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MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

LESSON 1
THERMODYNAMICS

1.1.3 Activity

Write your answers in the space provided.

Answer the following:

1. Explain the differences between thermodynamic systems: open, closed, and isolated.
Write it in a table form.

Feature Open System Closed System Isolated System

Matter Transfer Can exchange Cannot exchange Cannot exchange

matter with the matter with the matter with the
surroundings. surroundings. surroundings.

Energy Transfer Can exchange Can exchange Cannot exchange

energy with the energy with the energy with the
surroundings (heat surroundings (heat surroundings.
and work). and work).

Examples - Combustion - Steam turbine -Thermos bottle

engine (ideal)
-Pressure cooker
- Living organism (ideal) -Universe
(theoretical)
- Refrigerator -Car engine (ideal)

Real-world More common in Often used as an Purely theoretical

Applicability real-world idealized model concept
scenarios

Analysis Easier to analyze Slightly more Most complex to

due to defined complex than open analyze due to no
boundaries for systems due to the exchange of matter
energy transfer. restriction on or energy.
matter transfer, but
energy transfer
allows some
analysis.
Additional Notes:

Surroundings: Everything outside the system that can potentially interact with it
through energy or matter transfer.

Ideal Systems: Closed and isolated systems are often idealized models used for
theoretical analysis. Real-world systems often exhibit some degree of openness or
exchange with the surroundings.

Heat and Work: Energy transfer can occur through heat (thermal transfer) or work
(mechanical transfer).

2. Define the terms:

a. Thermodynamic System- A thermodynamic system is a specific region or a quantity

of matter chosen for analysis within the universe. It's separated from its surroundings
by a defined boundary, which can be real or imaginary. The surroundings are
everything outside the system that can potentially interact with it through energy or
matter transfer. Thermodynamic systems can be categorized into three main types:
open, closed, and isolated.

b. State- a state of a thermodynamic system represents the condition of the system at a

particular time. It's defined by a set of thermodynamic properties that are sufficient to
completely describe the system's macroscopic behavior. These properties can include
pressure, temperature, volume, internal energy, entropy, and others. A change in any of
these properties signifies a change in the state of the system.

c. Process- a process is the transition of a thermodynamic system from one state to

another. Processes can be reversible or irreversible. A reversible process is one where
the system can be returned to its initial state without any changes in the surroundings.
In contrast, an irreversible process leaves some change in the surroundings, making it
impossible to return the system to its initial state without additional work.

d. Control mass- a control mass is a specific amount of matter within a closed

thermodynamic system that is chosen for analysis. The control mass is fixed in identity,
meaning the same particles are always considered part of the system. Mass cannot
enter or leave the control mass during a process, although energy can be transferred in
the form of heat and work.

e. Control Volume- A control volume is a fixed region in space chosen for analysis in an
open thermodynamic system. Unlike a control mass, matter can flow across the
boundaries of the control volume. However, the control volume itself remains
stationary. We analyze the energy and mass transfer across the boundaries of the
control volume during a process.

f. Control Surface- a control surface is the imaginary boundary that defines the control
volume in an open thermodynamic system. Mass can flow across this boundary, and the
flow rate is often a key aspect of the analysis. We track the mass and energy entering
and leaving the control volume across this control surface
LESSON 2
VIEWPOINTS IN THERMODYNAMICS, THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY, STATE, PATH & PROCESS

1.2.5 Activity

Write your answers in the space provided. Answer the following:

Define the common thermodynamic properties: pressure (P), temperature (T), volume
(V), velocity (v), mass (m), enthalpy (H), entropy (S).

1. Pressure (P):

Definition: Pressure is the force exerted per unit area on a surface.

Units: Measured in Pascals (Pa) or atmospheres (atm).

Thermodynamic Significance: Pressure is an intensive property, meaning it

doesn't depend on the amount of matter in the system. It plays a crucial role in
many thermodynamic processes and relationships, such as the ideal gas law (PV
= nRT) and phase transitions (boiling point, melting point).

2. Temperature (T):

Definition: Temperature is a measure of the hotness or coldness of a system. It

is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles within the system.

Units: Measured in Kelvin (K) or degrees Celsius (°C).

Thermodynamic Significance: Temperature is another intensive property. It

determines the direction of heat flow between systems (heat flows from hot to
cold) and is a key factor in processes like heat transfer and work done by a
system.

3. Volume (V):

Definition: Volume is the amount of space occupied by a system.

Units: Measured in cubic meters (m³), liters (L), or gallons (gal).

Thermodynamic Significance: Volume is an extensive property, meaning it

depends on the amount of matter in the system. It relates to the density of the
system and plays a role in various thermodynamic relationships like the ideal gas
law.

4. Velocity (v):

Definition: Velocity is the rate of change of an object's position over time. It has
both magnitude (speed) and direction.

Units: Measured in meters per second (m/s), kilometers per hour (km/h), or
other units of speed.
 Thermodynamic Significance: While velocity is not a core thermodynamic
property, it can be relevant in specific contexts like fluid flow analysis or
calculating kinetic energy within a system.

5. Mass (m):

Definition: Mass is a fundamental property of a system, representing the

amount of matter it contains.

Units: Measured in kilograms (kg), grams (g), or pounds (lb).

Thermodynamic Significance: Mass is an extensive property. It is a

fundamental parameter in many thermodynamic relationships and calculations,
including energy transfer and work done.

6. Enthalpy (H):

Definition: Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property that represents the total

energy of a system as a combination of its internal energy and the pressure-
volume product (H = U + PV).

Units: Measured in Joules (J) or calories (cal).

Thermodynamic Significance: Enthalpy is a convenient property for analyzing

processes involving heat transfer at constant pressure. It simplifies calculations
as the pressure-volume product accounts for the energy associated with system
volume changes under constant pressure.

7. Entropy (S):

Definition: Entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder within a system.

It is a state function, meaning its value depends only on the initial and final states
of the system, not the path taken between them.

Units: Measured in Joules per Kelvin (J/K).

Thermodynamic Significance: Entropy plays a crucial role in the Second Law of

Thermodynamics, which states that entropy in a closed system always increases
over time (tending towards disorder). It helps predict the feasibility and
direction of spontaneous processes.
 MODULE 2
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES AND ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

2.1.8 Activity

Write your answers in the space provided. Answer the following:

1. Explain the differences between thermodynamic processes: Isothermal, Adiabatic,

Isochoric, Isobaric, and Isentropic. And a write summary in a table form.

In Isothermal Process, the temperature remains constant (T = constant). To

achieve this, heat transfer (Q) between the system and surroundings might be
necessary. For example, compressing a gas in a cylinder with a heat bath surrounding it
would involve heat transfer to maintain a constant temperature despite the
compression work. Work transfer (PdV) can still occur in an isothermal process. On the
other hand, in adiabatic process, no heat transfer occurs between the system and the
surroundings in this process (Q = 0). This could be due to a well-insulated system or a
very rapid process where heat exchange is negligible. As the system does work or has
work done on it, its internal energy changes which leads to changes in temperature and
volume. Moreover, in isochoric process, the volume of the system remains constant in
this process (V = constant). Since there's no volume change, no work transfer (PdV = 0)
occurs in an isochoric process. However, heat transfer (Q) can still happen, causing a
change in temperature. An example is heating a gas in a rigid container. Furthermore, in
isobaric process, the pressure of the system remains constant (P = constant). This could
be achieved by keeping the system in contact with a constant pressure environment.
Work transfer (PdV ≠ 0) can occur in an isobaric process as the volume changes. For
instance, if a gas in a piston expands at constant atmospheric pressure, it does work
against the surroundings. Heat transfer (Q) can also happen to maintain constant
pressure during volume changes. Furthermore, the isentropic process is a special case
that combines both adiabatic (Q = 0) and reversible (no friction) conditions. Since the
process is reversible, there's no entropy increase (S = constant). Isentropic processes
are idealized scenarios and difficult to achieve in reality due to inherent friction or
dissipative forces. The work transfer in an isentropic process depends on the specific
path taken between the initial and final states

Summary of Thermodynamic Processes

Process Property Held Constant Work Transfer

Isothermal Temperature Possible (PdV ≠ 0)
Adiabatic Heat Transfer No Work Transfer (PdV =
0)
Isochoric Volume No Work Transfer (PdV =
0)
Isobaric Pressure Possible (PdV ≠ 0)
Isentropic Entropy Work Transfer Depends
(may or may not be zero)
2. Does Isentropic mean Adiabatic? Explain your answer.

No, isentropic does not mean exactly the same as adiabatic. In adiabatic process,
there is no heat transfer between the system and its surroundings (Q = 0). This means
the system can't exchange heat, but it can still do work and change its internal energy.
Because of this, the temperature and volume can change in an adiabatic process. While
isentropic process is both adiabatic (Q = 0) and reversible (dS = 0). In other words, it
involves no heat transfer and is completely frictionless. This makes it an idealized
scenario, difficult to achieve in reality. In most real processes, some friction or
dissipative forces are present, making the process irreversible and causing entropy to
increase (dS ≠ 0). The key difference between the two is that an adiabatic process only
focuses on heat transfer, while an isentropic process considers both heat transfer and
reversibility.

LESSON 2
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

2.2.4 Activity

1. Define and site a real-life experience where you can relate the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics.

The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Real-Life Example: Imagine you have a cup of hot coffee (System 1) and a cup of cold
milk (System 2). If you place a metal spoon (System 3) in the hot coffee, the spoon will
eventually heat up (reach thermal equilibrium with System 1). Then, if you take the hot
spoon and stir the cold milk, the milk will start to warm up (reach thermal equilibrium
with System 3, which already reached equilibrium with System 1). This demonstrates
the Zeroth Law - the spoon (being in equilibrium with both coffee and milk) acts as a
bridge for thermal equilibrium between the initially non-equilibrated coffee and milk.

2. The use of electric heaters to heat up living spaces in colder countries is said to
be thermodynamically inefficient. Discuss the reasons.

In colder countries, electric heaters are commonly used to warm up living spaces
during chilly weather. However, despite their widespread use, electric heaters are often
considered thermodynamically inefficient. This inefficiency stems from several factors
related to how electric heaters operate and the properties of heat transfer.

Firstly, electric heaters convert electrical energy into heat energy to warm up a
room. However, this conversion process is not perfectly efficient. In fact, electric heaters
are known to have low efficiency rates, typically ranging from 95% to 100%. This
means that a significant portion of the electrical energy consumed by the heater is lost
as waste heat, rather than being effectively utilized to warm the space.
 Secondly, electric heaters primarily rely on convection to distribute heat
throughout a room. Convection involves the transfer of heat through the movement of
air or other fluids. However, convection is not always an efficient method of heat
transfer, especially in larger or poorly insulated spaces. As a result, electric heaters may
struggle to evenly distribute heat throughout a room, leading to uneven temperatures
and pockets of warmth or coldness.

Additionally, electric heaters do not address the underlying cause of coldness in

a living space, which is often inadequate insulation or air leakage. In colder climates,
heat loss through windows, doors, walls, and roofs can significantly contribute to
energy inefficiency. While electric heaters may provide temporary warmth, they do not
address the root cause of heat loss, resulting in a continuous need for heating and
higher energy consumption.

Furthermore, electric heaters are often more expensive to operate compared to

other heating methods, such as gas or central heating systems. Electricity prices can
vary depending on location and energy provider, but in general, electric heating tends to
be more costly than alternative options. This higher operating cost further exacerbates
the inefficiency of electric heaters from a thermodynamic standpoint.

In conclusion, the thermodynamic inefficiency of electric heaters in colder

countries can be attributed to several factors, including low conversion efficiency,
inefficient heat distribution, inability to address underlying heat loss issues, and higher
operating costs. While electric heaters may provide temporary warmth, they are not the
most effective or sustainable solution for heating living spaces in the long term.
Alternative heating methods that address energy efficiency and insulation concerns may
offer more thermodynamically efficient solutions for colder climates.
 MODULE 3
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS, SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS, THIRD
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

LESSON 1
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

3.1.6 Activity
Write your answers in the space provided. Answer the following:

1. Explain first law of thermodynamics, its limitations and how these limitations
are addressed by second law of thermodynamics.

The First Law of Thermodynamics, also known as the Law of Conservation of

Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system. Instead,
it can only change forms or be transferred from one part of the system to another. In
simpler terms, the total amount of energy within a closed system remains constant over
time.

While the First Law of Thermodynamics is a fundamental principle that governs

energy conservation, it has limitations. One limitation is that it does not provide any
information about the direction or quality of energy transfer. In other words, it does not
explain why certain processes occur spontaneously or why energy tends to disperse
and become less useful over time.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics addresses these limitations by introducing

the concept of entropy, which is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system.
The Second Law states that in any spontaneous process, the total entropy of the
universe (including the system and its surroundings) tends to increase. This means that
natural processes tend to move towards states of higher entropy, where energy is more
dispersed and less available to do useful work.

a) Explain the concept of thermodynamic equilibrium.

Thermodynamic equilibrium refers to a state where the properties of a system,
such as temperature, pressure, and composition, remain uniform and do not change
over time. In thermodynamic equilibrium, there is no net transfer of heat or work
between the system and its surroundings, and all macroscopic processes have come to a
halt. This state represents a balance between the forces and interactions within the
system, resulting in a stable and unchanging condition.
b) State first law of thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cycle. In a
cyclic process, heat transfers are +14.7 kJ, -25.2 kJ, -3.56 kJ and +31.5 kJ. What is
the network for this cyclic process?

For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the First Law of Thermodynamics can be
expressed as:

ΔU = Q - W

where ΔU is the change in internal energy of the system, Q is the heat transferred to the
system, and W is the work done by the system. In a cyclic process, the change in internal
energy is zero since the system returns to its initial state. Therefore, the net work done
by the system is equal to the net heat transferred to the system:

W_net = Q_net

Calculation of Network for a Cyclic Process:

In the given cyclic process with heat transfers of +14.7 kJ, -25.2 kJ, -3.56 kJ, and +31.5 kJ,
we can calculate the net heat transfer:

Q_net = (14.7 kJ) + (-25.2 kJ) + (-3.56 kJ) + (31.5 kJ) = 17.34 kJ

Since the change in internal energy is zero for a cyclic process, the net work done by the
system (network) is equal to the net heat transferred:

W_net = Q_net = 17.34 kJ

Therefore, the network for this cyclic process is +17.34 kJ. This represents the total
work done by the system during the cycle.
b) State first law of thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cycle. In a
cyclic process, heat transfers are +14.7 kJ, -25.2 kJ, -3.56 kJ and +31.5 kJ. What is
the network for this cyclic process?

The first law of thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cycle states
that the net change in internal energy (ΔU) is equal to the net heat transfer (Q) into the
system minus the net work (W) done by the system on the surroundings.
Mathematically, for a cyclic process: ΔU = ΣQ - ΣW

Applying the formula to the given cyclic process:

ΔU = (+14.7 kJ) + (-25.2 kJ) + (-3.56 kJ) + (+31.5 kJ) = 7.48 kJ (positive value indicates an
increase in internal energy)

Net Work (W) = ΣW = ΣQ - ΔU = (14.7 kJ - 25.2 kJ - 3.56 kJ + 31.5 kJ) = -3.56 kJ (negative
value indicates work done by the surroundings on the system)
2. On a hot summer day, a student turns his fan on when he leaves his room in the
morning. When he returns in the evening, will the room be warmer or cooler than
the neighboring rooms? Why? Assume all the doors and windows are kept closed.

On returning in the evening, the room will likely be warmer than the neighboring
rooms. The fan doesn't cool the air itself. It creates air circulation, promoting heat
transfer through convection. Without the fan, the warm air inside the room would tend
to stratify near the ceiling. Moreover, with the fan on, the warm air gets circulated
throughout the room, potentially mixing with any cooler air that might seep in through
small cracks or gaps. Since the total heat content remains the same (closed system,
assuming no heat transfer through walls), the room temperature will likely become
more uniform and potentially slightly warmer due to the mixing with traces of warmer
air.

3. For a cycle, is the net work necessarily zero? For what kind of systems will this
be the case?

The net work in a cycle is not necessarily zero. The first law only states
that the net change in internal energy is equal to the heat transfer minus the work
transfer. However, in a cyclic process, the system returns to its initial state after a series
of changes. If the process involves work interactions (both work done by and work done
on the system), the net work over the entire cycle might not be zero.

A net work of zero would occur in a perfectly reversible cyclic process. In such a
hypothetical scenario, there are no energy losses due to friction or other dissipative
forces, and the system can be brought back to its initial state without any external
influence.

4. What are the different mechanisms for transferring energy to or from a control
volume?

There are three main mechanisms for transferring energy to or from a control volume:

Heat Transfer (Q): The transfer of thermal energy due to a temperature

difference between the system and its surroundings. It can occur through
conduction (direct contact), convection (movement of fluids), or radiation
(electromagnetic waves).

Work Transfer (W): The transfer of energy due to macroscopic forces acting on
the boundaries of the control volume. This can be shaft work (caused by a force
acting on a moving shaft) or pressure-volume work (caused by changes in
pressure and volume of the system).

Mass Transfer (H): The transfer of energy associated with the entry or exit of
mass across the control volume. This can be relevant in open systems where
there is mass flow.
LESSON 2
SECOND AND THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

3.2.3 ACTIVITY

1. A mechanic claims to have developed a car engine that runs on water instead of
gasoline. What is your response to this claim?
The claim that a car engine can run on water instead of gasoline raises
skepticism due to fundamental principles of thermodynamics while water can be used
as a source of hydrogen in fuel cell technology, which converts hydrogen into electricity
to power a vehicle, directly burning water as a fuel in an internal combustion engine is
not feasible. This is because water is a stable compound composed of hydrogen and
oxygen atoms, and extracting energy from water requires more energy input than the
energy output obtained. Therefore, the claim of a car engine running solely on water is
scientifically unfounded and likely inaccurate.

2. Describe an imaginary process that satisfies the first law but violates the
second law of thermodynamics.
An imaginary process that satisfies the First Law but violates the Second Law of
Thermodynamics could involve a machine that continuously converts heat energy into
mechanical work with 100% efficiency, without any heat transfer to a cooler reservoir.
In this hypothetical scenario, the machine would operate indefinitely without any
decrease in performance or energy degradation, contradicting the Second Law's
principle of entropy increase and the impossibility of a perfect heat engine.

3. Describe an imaginary process that satisfies the second law but violates the
first law of thermodynamics.
An imaginary process that satisfies the Second Law but violates the First Law of
Thermodynamics could involve a system that spontaneously decreases its internal
energy without any energy input or output. This scenario would imply a violation of the
conservation of energy principle, as the system would be extracting energy from
nowhere, leading to a decrease in entropy without any corresponding decrease in
internal energy, which is not physically possible.

4. Describe an imaginary process that violates both the first and the second laws
of thermodynamics.
An imaginary process that violates both the First and Second Laws of
Thermodynamics could involve a perpetual motion machine that continuously produces
work output without any energy input, while simultaneously decreasing entropy. Such a
machine would defy the conservation of energy principle and the entropy increase
principle, representing a fundamental violation of thermodynamic principles.

5. Are the efficiencies of all the work-producing devices, including the

hydroelectric power plants, limited by the Kelvin–Planck statement of the second
law? Explain.
 The Kelvin–Planck statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics states that
it is impossible to create a heat engine that operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the extraction of heat from a single thermal reservoir and the performance of
an equivalent amount of work. While this statement imposes limitations on the
efficiency of heat engines, including hydroelectric power plants, it does not preclude the
possibility of achieving high efficiencies through careful design and optimization.
Hydroelectric power plants, for example, can achieve efficiencies close to theoretical
limits by converting gravitational potential energy of water into mechanical energy,
which is then converted into electrical energy with minimal energy losses.

6. The use of electric heaters to heat up living spaces in colder countries is said to
be thermodynamically inefficient. Discuss the reasons.

The use of electric heaters to warm living spaces in colder countries is often
deemed thermodynamically inefficient due to several factors. Firstly, electric heaters
primarily rely on resistive heating elements, which convert electrical energy into heat
with relatively low efficiency. A significant portion of the electrical energy is lost as
waste heat, rather than being effectively utilized to warm the space.

Secondly, electric heaters typically operate through convection, where heated air
rises and cooler air sinks, resulting in uneven temperature distribution within the room.
This uneven heating can lead to discomfort and inefficiency as warmer air accumulates
near the ceiling while cooler air remains near the floor.

Additionally, electric heaters do not address the underlying cause of coldness in

a living space, such as inadequate insulation or air leakage. Heat loss through windows,
doors, walls, and roofs contributes to energy inefficiency, requiring continuous
operation of electric heaters to maintain desired temperatures.

Furthermore, the high operating cost of electric heaters, especially in regions

with expensive electricity rates, further exacerbates their thermodynamic inefficiency.
In summary, while electric heaters provide immediate warmth, they are not the most
efficient or sustainable solution for heating living spaces, and alternative methods that
address insulation and energy conservation may offer more thermodynamically
efficient alternatives.