the construction of cost-efficient single storey dome-like

388 houses, pioneered by Neff [51] as a low cost housing solution and later refined by Heifetz

389 [102].

390 In the 1960s Dante Bini utilised pneumatic formwork for shell-houses, using a circular

391 reinforced concrete foundation [52, 103]. Reinforcement is laid flat on the ground and

392 each reinforcing bar is surrounded by a steel spiral spring. Concrete is then cast over

393 the reinforcement and membrane, which is subsequently deformed into a doubly-curved

394 shell by inflating the formwork before the concrete has set. The reinforcing bars are able

395 to move through their surrounding springs during the inflation, to ensure reinforcement

396 remains in the correct position. Over 1000 ‘Bini-shells’ had been constructed with this

397 method by 1986 [104], and today the company continues to operate and innovate with

398 new structural systems and architectural applications [105].

399

400 South [55] invented another construction method where concrete is sprayed on an

401 inflated pneumatic formwork. In contrast to the already described methods by Neff and

402 Heifetz, South not only sprayed from the inside of the mould, but also added a layer of

403 polyurethane which stiffens the formwork before the concrete is applied [106]. This

404 method remains in use today [107], as shown in Figure 15, as part of a wider group of

405 building companies using pneumatic formwork for domes [108, 109].

406

407 Figure 15 - Shell house. Photo: Monolithic [107]

408 Heinz Isler also experimented with pneumatic formworks, inflating and spraying them

409 with different materials like concrete, gypsum, clay, and water [110]. As described by

410 Sobek, large pneumatic formworks can be significantly deformed during the production

411 process [111, 112]. Schlaich and Sobek [54] addressed this issue by using precast

412 concrete segments to take up the deformations during assembly, with any gaps between

413 these filled later with in-situ concrete.

414 A new construction method using pneumatic formwork has been invented by Kromoser

415 and Kollegger [59], [113], in which free-formed concrete shells originating from an initially

416 flat plate can be built. During the transformation process, the hardened concrete plate

417 consisting of petal shaped elements is bent with the aid of pneumatic formwork until the
418 required curvature is reached, as shown in Figure 16. The construction method can be

419 used for a large variety of forms with positive Gaussian curvature [114].

420

421 Figure 16 - Pneumatic forming of hardened concrete. Photo: TU Wien

422 2.3.6 Adaptive and supported moulds

423 The final group of applications discussed are those for which the flexible mould is

424 supported regularly along its entire surface. The geometry is therefore no longer

425 determined solely by the force equilibrium of the mould, but also by its interaction with

426 the supporting structure (Figure 17).

427

428 Figure 17 - Adaptive formwork (left) and manufactured freeform concrete element (right) [115]. Photos:
429 Roel Schipper

430 Adaptive moulds can be reshaped between uses, taking advantage of a flexible mould’s

431 ability to conform to multiple geometries depending on support conditions. Significant

432 developments for an adaptive mould to create doubly-curved panels have been made.
433 Schipper [116] presents a comprehensive overview of historical patents for adaptive

434 flexible moulds. Although reconfigurable surfaces for forming or moulding materials in

435 various industries date as far back as the mid-nineteenth century [61], the oldest patent

436 found using actuators to define a flexible, adjustable doubly-curved shape in concrete is

437 from Eisel [64] in 1979. A patent of Kosche [65] extensively describes various issues

438 when using a flexible moulding for hardening materials such as concrete. To avoid

439 forming onto a curved surface (by spraying for example), it is possible using adaptive

440 moulds to cast the concrete flat and apply curvature after some setting has occurred.

441 However, this requires careful control of concrete mix and rheology to prevent both

442 cracking and flow [70, 116].

443 Several prototypes for a flexible mould system have been designed, and in some cases

444 built, by researchers and architects over the years [63, 68]. A number of commercial

445 applications have also been developed for flexible moulds [69, 73].

446 3 Materials

447 Flexible formworks have been applied to a vast range of structures and incorporated in

448 many novel construction methods. This section looks more closely at the construction

449 implications and possibilities of flexible formwork by focusing on materials.

450 3.1 Formwork

451 Whilst it is possible to use non-woven membranes as a formwork material, woven fabrics

452 are usually preferred, due to their availability, low cost, high strength and positive effect

453 on surface finish [117]. A tough and durable material is desirable if the formwork is to be

454 handled, prestressed and used multiple times.

455 It is usually desirable to avoid wrinkling of the fabric, due issues of demoulding,

456 aesthetics and repeatability. Furthermore, the geometry and occurrence of wrinkling can
457 be difficult to predict [118]. There are notable exceptions, such as the deliberate

458 exploitation of wrinkling to design stiffened shells [49] and canopies [9]. Wrinkling occurs

459 due to a flexible material’s inability to carry compression, and fabric can be prestressed

460 where necessary to ensure that stresses are tensile throughout and wrinkles are

461 eliminated.

462 High stiffness fabrics such as geotextiles have proven to be a popular material choice

463 for such applications, since large prestress forces and fluid pressures can be withstood

464 without large strains resulting in unwanted deformations. Conversely, a deliberate use of

465 a more compliant formwork material such as spandex can create unique sculptural forms

466 [119].

467 The weight and bulk of required formwork can be significantly reduced when using

468 flexible formwork. For example, the marine geotextile used in the creation of fabric

469 formed beams by Orr [17] has a weight of 0.23 kg/m2, compared to over 10 kg/m2 for

470 typical 18mm plywood formwork [120]. Flexible formwork can therefore be easily packed

471 and transported to site if necessary. This presents an opportunity for prefabrication of

472 formwork off-site, reducing construction time and improving scheduling flexibility [20].

473

474 Figure 18 – Easily transportable flexible formwork. Photo: Mark West (C.A.S.T.).
475 Historically, the majority of fabrics used in formwork applications have been adapted

476 from other uses. However as the practice of using fabric formwork has become more

477 widespread, concepts for specialised materials have been developed which could be

478 woven to have customised stiffness or porosity characteristics, for example. The idea of

479 permanent participating formwork has also been explored, where the formwork material

480 (typically having a good tensile capacity) acts as reinforcement after the concrete

481 hardens. This has been explored for concrete floors [121], beams [122], columns [26]

482 and shells [123]. The shear bond between the formwork and concrete is critical, and

483 exposure of the reinforcement to fire and damage remains a concern. Three-dimensional

484 fabrics, which have a multi-layered open structure, have also been proposed [124].

485 Flexible formwork can incorporate structures other than two-dimensional sheets. Cables

486 and cable nets can be combined with fabrics to create further possibilities for shape

487 control [43, 45, 100, 125], as shown previously in Figure 12. It is also possible to use

488 articulated rigid segments, giving the designer control over the direction of flexibility [69,

489 126]. Gridshells have also been tested as concrete formwork in combination with a fabric

490 [46, 127]. This provides flexibility to distort into doubly curved forms yet also sufficient

491 stiffness to support the unhardened concrete.

492 3.2 Concrete

493 Fundamentally, the choice of formwork material has no influence on the requirements of

494 the concrete to be used. The material properties of concrete are, however, modified as

495 a result of using a permeable formwork material such as a woven fabric. By allowing

496 water and air to escape through the formwork, a high quality and uniform finish is created

497 with a cement-rich surface layer. The texture of the formwork material is picked up by

498 the concrete surface, as can be seen in Figure 19. As well as creating an attractive finish

499 for exposed concrete, this improves strength and reduces porosity, leading to as much
500 as a 50% reduction in carbonation and chloride ingress [117]. The evidence therefore

501 shows that further material savings could be made by decreasing cover requirements,

502 although further investigation and standardisation is required for this to become

503 recognised practice. The same effect is achieved using controlled permeability formwork

504 [128], involving the addition of a permeable lining to a rigid mould.

505

506 Figure 19 –Textured concrete finish free of imperfections. Photo: Mark West (C.A.S.T.).

507 When casting shells against a single surface, flow due to gravity can no longer be

508 permitted and hence the rheology of the concrete mix becomes an important

509 consideration [129]. Mixes cast as thin layers must have appropriate aggregate sizes,

510 flow and consistency to ensure they remain in place on the surface. The concrete can

511 be applied by hand and trowelled, or alternatively sprayed concrete can be used where

512 cement, water and a fine aggregate are projected at high velocity onto the surface [41,

513 49], allowing a large area to be formed more rapidly. The dynamic placement of concrete

514 causes compaction, and the formwork must also be sufficiently stiff to limit deformation.

515 Accelerating agents can be used, so that each successive layer can support itself more

516 rapidly [130].

517 3.3 Reinforcement

518 The nature of flexible formwork leads to structures featuring non-planar and irregular

519 forms. This is the basis for creating optimised structures, however reinforcement must

520 also be shaped to provide strength where needed. Conventional steel reinforcement can

521 be draped to follow these forms only where curvatures are low and bars are sufficiently

522 thin and flexible [41]. Where thicker bars or significant curvatures are required, steel

523 reinforcing bars can be bent to shape [17]. For large scale applications this may incur

524 significant labour costs and the required tolerances may be difficult to achieve. As a

525 result, a number of alternative reinforcing strategies have been used in flexibly formed

526 structures.

527 Construction can be simplified if the reinforcing material is sufficiently flexible. Fibre

528 reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcement consists of high tensile strength flexible fibres

529 (usually carbon, glass or basalt) in combination with a polymer matrix. Polymeric

530 reinforcement is less dense than steel reinforcement (1.6 g/cm3 for carbon, compared to

531 7.8 g/cm3 for steel), has a high tensile strength, and is corrosion resistant [131].

532 Commercially available FRP reinforcing bars are similar in form to conventional steel

533 bars[132], and have been used in variable section fabric formed beams [133]. A key

534 issue is the provision of anchorage to such bars. Kostova [21] developed a splayed-

535 anchorage system which is shown to successfully prevent slippage.

536 Further research is being carried out to design and construct bespoke reinforcement

537 cages using woven carbon fibres (Figure 20) [134]. Since the fibres are flexible prior to

538 the setting of the resin, this process can be easily automated. The precise geometric

539 control of the manufacturing method enables optimisation in both external form and

540 internal reinforcement layout.

541

542 Figure 20 – Bespoke carbon fibre reinforcement for non-prismatic beams. Photo: John Orr.

543 Glass, basalt or carbon fibres fibres can also be woven into open meshes. Alternating

544 layers of concrete and fibre mesh can be combined to create textile reinforced concrete

545 (TRC), a material with a high tensile strength [135, 136]. This type of material is

546 sometimes described as a cement-based composite, being similar in construction to

547 common composite materials such as CFRP, but with a cementitious matrix. TRC is

548 particularly suited to curved shell structures and complex detailing due to its inherent

549 flexibility. Since there are no cover requirements for corrosion protection, the minimum

550 section thickness can be lower than steel reinforced shells. Along with the material’s high

551 strength, this means that textile reinforcement can compare favourably in terms of

552 embodied energy with an equivalent strength steel reinforced section [137].

553 The height of fabrication simplicity, especially for curved and variable section forms, is

554 the use of unreinforced concrete, or reinforcement which is part of the concrete mix itself.
555 Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) introduces uniformly distributed and randomly

556 orientated fibres into the mix in order to improve characteristics such as shrinkage

557 cracking resistance, ductility and tensile strength [138]. There are a number of examples

558 of FRC used to create thin shell structures in combination with flexible formwork [9, 116,

559 125, 127]. Fibres can be made from steel, glass, polymers or natural materials, and these

560 can be used to partially or sometimes completely substitute for conventional

561 reinforcement [139]. However, maximum tensile strengths are limited by the achievable

562 fibre content and control of their orientation [136]. In combination with fibre

563 reinforcement, careful optimisation of constituent materials can create concrete with

564 significantly improved mechanical properties. Reactive powder concrete (RPC) uses fine

565 and carefully graded aggregates, heat-treating, steel fibres and controlled casting

566 conditions to produce ultra-dense concrete with compressive and flexural strengths of

567 over 800 MPa and 140 MPa respectively [140]. Significant research has led to the

568 commercial availability of ultra-high-performance concretes which incorporate this

569 technology [141].

570 4 Analysis and design

571 Using a flexible mould can present specific challenges for designers, mostly due to the

572 added geometric complexity compared to traditional rigid moulds. This geometry is not

573 arbitrary but determined by the physical deformation of the mould, and hence an

574 additional form-finding process is required before structural analysis can be undertaken.

575 The geometric freedom of flexible formwork can lead to efficient structural design by

576 linking these two processes.

577 4.1 Form-finding of flexible formworks

578 Flexible structures such as membranes, fabrics and cables are ‘form-active structures’,

579 meaning that their geometry changes to ensure equilibrium with the applied loads. The
580 shape cannot be set arbitrarily, as is possible with rigid formwork, but is governed by the

581 applied loads, boundary conditions and formwork material characteristics. Form-finding

582 is the process of determining this geometry. When using flexible formwork, the aim of

583 the form-finding process is typically to design the formwork in order to create the desired

584 final geometry. Accurate knowledge of a structure’s final form prior to manufacture is

585 necessary for structural modelling as well as designing interfaces with other elements

586 such as facades or services.

587 The loads acting on the formwork arise from not only from the weight of wet concrete but

588 also applied prestress, interaction with rigid surfaces, and possibly additional pneumatic

589 pressure. In the case of filled moulds, the wet concrete exerts a fluid pressure on the

590 formwork. This acts normal to the surface and is proportional to the depth of concrete,

591 with the exception of very tall or slow pours where the effects of friction or hardening can

592 reduce this pressure considerably [142]. The loading on surface moulds is somewhat

593 different due to friction between the concrete and the mould.

594 Each application of flexible formwork has its own unique form-finding requirements, and

595 the complexity of the analysis can often be reduced by making appropriate simplifying

596 assumptions. For example, a stiff or lightly stressed formwork material may be modelled

597 as inextensible, or a three dimensional object can be simplified as a series of two

598 dimensional sections in some cases [133].

599 Even after careful form-finding, verification of built geometry should also be made

600 through measurement. This can be done manually, or if a complete assessment of

601 geometry is required, digital 3D scanning technology [143] or photogrammetry [115] may

602 be useful. Greater confidence can be achieved through the use of an adjustable mould,

603 which permits fine-tuning based on measurements made during manufacture.

604 It should be remembered that many flexible formwork applications do not require detailed

605 form-finding. It may be that calculating the precise form is not important, since the shape

606 is dictated primarily by a rigid surface. This is the case for many fabric formed walls,

607 beams created using keels or pinch moulds, and applications where the fabric formwork

608 makes contact with the ground. Form-finding is also trivial in the case of circular fabric

609 formed columns or piles. It is notable that the majority of existing commercial and

610 practical applications of flexible formwork fall into these categories, where form-finding

611 methods are trivial or unnecessary. The extra level of complexity required for form-

612 finding would seem to be a barrier to commercial adoption at present.

613 4.1.1 Form-finding techniques

614 In a typical form-finding problem, a designer with a hypothetical flexible formwork

615 arrangement wishes to calculate the resulting geometry after casting. Analytical formulae

616 (mathematically derived from a physics based model) or empirical formulae (calculated

617 through experimentation) are desirable since they allow geometry to be predicted without

618 the need for computational processes or testing. However, analytical solutions are only

619 practical for the simplest form-finding problems, and empirically derived solutions are

620 only valid under conditions similar to those of the underlying tests, are also exposed to

621 experimental error.

622 Physical modelling was once the standard method for the form-finding of shells, masonry

623 and tension structures, most famously by Isler [85], Gaudi [92] and Otto [144]

624 respectively. The additional load carried by flexible formwork from the wet concrete adds

625 a complication to these methods. In order to correctly model a flexible formwork system

626 at scale, both the fluid density and fabric stiffness must also be scaled accordingly. An

627 important advantage of physical modelling is the discovery of potential construction

628 issues and unforeseen behaviour. A large number of scale models have been built using
629 plaster at C.A.S.T [94], and further examples are given by Veenendaal and Block [145].

630 However, the purpose has always been to explore and demonstrate flexible formwork

631 techniques, rather than for accurate form-finding of full scale structures.

632 The advantages of computational form-finding are substantial. Many different alternative

633 designs can be analysed quickly, allowing a wide range of options to be explored and

634 creating opportunities for optimisation (when combined with an analysis procedure).

635 Designing digitally also has practical advantages when working as part of a project team,

636 allowing communication of designs to others and integration with other digital models. If

637 requirements change, the model can be updated immediately. Several computational

638 form-finding methods have been applied to flexible formwork, including dynamic

639 relaxation [146, 147] (used by Veenendaal [148] and Tysmans et al. [149]) and the force

640 density method [150-152] (used by Guldentops et al. [153] and Van Mele and Block [154]

641 to design flexibly formed concrete shells). A more comprehensive overview of

642 computational form-finding methods for flexibly formed structures is given by

643 Veenendaal and Block [145].

644 4.2 Structural analysis

645 Structural design is based on simplified analysis models, idealised material properties

646 and hypothetical design scenarios which are necessarily conservative. However, an

647 overly simplistic or cautious approach will lead to either a feasible structural solution

648 being overlooked or unnecessary over-design (and material waste). A suitably accurate

649 analysis approach must therefore be developed and verified if a novel structural system

650 is to be used in practice. Analytical methods are continually having to ‘catch up’ with

651 advances in construction, and the use of flexible formworks is a prime example of this.

652 One of the main drivers for the use of flexible formworks is the potential for material

653 savings through optimisation of form. Many flexibly formed structures have been built,
654 often with structural efficiency in mind, but without structural analysis or testing being

655 carried out [11, 21, 27, 29, 49, 58]. Despite being technically possible, analysing these

656 non-standard structures may require advanced or novel modelling methods for which

657 specialist knowledge is necessary.

658 Finite element analysis has become the industry standard for analysing concrete

659 structures with irregular geometry. Non-linear material models for reinforced concrete

660 structures are also well established. Hashemian [16] used finite element analysis to

661 model bending moment optimised concrete beams, which was found to accurately

662 predict deflections within the elastic range. Shell structures created using flexible

663 formwork have typically been analysed using linear finite element analysis in order to

664 determine stresses and deflections [41, 43]. The behaviour of a reinforced concrete shell

665 can be approximated as being linear only within the stress limits of cracking or crushing

666 [135]. Shells are particularly sensitive to buckling and initial imperfections [155], and thus

667 ultimate limit state assessment requires a non-linear (large displacement) analysis.

668 In some cases finite element analysis is unnecessary. For example, structural testing of

669 non-prismatic, flexibly formed beams has shown that standard analytical design methods

670 are accurate for prediction of flexural but not shear strength [156]. Tayfur et al (2016) has

671 adopted the partial interaction theory of Visintin et al. [157] in order to better predict

672 cracking and deflections in simply-supported and continuous fabric-formed concrete

673 beams. This work is important in being able to include serviceability criteria in the

674 optimisation process of such structures.

675 Many computational methods, including finite element analysis, rely on assumptions of

676 material continuity during deformation which are inappropriate for brittle materials, like

677 concrete, when cracking occurs. It is only with accurate analytical tools that the full

678 potential of the material can be exploited. One such tool currently being developed for
679 this application is peridynamic modelling, a mesh-free analysis method which allows

680 inherent modelling of cracking [158].

681 4.3 Structural optimisation

682 Optimisation is a branch of mathematics which aims to select an ‘optimal’ solution from

683 a user-defined set (design space) based on a numerical measure of performance (fitness

684 value). Each solution has a specific value of fitness, and this creates what can be

685 visualised as a ‘fitness landscape’ from which the aim is to find the ‘peak’. Depending on

686 the problem, this landscape may be simple and smooth or rough, with multiple peaks

687 smaller than the global optimum. Iterative methods for optimisation include gradient

688 methods such as Newton-Raphson, suitable only for smooth optimisation landscapes

689 without local optima. For more complex, multi-dimensional design spaces, a number of

690 stochastic methods have been developed which utilise randomness. Examples include

691 simulated annealing [159], particle swarm optimisation [160] and genetic algorithms

692 [161].

693 Any number of input variables can form the design space, although the complexity of the

694 problem and computational time required increases as more of these are added. The

695 designer therefore needs set up the optimisation procedure carefully in order to create

696 an appropriate design space. In the case of a flexibly formed structure, a design

697 exploration involving a form-finding procedure may be necessary in order to search

698 through geometries which can be formed using a flexible mould. From an engineering

699 perspective, the fitness of a particular structural geometry is likely to be related to its

700 structural performance, and hence a structural analysis procedure must also be

701 integrated within the optimisation process. The desired outcome may be to maximise

702 stiffness or minimise weight for example.

703 The creation of non-planar concrete forms using only a small number of formwork

704 components brings new opportunities for effective structural optimisation with flexible

705 formwork. The variables which determine the final geometry are first defined, such as

706 the location of a fixing point or an applied prestressing force, and then optimised as part

707 of a procedure which includes form-finding and analysis. Several flexibly formed

708 elements have been computationally optimised in this way including beams, trusses

709 [162] and shells [45]. Another approach to optimising flexibly-formed shells,

710 demonstrated by Van Mele and Block [154], is to calculate an idealised target surface (a

711 funicular form) and then try to approach this with a fabric membrane using an

712 optimisation method.

713 5 Alternatives to flexible formwork

714 When evaluating flexible formwork it is necessary to acknowledge other technologies

715 available for the construction of complex shapes in concrete. Aside from traditional

716 timber and steel formworks used in prefabrication, recent technological advances have

717 facilitated the use of: CNC milling of wax, foam or timber; CNC hotwire cutting of foam;

718 direct additive manufacturing and 3D printing as novel methods for construction.

719 Overviews of these technologies can be found in Schipper [116], Lim et al. [163], Lloret

720 et al. [164] and Naboni and Paoletti [165]. There are also interesting prospects for future

721 work combining rigid CAD/CAM milled moulds shaped to fit flexible form-liners,

722 enhancing construction and geometric flexibility whilst retaining the advantages of the

723 flexible mould. An inexpensive fabric mould-liner can also protect the more expensive

724 milled mould surface, while eliminating de-moulding forces.

725 Additive manufacturing using cementitious materials is receiving increasing amounts of

726 interest. Current examples of printing at full scale include the D-Shape printer [166],

727 Contour Crafting [167] and a 3D-concrete printer at TU Eindhoven [168]. However, the
728 practical 3D printing of concrete structures still has many challenges to overcome,

729 including the reinforcement of realistic spans using continuous bars, which cannot yet

730 be printed, and the high embodied-carbon of the cement rich pastes used in the printing

731 processes.

732 Another method of producing curved forms in concrete is to use articulated precast

733 segments, as in the FlexiArch system which has been applied to over 40 projects in the

734 UK and Ireland [169].

735 Many of these methods require sophisticated machinery which may not exist in parts of

736 the developing world, or may be prohibitive economically. In these cases flexible moulds,

737 particularly flat-sheet fabric moulds, provide extremely simple and inexpensive

738 formworks for casting complex curvatures and structurally efficient forms.

739 6 Research questions

740 6.1 Commercial adoption

741 The history of fabric formworks presents repeated stories of successful, profitable

742 techniques abandoned after their individual inventor/builder(s) ceased working. The

743 main exceptions to this pattern are inflatable formworks for dome construction,

744 underwater and geotechnical fabric formworks, and the Fab-Form line of products for

745 foundation footings and columns, which have all established and sustained niches within

746 their respective construction sectors.

747 The most difficult barrier to the broad adoption and use of flexible formwork is the

748 contractor’s reluctance, or inability, to give a price for an unfamiliar kind of construction

749 project. While the world of flexible materials is native to technical traditions such as

750 rigging, tailoring or tent structures, flexibility is not native to conventional building

751 construction materials or culture. Despite the fact that many flexible moulds are
752 extremely simple to construct, their unfamiliarity alone may preclude them from being

753 used. Inflatable moulds (used for example in dome construction) have an advantage in

754 this regard, because they present, to a builder, an ostensibly rigid mould surface.

755 The balance of labour and material and costs drives the extent to which a structure is

756 designed for simple and fast construction or high material efficiency. Ideally, material use

757 is reduced without adding labour costs, which flexible formwork has the potential to do.

758 Higher risks also increase cost. Uncertainty can be reduced by demonstrating reliability

759 of structural performance and accuracy of design methods. As a result, a continued

760 research and wider communication effort is necessary to increase commercial uptake of

761 flexible formwork technology.

762 A number of specific research questions relate to the commercial adoption of flexible

763 formwork:

764  How can knowledge be most effectively collated and disseminated in order to

765 stimulate widespread adoption?

766  How do flexible formwork systems compare economically with current

767 construction practice?

768  What potential reductions in environmental impact could the use of flexible

769 formwork achieve?

770 6.2 Construction

771 Flexible moulds can reliably provide repeated shapes and dimensions, although there

772 are special considerations. For example, the final geometry can be sensitive to the

773 boundary conditions, prestress and material properties of the fabric mould [143]. The

774 choice of the formwork membrane material matters for the successful prediction of strain.

775 Even initially loose formwork fabrics can produce nearly identical casts in subsequent
776 pours, though predicting the shape of the first casting may be difficult in some complex

777 moulds. Pretensioning the mould provides both a higher rigidity and additional control

778 over the final form.

779 A practical and commercially-focused design guide for constructing with flexible

780 formwork could encourage practical application significantly. In order to achieve this, the

781 following research questions regarding construction are proposed:

782  What effect does the use of flexible formwork have on construction tolerance,

783 and how can this be controlled?

784  To what extent are different types of flexible mould suitable for multiple uses?

785  How might the speed of construction compare to conventional formwork for a

786 large scale application?

787  What potential benefits and challenges might arise when scaling up from the lab

788 to larger commercial projects?

789  How might precasting and assembling of smaller elements compare to in-situ use

790 of flexible formwork?

791 6.3 Structural innovation

792 Despite considerable research and experimentation, flexible formwork still offers a vast

793 range of unexplored opportunities for structural innovation. Thanks to previous research

794 and modern developments in computational power and methods, there now exists the

795 ability to analyse the forms which can be easily created with flexible formwork.

796 One important goal of future research in this field is to assist in the reduction of

797 greenhouse gas emissions by developing practical methods for designing and

798 constructing efficiently-shaped structures that use less cement than their conventional

799 prismatic equivalents. Maximum material savings can be made by concentrating on

800 applications using large volumes of concrete and where it is presently used least

801 efficiently. In multi-storey concrete framed buildings the majority of material is usually

802 contained within the floors [101]. Floor slabs or beams act primarily in bending, meaning

803 that much of the concrete is ignored in structural analysis (due to cracking) and is lightly

804 stressed in practice. It is possible that a more efficient system can be created using

805 flexible formwork in conjunction with structural optimisation.

806 Until now, flexibly-formed variable-section beams and slabs have been reinforced using

807 passive reinforcement. The flexibility of post-tensioning cables could make them

808 potentially very well suited to non-prismatic beams and slabs, following on from the work

809 of Guyon [170] who designed and built variable section prestressed beams in the 1950s.

810 Post-tensioning also offers further improvements in material efficiency where stiffness

811 dominates design.

812 Future research questions might include:

813  Where are further and alternative structural efficiency gains to be made using

814 flexible formwork?

815  What advantages could post-tensioning bring to optimised fabric formed

816 structures?

817  How much embodied energy could be saved in an optimised concrete flooring

818 system cast from a flexible mould?

819 6.4 Materials

820 Sometimes overlooked, an important influence on the final form is the stiffness

821 characteristics of the formwork material itself. To date, the majority of flexibly formed

822 structures have been created using materials intended for other purposes, such as
823 geotextiles. Some investigations into creating customised materials have been

824 undertaken [171], and many potential opportunities have been identified.

825 The established benefits that permeable formwork has for concrete finish and durability

826 can potentially reduce cover requirements and create longer lasting structures [117,

827 172], as described in section 3.2. At present there is no provision for this in design codes.

828 Further work is required for these potential benefits to be recognized by industry, which

829 will add to the advantages of permeable fabric formwork in practice.

830 Many developing reinforcement technologies are complementary to flexible formwork,

831 including textiles, fibres and fabrics. There is a very large scope of research to be

832 undertaken in order to further the understanding of these new materials and find suitable

833 applications.

834 Topics of research yet to be explored include:

835  How can flexible formworks be customised to create more structurally efficient

836 forms?

837  What is the potential of participating flexible formwork in creating efficient and

838 durable structures?

839  How can the benefits to concrete surface finish and durability be maximised

840 through optimal design of permeable formwork?

841  What standardised methods of assessing changes to concrete surface

842 properties and durability through use of permeable formwork could be

843 developed?

844  How can ongoing developments in concrete and reinforcement materials be

845 combined with flexible formwork to improve performance and application

846 potential?
847 6.5 Analysis and design

848 Whilst much theoretical and experimental work has been carried out on form-finding of

849 flexibly formed structures, as of yet these methods are rarely used in mainstream

850 practice. The structures that rely on form-finding, such as shells and beams, are also

851 perhaps the most unusual and carry the most perceived risk for builders and clients. It is

852 therefore important to continue improving form-finding methods and evaluating their

853 performance through physical testing and measurement.

854 Serviceability often governs the design of concrete structures, although it can often be

855 overlooked in the modelling and testing of novel concrete structures. Deflections in

856 structures with complex geometries can be analysed through, for example, finite element

857 modelling, although the development of analytical methods would be of practical

858 advantage. Optimising for serviceability can be challenging without costly computational

859 methods.

860 There are many outstanding research questions on the analysis and design side for

861 flexibly formed concrete:

862  Which standard testing protocols might be developed to verify form-finding

863 methods?

864  How might serviceability criteria influence the design and optimisation methods

865 for non-prismatic structures?

866  How might design methods be extended from individual elements to whole

867 structural systems?

868  How can new, more realistic computational models for concrete be adopted to

869 guide optimisation methods and improve potential embodied energy savings?
870 6.6 Design codes

871 A barrier prohibiting the use of optimised and non-uniform concrete structures is the lack

872 of recognised design methods. The likely need for detailed analysis and physical testing

873 adds considerable cost when designing beyond the limits of codified design. As such,

874 most commercially successful flexibly formed structures are prismatic in shape and can

875 be analysed using existing design codes.

876 Widespread adoption of curved and optimised structures can only be achieved once the

877 required analysis techniques are identified, verified and standardised. An important

878 research question must therefore be answered:

879  How can a set of design codes for optimised concrete structures be produced

880 and what should it contain?

881 6.7 Global applications

882 Another promising area of future work is in low-capital, low-tech, building cultures, where

883 the simplicity and material efficiency of flexible fabric formwork can help replace wooden

884 forms, thus addressing issues of deforestation whilst also reducing cement consumption.

885 Although most of the recent research has been carried out in Europe and North America,

886 the first practical applications of new fabric formed concrete technologies is often carried

887 out in developing countries [20, 47]. Regions with fast growing economies and urbanising

888 populations are likely to see the largest amount of new construction in the coming

889 decades, and should therefore be a focus for potential applications. In 2015 for example,

890 China alone accounted for 57% of global cement production [1]. Proposed research

891 questions are:

892  Which specific global construction challenges could be solved using flexible

893 formwork?
894  How might flexible formwork technology be focused towards regions with the

895 highest construction demand?

896 7 Conclusions

897 Flexible formwork has been used to create a wide range of concrete structures, and has

898 produced exciting new structural and architectural possibilities. Replacing rigid moulds

899 with flexible materials offers many practical advantages as well as opportunities for

900 improved structural efficiency.

901 The technology has a proven commercial record, however structural applications which

902 achieve material savings require more complex and novel design methods. More

903 development and evidence of successful projects is required to increase industrial

904 confidence, and to enable more widespread adoption. Whilst a significant amount of

905 research and innovation has been done, a number of important questions still remain. A

906 large number of research institutions have been involved, and international collaboration

907 is vitally important for further research to be carried out most effectively. The technology

908 could then make a transformative contribution to improving the sustainability of

909 construction.

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