Chapter-7 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

7. Introduction to IC Fabrication Techniques

7.1. Introduction
An integrated circuit (IC) can be the equivalent of dozens, hundreds, or thousands of separate
electronic parts. Digital ICs, such as microprocessors, can equal millions of parts. Now, digital and
mixe-dsignal ICs are finding more applications in analog systems.
The integrated circuit was introduced in 1958. It has been called the most significant technological
development of the twentieth century. Integrated circuits have allowed electronics to expand at an
amazing rate. Much of the growth has been in the area of digital electronics. Lately, analog ICs have
received more attention, and the designation “mixed-signal” is now applied to ICs that combine
digital and analog functions.
During the past two decades, the electronics industry has grown very fast both in size and in
complexity. Designers began talking about chip design only 25 years ago. At the beginning, the idea
was to design chips to reduce the computer size. Instead of room-sized computers, we have now
ended up with PCs running at a speed that back then was considered “impossible to imagine.” The
application of IC technology has exploded into many parts of our lives.
Based on the number of components (or transistors) per integrated circuit the development of the IC
technology is as follows
Small scale integration (SSI): The technology was developed by integrating the number of
transistors of 1-100 on a single chip. Example, Gates, flip-flops and op-amps.
Medium scale integration (MSI): The technology was developed by integrating the number of
transistors of 100-1000 on a single chip. Examples, Counters, MUX, adders, 4-bit microprocessors.
Large scale integration (LSI): The technology was developed by integrating the number of
transistors of 1000-10000 on a single chip. Examples, 8-bit micro-processors, ROM & RAM.
Very large scale integration (VLSI): The technology was developed by integrating the number of
transistors of 10000-1Million on a single chip. VLSI is the process of created integrated circuits by
combining thousands of transistors into a single chip. VLSI begins in the 1970’s when complex
semiconductor and communication technologies were being developed. Examples, 16-32 bit
microprocessors and peripherals, complimentary high MOS.
Ultra large scale integration(ULSI): The technology was developed by integrating the number of
transistors of 1Million-10 Millions on a single chip. Example, special purpose processors.

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department CET, Adigrat University, By: Brhane F.
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Chapter-7 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

Giant scale integration(GSI) The technology was developed by integrating the number of
transistors of above 10 Millions on a single chip. Examples, Embedded system and system on chip.
7.2. The Production Cycle
Placing over 1 million transistors on a piece of silicon the size of a fingertip is intricate work. The
current precision is less than one micron, with one-tenth of a micron now being used. A micron is
only about one-hundredth the diameter of a human hair. The fabrication process is applied to thin
wafers of silicon. There are eight basic steps. Some of these steps are repeated many times making
the total number of steps one hundred or more. The entire process usually takes from 10 to 30 days.
The eight basic steps are:
• Deposition (forming an insulating layer of SiO2 on the silicon wafer)
• Photolithography (light-sensitive layer exposed through a patterned photo-mask)
• Etching (removal of patterned areas using plasma gas or chemicals)
• Doping (placing donor and acceptor impurities into the wafer by diffusion or by using ion
implantation)
• Metallization (formation of interconnects and connection pads by depositing metal)
• Passivation (application of a protective layer)
• Testing (probes check each circuit for proper electrical function)
• Packaging (wafers are separated into chips, the chips are mounted, bonded/ wired, and the
packages are sealed)

7.3. Monolithic Integrated Circuit

Monolithic Integrated Circuits are those that are formed completely within a semiconductor substrate.
These integrated circuits are commonly referred to as Silicon Chips.
Fabrication of monolithic ICs is the most complex aspect of microelectronic devices. Therefore, in
this introductory chapter, we will try to simplify the process as much as possible. Even though the
discussion is very basic, the intent is still to increase your appreciation of the progress in
microelectronics.
Two types of monolithic fabrication processes will be discussed. These are the Diffusion Method and
the Epitaxial Method.

Diffusion Method: The Diffusion process begins with the highly polished silicon wafer being placed
in an oven. The oven contains a concentration impurity made up of impurity atoms which yield the

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Chapter-7 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

desired electrical characteristics. The concentration of impurity atoms is diffused into the wafer and is
controlled by controlling the temperature of the oven and the time that the silicon wafer is allowed to
remain in the oven. This is called Doping. When the wafer has been uniformly doped, the fabrication
of semiconductor devices may begin. Several hundred circuits are produced simultaneously on the
wafer.
Epitaxial Method: The Epitaxial process involves depositing a very thin layer of silicon to form a
uniformly doped crystalline region (epitaxial layer) on the substrate. Components are produced by
diffusing appropriate materials into the epitaxial layer in the same way as the planar-diffusion
method. When planar-diffusion and epitaxial techniques are combined, the component characteristics
are improved because of the uniformity of doping in the epitaxial layer.

Isolation: Because of the closeness of components in ICs, Isolation from each other becomes a very
important factor. Isolation is the prevention of unwanted interaction or leakage between components.
This leakage could cause improper operation of a circuit. Techniques are being developed to improve
isolation.
The most prominent is the use of silicon oxide, which is an excellent insulator. Some manufacturers
are experimenting with single-crystal silicon grown on an insulating substrate. Other processes are
also used which are far too complex to go into here. With progress in isolation techniques, the
reliability and efficiency of ICs will increase rapidly.

7.4. Thin-Film and Thick-Film Integrated Circuits

Film Integrated Circuits are broken down into two categories, Thin Film and Thick Film. Film
components are made of either conductive or nonconductive material that is deposited in desired
patterns on a ceramic or glass substrate. Film can only be used as passive circuit components, such as
resistors and capacitors. Transistors and/or diodes are added to the substrate to complete the circuit.
Thin Film: is the term used to describe a technique for depositing passive circuit elements on an
insulating substrate with coating to a thickness of 0.0001 centimeter. Many methods of thin-film
deposition exist, but two of the most widely used are Vacuum Evaporation and Cathode Sputtering.
Vacuum Evaporation: It is a method used to deposit many types of materials in a highly evacuated
chamber in which the material is heated by electricity. This method is most suitable for deposition of
highly reactive materials, such as aluminum, that are difficult to work with in air. The method is
clean and allows a better contact between the layer of deposited material and the surface upon which

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Chapter-7 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

it has been deposited. In addition, because evaporation beams travel in straight lines, very precise
patterns may be produced.
Cathode-Sputtering: This process is also performed in a vacuum. A potential of 2 to 5 kilovolts is
applied between the anode and cathode (source material). This produces a Glow Discharge in the
space between the electrodes. The rate at which atoms are sputtered off the source material depends
on the number of ions that strike it and the number of atoms ejected for each ion bombardment. The
ejected atoms are deposited uniformly over all objects within the chamber. When the sputtering cycle
is completed, the vacuum in the chamber is released and the wafers are removed.
Finely polished glass, glazed ceramic, and oxidized silicon have been used as substrate materials for
thin films. A number of materials, including nichrome, a compound of silicon oxide and chromium
cermets, tantalum, and titanium, have been used for thin-film resistors. Nichrome is the most widely
used.
The process for producing thin-film capacitors involves deposition of a bottom electrode, a dielectric,
and finally a top electrode. The most commonly used dielectric materials are silicon monoxide and
silicon dioxide.
Thick films: are produced by screening patterns of conducting and insulating materials on ceramic
substrates. A thick film is a film of material with a thickness that is at least 10 times greater than the
mean free path of an electron in that material, or approximately 0.001 centimeter. The technique is
used to produce only passive elements, such as resistors and capacitors.
Procedure: One procedure used in fabricating a thick film is to produce a series of stencils called
SCREENS. The screens are placed on the substrate and appropriate conducting or insulating
materials are wiped across the screen. Once the conducting or insulating material has been applied,
the screens are removed and the formulations are fired at temperatures above 600 degrees Celsius.
This process forms alloys that are permanently bonded to the insulating substrate. To a limited extent,
the characteristics of the film can be controlled by the firing temperature and length of firing time.
Resistors: Thick-film resistance values can be held to a tolerance of ±10 percent. Closer tolerances
are obtained by trimming each resistor after fabrication. Hundreds of different cermet formulations
are used to produce a wide range of component parameters. For example, the material used for a 10-
ohm-per-square resistor is quite different from that used for a 100-kilohm-per-square resistor.
Capacitors & Resistor-Capacitor Networks.—Capacitors are formed by a sequence of screenings
and firings. Capacitors in this case consist of a bottom plate, intra-connections, a dielectric, and a top

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Chapter-7 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

plate. For resistor-capacitor networks, the next step would be to deposit the resistor material through
the screen. The final step is screening and firing of a glass enclosure to seal the unit

7.5. Hybrid Integrated Circuits

Hybrid Integrated Circuits combine two or more integrated circuit types or combine one or more
integrated circuit types and Discrete (separate) components. For example, a hybrid IC might contain
monolithic ICs, film resistors, chip capacitors, and discrete transistors on a ceramic substrate. Hybrid
ICs are generally more expensive than monolithic ICs. The primary advantage of hybrid
microcircuits is design flexibility; that is, hybrid microcircuits can be designed to provide wide use in
specialized applications, such as low-volume and high-frequency circuits.
Several elements and circuits are available for hybrid applications. These include discrete
components that are electrically and mechanically compatible with ICs. Such components may be
used to perform functions that are supplementary to those of ICs. They can be handled, tested, and
assembled with essentially the same technology and tools.
Complete circuits are available in the form of Uncased Chips (Un-encapsulated IC Dice). These chips
are usually identical to those sold as part of the manufacturer's regular production line. They must be
properly packaged and connected by the user if a high-quality final assembly is to be obtained. The
circuits are usually sealed in a package to protect them from mechanical and environmental stresses.
One-mil (0.001-inch), gold-wire leads are connected to the appropriate pins which are brought out of
the package to allow external connections.

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department CET, Adigrat University, By: Brhane F.
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