EME 305: THEORY OF MACHINES

LECTURE NOTE
BY
ENGR. ASSOCIATE PROF.
IKPAMBESE, KUMADEN
KUNCY
 Course synopsis
• General plane motion, synthesis of
mechanisms (linkages etc.), Foams.
• Application of friction to wedges,
screws, belt drives, clutches and brakes;
• Flywheels
• Governors
• Gears and gear trains
• Plus related laboratories
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
• The subject Theory of Machines may be
defined as that branch of Engineering-
science, which deals with the study of
relative motion between the various
parts of a machine, and forces which act
on them
• The knowledge of this subject is of the
utmost importance for an engineer in
designing the various parts of a machine.
1.2 Sub-divisions of Theory of
Machines
The Theory of Machines may be sub-divided into the following
four branches:
• Kinematics: It is that branch of Theory of Machines which
deals with the relative motion between the various parts of
machines.
• Dynamics: It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals
with the forces and their effects, while acting upon the
machine parts in motion.
• Kinetics: It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals
with the inertia forces which arise from the combined effect
of the mass and motion of the machine parts.
• Statics: It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals
with the forces and their effects while the machine parts are
at rest. The mass of the parts is assumed to be negligible
 2.0 MECHANISMS
• Kinematics of Machines
• It is the branch of engineering which deals with
relative motion between the various parts of a
machine without considering the forces producing
the motions.
• Thus, it is the study, from a geometric point of
view, to know the displacement, velocity and
acceleration of a part of a mechanism.
• Complex machines from internal combustion
engines to helicopters and machine tools contain
mechanisms.
• A mechanism is an assembly of a number of
bodies i.e links (usually rigid) in such a way
that the motion of one causes constrained and
predictable motion to the others.
• It transmits and modifies a motion. The study
of a mechanism involves its analysis as well as
synthesis.
• The term machinery means an assembly that
includes both machines and mechanisms.
• There are differences between machine and
mechanism.
Figure 2.1 Slider-Crank Mechanism
• A slider-crank mechanism (figure 2.1) converts
the reciprocating motion of a slider into rotary
motion of the crank or vice versa. However,
when it is used as an automobile engine by
adding valve mechanism, etc., it becomes a
machine which converts the available energy
(force on the piston) into the desired energy
(torque of the crank-shaft). The torque is used
to move a vehicle. Other examples of
machines derived from the slider-crank
mechanism include Reciprocating
compressors, steam engines, etc.
S/N MECHANISM MACHINE

1. It is like a skeleton and has definite motion It is like a human body used
between various links. for transmitting energy into
useful work.

2. It is related to motion only. It is related to energy only.

3. It is the model of machine. It is the practical

development of a machine??

4. Examples – Typewriter, clock, etc. In each of Example – Lathe, Shaper,

these, the force or energy provided is not more etc.
than what is needed to overcome the friction of
the parts and which is used just to get the
desired motion of the mechanism and not to
obtain any useful work.
• NOTE
• Mechanisms are made up of links or elements,
and joints.
• A mechanism with four links is known as
simple mechanism., and the mechanism with
more than four links is known as compound
mechanism.
 2.2 Link or Element
• This is a part of a machine that moves relative to
some other part. A link may consist of many parts
which are rigidly fastened together such that they
do not move relative each other. A link must not
necessarily be a rigid body, but it should be a
resistant body, that is, it should be capable of
transmitting the required forces without deforming
or with negligible deformation.
• A body is said to be rigid if under the action of
forces, it does not suffer any distortion or the
distance between any two points on it remains
constant.
• A link is also known as kinematic link. It may consist
of one or more resistant bodies as seen in a slider-
crank mechanism,
 2.2.1 Types of Links
1. Classification according to nature of the link
In order to transmit motion, the driver and the follower may be
connected by the following three types of links:
• a. Rigid link: A rigid link is one which does not undergo any
deformation while transmitting motion. Strictly speaking, rigid
links do not exist. However, as the deformation of a connecting
rod, crank, etc. of a reciprocating steam engine is not
appreciable, they can be considered as rigid links.
• b. Flexible link: This is one in which is partly deformed in a
manner to affect the transmission of motion. E.g. belts, ropes,
chains and wires.
• c. Fluid link: This is one which is formed by having a fluid in a
receptacle and the motion is transmitted through the fluid by
pressure or compression only, e.g. in hydraulic presses, jacks
and brakes.
• 2. Classification of links depending upon their
ends in which revolute or turning pairs can be
placed
Links can be classified into binary, ternary and
quartenary (figure 2.2) depending upon their
ends on which revolute or turning pairs can be
placed
Figure 2.2
 2.3 Kinematic Pair
• This (also known as a pair) is a joint of two
links that permit relative motion. The relative
motion between the two links is completely or
successfully constrained (i.e. in a definite
direction). In a slider-crank mechanism (figure
2.1), the link 2 rotates relative to the link 1
and constitutes a revolute or turning pair.
Similarly, links 2,3 and 3, 4 constitute turning
pairs. Link 4 (slider) reciprocates relative to
the link 1 and is a sliding pair.
 2.4 Joints and It Types
• A joint is a connection between two or more links which
allows some relative or potential motion between the
connected bodies.
The following types of joints are usually found in a chain:
• Binary Joint; Ternary Joint; Quaternary Joint
• Binary Joints: This is a joint formed when two links are
joined at the same connection, as shown below: figure 2.4.
• Ternary Joints: This is a joint formed when three links are
joined at the same connection, as shown below: figure 2.5. It
is equivalent to two binary joints as one of the three links
joined carry the pin for the other two links.
• Quaternary Joints: This is a joint formed when four links are
joined at the same connection, as shown below: figure 2.6. It
is equivalent to three binary joints since fixing of any one
link constitutes three binary joints.
• In general, if n number of links are connected at a joint, it is
equivalent to (n-1) binary joints.
 2.5 Kinematic Chain
This is the assemblage of links and joints
interconnected in a way to provide a controlled
output motion in response to a supplied input
motion. To act as a mechanism and transmit
movement, a kinematic chain must have one of
its link fixed.
• Also, a kinematic chain may be defined as a
combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such
a way that each link forms a part of two pairs
and the relative motion between the links or
elements is completely or successfully
constrained.
• If each link is assumed to form two pairs with
two adjacent links, then the relation between
the number of pairs (p) forming a kinematic
chain and the number of links (l) may be
expressed in the form of an equation:
•
l=2p-4 (2.1)
Since in a kinematic chain each link forms a part
of two pairs, therefore there will be as many
links as the number of pairs.
• Another relation between the number of links (l) and
the number of joints (j) which constitute a kinematic
chain is given by the expression:
3
• j= l-2
2
(2.2)
The equation (2.1) and (2.2) are applicable only to
kinematic chains, in which lower pairs are used, although
they may also be applied to kinematic chains, in which
higher pairs are used, in such case, each higher pair may
be taken as equivalent to two lower pairs with an
additional element or link.
• Note: Equation (2.2) can be derived from the
relation between the number of links and the
number of binary joints, as given by A.W Klein,
that is, from:
h 3
• j+ = l-2
2 2
(2.3)
where, j = Number of binary joints,
h = Number of higher pairs,
and
l = Number of links.
 EXAMPLE 2.1
• We will apply the above equations to the
following cases to determine whether each of
them is a kinematic chain or not.
• Consider the arrangement of three links AB,
BC, and CA with pin joints at A, B, and C as
shown in figure 2.4. In this case,

Figure 2.4 Arrangement of

three links
• Number of links, l=3
• Number of pairs, p=3
• and number of joints, j=3
• From equation (2.1), l=2p-4
• or 3=2×3-4=2
• i.e. L.H.S. > R.H.S
• Figure 2.4 Arrangement of three links
3
• Now from equation (2.2), j= l-2or
2
3
×3-2=2.5
2
• i.e. L.H.S. > R.H.S
 2.8.1 Types of Kinematic Chain
A Four-bar Chain or Quadric Cyclic Chain:
This consist of four links with four turning pairs
as shown below:

From the figure, links 1, 2 and 4 are

movable, while link 3 is fixed.
Single-slider Crank Chain:
This mechanism consists of a crank, a connecting rod and a
slider. It is a four-link mechanism which has a well known
application in gasoline. diesel and steam engines. It is shown
below:
Double-slider Crank Chain:
This is a kinematic chain that consists of two turning pairs and
two sliding pairs, as shown in figure below. The link 2 and link 1
form one turning pair and link 2 and link 3 form the second
turning pair. The link 3 and link 4 form one sliding pair and link 1
and link 4 form the second sliding pair.
Grasshoff’s Criterion For Mechanisms
• This states that for a four-bar mechanism the
sum of the shortest and longest lengths
should not be greater than the sum of the
remaining two link length, if there is to be
continuous relative motion between two links.
• Grasshoff’s Criterion can be applied in the
design of mechanisms by ensuring that the
input link or crank makes a complete
revolution relative to the other links.
 Inversion of Mechanism
• When one of the links of a kinematic chain is
made fixed then it is called mechanism. The
process of obtaining different mechanisms by
fixing different links of a kinematic chain is
called Inversion or Conversion of Mechanism.
• Note that: The relative motions between the
various links is not changed in any manner
through the process of inversion, but their
absolute motions (those measured with respect
to the fixed link) may be changed drastically.
• .
• Also note that, the part of a mechanism which
initially moves with respect to the frame is called
driver and that part of the mechanism to which
motion is transmitted is called follower. For most
mechanisms, the roles are reversible, e.g. the
piston and flywheel of a reciprocating steam
engine and a reciprocating air compressor
• The conversion can be:
• Oscillatory motion into oscillatory motion
• Rotary motion into oscillatory motion
• Rotary motion into rotary motion
1. Conversion of Oscillatory motion into
oscillatory motion: Consider a double lever
mechanism shown below:

Figure 2.16 Double-Lever

Mechanism
• In the double-lever mechanism links 1 and 4
are of the same length and are connected
such that they can only oscillate forwards and
backwards. Example of this is in Watt’s
Indicator.
1. Conversion of Rotary Motion into Oscillatory
Motion:
Figure 2.17 Crank-Lever Chain
• This motion conversion can be achieved through
the use of crank-lever chain or mechanism shown
above (figure 2.17).
• In this arrangement, link 1 is the shortest link and
it serves as the crank. As it rotates, link 3 is
constrained to oscillate or reciprocate.
• Link 2 is the connecting rod and link 4 is the
frame. Also in the figure above the crank (link 1)
makes a complete revolution while link 3 is only
able to oscillate to and fro.
 GEARS
In the transmission of motion or power
between two shafts using a belt or rope,
slipping is a common phenomenon. This
slipping reduces the velocity ratio of the
system. In precision machines (as in
watch mechanism) where definite
velocity ratio is essential, the only positive
drive is by means of gears or toothed
wheels. A gear drive is also provided,
when the distance between the driver
and the follower is small.
The motion and power transmitted by
gears is kinematically equivalent to that
transmitted by friction wheels or discs
(figure 3.1).
The wheel B is rotated by the wheel A
(figure 3.1 (a)) and will be so as long as the
tangential force exerted by the wheel A
does not exceed the maximum frictional
resistance between the two wheels,
otherwise slipping will take place and thus
the friction drive is not a positive drive.
Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1
In order to avoid the slipping, a
number of projections (called teeth) as
shown in figure 3.1 (b), are provided
on the periphery of the wheel A, which
will fit into the corresponding recesses
on the periphery of the wheel B. A
friction wheel with the teeth cut on it
is known as toothed wheel or gear.
The usual connection to show the
toothed wheels is by their pitch circles.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear
Drive
Advantages
• It transmits exact velocity ratio.
• It may be used to transmit large power.
• It has high efficiency.
• It has reliable service.
• It has compact layout.
Disadvantages
• The manufacture of gears require special tools and
equipment.
• The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and
noise during operation.
 Classification of Gear
1. According to the position of axes of the shafts.
The axes of the two shafts between which the
motion is to be transmitted, may be
• (a) parallel (b) intersecting, and (c) non-intersecting
and non-parallel.
• The two parallel and co-planar shafts connected by
the gears is shown in figure 3.1. These gears are
called spur gears and the arrangement is called
spur gearing. These gears have teeth parallel to
the axis of the wheel. Another name given to the
spur gearing is helical gearing, in which the teeth
are inclined to the axis as shown in figure 3.2 (a)
and (b).
Figure 3.2
• The double helical gears are known as
herringbone gears.
• The two non-parallel or intersecting, but coplanar
shafts connected by gears is shown in figure 3.2
(c). These gears are called bevel gears and the
arrangement is called bevel gearing.
• The two non-intersecting and non-parallel i.e.
non-coplanar shafts connected by gears is shown
in figure 3.2 (d). These gears are called skew
bevel gears or spiral gears and the arrangement
is known as skew bevel gearing or spiral gearing.
This type of gearing also have a line contact , the
rotation of which about the axes generates the
two pitch surfaces known as hyperboloids.
2. According to the peripheral velocity of the
gears.
The gears, according to the peripheral velocity
of the gears may be classified as: (a) Low
velocity, (b) Medium velocity, and (c) High
velocity.
3. According to the type of gearing
The gears according to the type of gearing may
be classified as: (a) External gearing, (b) Internal
gearing, and (c) Rack and pinion. They are
shown below:
Figure 3.3
4. According to position of teeth on the gear
surface.
The teeth on the gear surface may be
(a) Straight, (b) Inclined, and (c) Curved.
Spur gears have straight teeth, while helical
gears have their teeth inclined to the wheel rim.
Spiral gears, on the other hand, have their teeth
curved over the rim surface.
Terms or Terminology used in Gears

Figure 3.4 Terms used in Gears

• Pitch circle: It is an imaginary circle which by
pure rolling action, would give the same
motion as the actual gear.
• Pitch circle diameter: It is the diameter of the
pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually
specified by the pitch circle diameter. It is also
known as pitch diameter.
• Pitch point: It is a common point of contact
between two pitch circles.
• Pitch surface: It is the surface of the rolling
discs which the meshing gears have replaced at
the pitch circle.
• Pressure angle or angle of obliquity: It is the angle
between the common normal to two gear teeth at the
point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch
point. It is usually denoted by ϕ. The standard pressure
1
angles are °and 20°.
2
• Addendum: It is the radial distance of a tooth from the
pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.
• Dedendum: It is the radial distance of a tooth from the
pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.
• Addendum circle: It is the circle drawn through the top
of the teeth and is concentric with the pitch circle.
• Dedendum circle: It is the circle drawn through the
bottom of the teeth. It is also called root circle.
• Note: ϕ , ϕ is the pressure angle.
• Circular pitch: It is the circle measured on the circumference of
the pitch circle from a point of one tooth to the corresponding
point on the next tooth. It is usually denoted by Pc.
• Mathematically,
• PC πDΤT
• where, D = Diameter of the pitch
circle, and , T = Number of teeth on the wheel.
• A little consideration will show that the two gears will mesh
together correctly, if the two wheels have the same circular
pitch.
Note: If D1 and D2 are the diameters of the two meshing gears
having the teeth T1 and T2 respectively, then for them to mesh
correctly
D1 D2 D1 T1
• Pc or
T1 T2 D2 T2
Form notes on the following:
• Diametral pitch,
• Module,
• Clearance,
• Total depth,
• Working depth,
• Tooth thickness,
• Tooth space,
• Backlash,
• Face of tooth,
• Flank of tooth,
• Top land,
• Face width,
• Profile,
• Fillet radius,
• Path of contact,
• Length of the path of contact, and
• Arc of contact.
 Gear Trains
• Sometimes, two or more gears are made to
mesh with each other to transmit power from
one shaft to another. Such a combination is
called gear train or train of toothed wheels.
In other words, a gear train is a mechanical
system formed by mounting gears on a frame
so that the teeth of the gears engage for the
purpose of transmitting power.
• The nature of train used depends upon the
velocity ratio required and the relative
position of the axes of shafts. A gear train may
consist of spur, bevel or spiral gears.
 Types of Gear Trains

•Simple gear train,

•Compound gear train,
•Reverted gear train, and
•Epicyclic gear train
 Simple Gear Trains
• When there is only one gear on each shaft as
shown in figure 3.5, it is known as simple gear
train. The gears are represented by their pitch
circles. When the distance between the two
shafts is small, the two gears 1 and 2 are made
to mesh with each other to transmit motion
from one shaft to the other, as shown in figure
3.5 (a). Since the gear 1 drives the gear 2,
therefore gear 1 is called the driver and the
gear 2, the driven or follower. It may be noted
that the motion of the driven gears is opposite
to the motion of the driving gear.
Figure 3.5 Simple gear train
• Speed ratio (or velocity ratio) of a gear is the ratio of the speed
of the driver to the speed of the driven or follower and ratio of
speeds of any pair of gears in mesh is the inverse of their
number of teeth. Therefore,
N1 T2
• =
N2 T1
• Train value is the reciprocal of speed ratio.
N2 T1
• Hence, =
N1 T2
Sometimes, the distance between the two gears is large. The
motion from one gear to another, in such case, may be transmitted
by either of the following two methods:
• By providing the large sized gear, or
• By providing one or more intermediate gears.
• Providing large sized gears is a very inconvenient and
uneconomical method; whereas providing ore or more
intermediate gears is very convenient and economical.
Note:
When the number of intermediate gears are odd, the
motion of the gears (i.e. driver and driven or follower) is
like as shown in figure 3.5 (b). On the other hand, if the
number of intermediate gears are even, the motion of the
driven or follower will be in the opposite direction of the
driver as shown in figure 3.5 (c).
• Considering figure 3.5 (b), Let
N1 = Speed of driver in r.p.m,
N2 = Speed of intermediate gear in r.p.m,
N3 = Speed of driven or follower in r.p.m,
T1 = Number of teeth on driver,
T2 = Number of teeth on intermediate gear, and
T3 = Number of teeth on driven or follower.
Since the driving gear 1 is in mesh with the intermediate
gear 2, therefore speed raio for these two gears is
N1 T2
=
N2 T1
• Similarly, as the intermediate gear 2 is in mesh with
the driven gear 3, therefore the speed ratio for these
two gears is
N2 T3
= (3.2)
N3 T2
• Multiplying equation (3.1) by equation (3.2), we
obtain the speed ratio of the gear train. Hence,
N1 N2 T2 T3 N1 T3
• × = × =
N2 N3 T1 T2 N3 T1
Speedofdriver No.ofteethondriven
• i.e. =
S𝑝eedofdriven No.ofteethondriver
Speedofdriven No.of teethondriver
• and
Speedofdriver No.of teethondriven
• Similarly, it can be proved that the above
equations holds good even if there are any
number of intermediate gears. In a simple train of
gears, speed ratio and train values are in
independent of the size and number of
intermediate gears. These intermediate gears are
called idle gears, as they do not affect the speed
ratio or train value.
The idle gears are used for the following two
purposes:
• To connect gears where a large centre distance is
required, and
• To obtain the desired direction of motion of the
driven gear (i.e. clockwise or anticlockwise
 Compound Gear Train
• When there are more than one gear on a shaft
it is called a compound train of gear, as shown
in figure 3.6 below.
Figure 3.5 Compound gear
train
Let N1 = Speed of driving gear 1,
T1 = Number of teeth on driving gear 1,
N2, N3…, N6 = Speed of respective gears in
r.p.m., and T2, T3…, T6 = Number of teeth on respective
gears.
Since gear 1 is mesh with gear 2, therefore its speed ratio is
N1 T2
= (3.3)
N2 T1
• Similarly, for gears 3 and 4, speed ratio is
N3 T4
= (3.4)
N4 T3
• and for gears 5 and 6, speed ratio is
N5 T 6
= (3.5)
N6 T 5
• The speed ratio of compound gear train is
obtained by multiplying the equations (3.3),
(3.4), and (3.5),
N1 N3 N5 T2 T4 T6
∴ × × = × ×
N2 N4 N6 T1 T3 T5

Since gears 2 and 3 are mounted on one shaft B,

therefore N2 = N3. Similarly gears 4 and 5 are
mounted on shaft C, therefore N4 = N5, hence,

N1 T2 T4 T6
• =
N6 T1 T3 T5
 Speed of the first driver
i.e. =
Speed of the last driven
Product of the No.of teeth on drivens
Product of the No.of teeth on drivers
The advantage of a compound train over a simple
gear train is that a much larger speed reduction
from the first shaft to the last shaft can be obtained
with small gears. If a simple gear train is used to
give a large speed reduction, the last gear has to be
very large. Usually for a speed reduction in excess
of 7:1, a simple train is not used and a compound
train or worm gearing is employed.
EXAMPLE
The gearing of a machine tool is shown in figure
(3.6).The motor shaft is connected to gear A and
rotates at 975 r.p.m. The gear wheels B, C, D,
and E are fixed to parallel shafts rotating
together. The final gear F is fixed on the output
shaft. What is the speed of gear F? The number
of teeth on each gear are as given below:
Gear A B C D E F

No. of teeth 20 50 25 75 26 65
Figure 3.6 Compound gear
train
Solution. Given: NA = 975 r.p.m. ; TA = 20; TB = 50 ;
TC= 25 ; TD = 75 ; TE = 26 ; TF = 65
From the given diagram A, C, and E are drivers while
B, D and F are the driven.

The direction of rotation of gears B and C are the

same (i.e. anticlockwise), because they are
mounted on the same shaft. Similarly, the gears D
and E are mounted on the same shaft and thus
have same direction of rotation (i.e. anticlockwise).
The gear F will rotate in anticlockwise direction.

Let NF = Speed of gear F, i.e. last driven or follower

We know that
Speedofthefirstdriver ProductoftheNo.ofteethondrivens
Speedofthelastdriven ProductoftheNo.ofteethondrivers
NA TB TD TF 50×75×65
or = = = 18.75
NF TA TC TE 20×25×26
∴
NA 975
NF = = =52 r.p.m Ans.
18.75 18.75
 Reverted Gear Train
When the axes of the first gear (i.e.
first driver) and the last gear (i.e. last
driven) are co-axial, then the gear train
is known as reverted gear train as
shown below.
In a reverted gear train as seen in the
in figure 3.7, the motion of the first
gear and the last gear is like.
Figure 3.7 Reverted
gear train
Let T1 = Number of teeth on gear 1,
r1 = Pitch circle radius of gear 1, and
N1 = Speed of driving gear 1 in r.p.m.
Similarly,
T2, T3, T4 = Number of teeth on respective gears,
r2, r3, r4 = Pitch circle radii of respective gears, and
N2, N3, N4 = Speed of respective gears in r.p.m.
Since the distance between the centres of the shafts of
gears 1 and 2 as well as gears 3 and 4 is same, therefore
r1 + r2 = r3 + r4 (3.6)
• Also, the circular pitch or module of all the gears is
assumed to be same, therefore number on each gear is
directly proportional to its circumference or radius.
 APPLICATION OF FRICTION TO
SCREWS, WEDGES, BELT DRIVES,
CLUTCHES AND BRAKES
1 Screws
Screws, bolts, studs, nuts, etc. are widely used in various
machines and structures for temporarily fastenings. These
fastenings have screw threads, which are made by cutting
a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface.
Threads can be external and internal. The screw threads
are mainly of two types i.e. V-threads and square threads.
The V-threads are stronger and offer more frictional
resistance to motion than square threads. In general, the
V-thread thread are used for the purpose of tightening
pieces together e.g. botls and nuts, etc. Square threads
are used in screw jacks, vice screws.
Terms used for the study of Screw
Helix: It is the curve traced by a particle while describing
a circular path at a uniform speed and advancing in the
axial direction at a uniform rate. In other words, it is the
curve traced by a particle while moving along a screw
thread.
Pitch: It is the distance from a point of a screw to a
corresponding point on the next thread, measured
parallel to the axis of the screw.
Lead: It is the distance a screw thread advances axially in
one turn.
Depth of thread: It is the distance between the top and
bottom surfaces of a thread (crest and root).
Single-thread screw: if the lead of a screw is equal to its
pitch.
Multi-thread screw: Lead=pitch×Numberoftread
Helix angle: It is the slope or inclination of the
thread with the horizontal. Mathematically,
Lead of Screw
• α
CircumferenceofScrew
p
• (In Single-thread screws)
πd
np
• = (In Multi-thread screws)
πd
• where, α = Helix angle
• p = Pitch of the screw
d = Mean diameter of the screw
n = Number of threads in one lead
 Screw Jack
The Screw Jack is a device for lifting heavy loads
by applying a comparatively smaller effort at its
handle. The principle on which a Screw Jack
works is similar to that of an inclined plane.
Torque required to lift the load by a Screw Jack
• This torque may be determined by considering a
screw jack as shown in figure 4.1 (a) above. The
load to be raised or lowered is placed on the
head of the square threaded rod which is rotated
by the application of an effort at the end of lever
for lifting or lowering the load.
• A little consideration will show that if one
complete turn ofa screw thread is imagined to be
unwound from the body of the screw and
developed, it will form an inclined plane as
shown in figure 4.2 (a) below.
Let p = Pitch of the screw,
• d = Mean diameter,
• α = Helix angle,
• P = Effort applied at the circumference
of the screw to lift the load,
• W = Load to be lifted, and
• μ = Coefficient of friction, between the
screw and nut
• = ϕ , where ϕ is the friction angle.
From the geometry of the figure 4.2 (a), we see
that
P
• tan α=
πd
• Since the principle, on which a screw jack
works is similar to that of an inclined plane,
therefore the force applied on the lever
(circumference) of a screw jack may be
considered to be horizontal as shown in figure
4.2 (b).
• Since the load is being lifted, therefore the
force of friction (F = μ.RN) will act downwards.
All the forces acting on the body are shown in
figure 4.2(b).
• Resolving the forces along the plane,
P cos α = W sin α + F = W sin α + μ.RN
(4.1)
• and resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane,
• RN = P sin α + W cos α
(4.2)
Substituting this value of RN in equation (4.1), we have
P cos α = W sin α + μ (P sin α + W cos α)
= W sin α + μ P sin α + μW cos α
• or P cos α – μ P sin α = W sin α + μW cos α
• or P (cos α – μ sin α)=W (sin α + μ cos α)
sinα+μcosα
• ∴ P=W x
cosα−μsinα
 sinϕ
Substituting the value of μ = tan ϕ in the above equation
cosϕ
and multiplying the numerator and denominator by cos ϕ , we
sinαcosϕ+sinϕcosα
get P=W x
cosαcosϕ−sinαsinϕ
α+ϕ
• P=W x =W α+ϕ
α+ϕ
• ∴ Torque required to overcome friction between the screw
and nut,
d d
T1 = 𝑃 × = 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑛 α + ϕ
2 2
When the axial load is taken up by a thrust collar as shown in
figure 4.1 (b), so that the load does not rotate with the screw,
then the torque required to overcome friction at the collar,
assuming uniform wear condition,
R1 R2
T2 = μ1 × 𝑊 = μ1 WR
2
where, R1 and R2 = Outside and inside radii of the
collar,
• Total torque required to overcome friction (i.e. to rotate the
screw),
• T = T1 + T2
• If an effort P1 is applied at the end of a lever of arm length l,
then the total torque required to overcome friction must be
equal to the torque applied at the end of lever, i.e.
d
T= P x = P1 l (4.3)
2
Notes:
1. When the nominal diameter (do) and the core diameter (dc) of
the screw thread is given, then
do +dc p p
Mean diameter of screw, d = = do − = dc −
2 2 2
The nominal diameter of a screw thread is also known as outside
diameter or major diameter and the core diameter of a screw
thread is also known as inner diameter or root diameter or minor
diameter.
 EXAMPLE 4.1

An electric motor driven power screw moves a

nut in a horizontal plane against a force of 75 kN
at a speed of 300 mm/min. The screw has a
single square thread of 6 mm pitch on a major
diameter of 40 cm. The coefficient of friction of
the screw thread is 0.1. Estimate power of the
motor.
Solution.
• Given: W = 75 kN = 103 N ; v = 300 mm/min ; p = 6
mm ; do = 40 mm ; μ = tan ϕ = 0.1
p 6
• Mean diameter, 𝑑 = do − = 40 - = 37 mm = 0.037 m
2 2
p 6
• and tanα = = = 0.0516
πd π×37
• Force required at the circumference of the screw,
•
tanα+tanϕ
• P = Wtan α + ϕ = W
1−tanαtanϕ
0.0516+0.1
• = 75 × 103
1−0.0516×0.1
=11.43 × 103 N
• Torque required to overcome friction,
d 3 0.037
• T=P x =11.43 × 10 × = 211.45 Nm
2 2
Speed of the nut 300
• Speed of the screw N, = = =
Pitch of the screw 6
50 r.p.m.
N 50
• and angular speed, ω = 2𝜋 × 2π × = =
60 60
5.24 rad/s
∴ Power of the motor = T.ω = 211.45 × 5.24 =
1108 W = 1.108 kW
• ASSIGNMENT
A turnbuckle, with right and left hand single start
thread is used to couple two wagons. Its thread
pitch is 12 mm and mean diameter 40 mm. The
coefficient of friction between the nut and screw
is 0.16.
• Determine the work done in drawing the wagons
together a distance of 240 mm against a steady
load of 2500 N.
• If the load increases from 2500 N to 6000 N over
the distance of 240 mm, what is the work to be
done?
Efficiency of a Screw Jack
• The efficiency of a Screw Jack may be defined as the ratio between the
ideal effort (i.e. the effort required to move the load, neglecting friction)
to the actual effort (i.e. the effort required to move the load taking friction
into account).
•
• Effort to lift load when the coefficient of friction (μ) is considered,
• Po= Wtan α + ϕ
• where W = Load to be lifted,
• α = Helix angle,
• ϕ = Angle of friction, and
• μ = Coefficient of friction between the screw and
nut = tan ϕ.
•
• If there would have been no friction between the screw and the nut, then
ϕ will be equal to zero. The value of effort P0 necessary to raise the load,
will then be given by the equation,
•
• P0 = W tan α

• ∴ Efficiency, =
Ideal effort P0 Wtanα tanα
= = =
Actual effort P 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑛 α+ϕ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 α+ϕ
• This shows that the efficiency of a screw jack
is independent of the load raised.
• Note: In the above expression for efficiency,
only the screw friction is considered.
 BELT DRIVES
The belts are used to transmit power from one
shaft to another by means of pulleys which rotate
at the same speed or different speeds.
The amount of power transmitted depends upon
the following factors:
1. The velocity of the belt.
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the
pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the
smaller pulley.
4. The conditions under which the belt is used. It
may be noted that
It may be noted that
(a) The shafts should be properly in line to insure
uniform tension across the belt section.
(b) The pulleys should not be too close together, in
order that the arc of contact on the smaller pulley may
be as large as possible.
(c) The pulleys should not be so far apart as to cause
the belt to weigh heavily on the shafts, thus increasing
the friction load on the bearings.
(d) A long belt tends to swing from side to side, causing
the belt to run out of the pulleys, which in turn
develops crooked spots in the belt.
(e) The tight side of the belt should be at the
bottom, so that whatever sag is present on the
loose side will increase the arc of contact at the
pulleys.
(f) In order to obtain good results with flat belts,
the maximum distance between the shafts
should not exceed 10 metres and the minimum
should not be less than 3.5 times the diameter
of the larger pulley.
Selection of a Belt Drive
Types of Belts: Though there are many types of
belts used these days, yet the following are
important from the subject point of view (as
shown in the figure below):
Flat belt. The flat belt, as shown in Fig. 6.1 (a), is mostly used
in the factories and workshops, where a moderate amount of
power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another when
the two pulleys are not more than 8 metres apart.
2. V-belt. The V-belt, as shown in Fig. 6.1 (b), is mostly used in
the factories and workshops, where a moderate amount of
power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when
the two pulleys are very near to each other.
3. Circular belt or rope. The circular belt or rope, as shown in
Fig. 6.1 (c), is mostly used in the factories and workshops,
where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one
pulley to another, when the two pulleys are more than 8
meters apart.
If a huge amount of power is to be transmitted, then a single
belt may not be sufficient. In such a case, wide pulleys (for V-
belts or circular belts) with a number of grooves are used.
Then a belt in each groove is provided to transmit the
required amount of power from one pulley to another.
 Types of Flat Belt Drives
To transmit power from one pulley to another, any of
the following types of belt drives may be used:
1. Open belt drive.
The open belt drive, as shown in Fig. 6.2, is used
with shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the
same direction. In this case, the driver A pulls the
belt from one side (i.e. lower side RQ) and delivers it
to the other side (i.e. upper side LM). Thus the
tension in the lower side belt will be more than that
in the upper side belt. The lower side belt (because
of more tension) is known as tight side whereas the
upper side belt (because of less tension) is known as
slack side, as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Figure 5.2 Types of Belts
Crossed or twist belt drive. The crossed or twist
belt drive, as shown in 6.3, is used with shafts
arranged parallel and rotating in the opposite
directions.
In this case, the driver pulls the belt from one
side (i.e. RQ) and delivers it to the other side
(i.e. LM). Thus the tension in the belt RQ will be
more than that in the belt LM. The belt RQ
(because of more tension) is known as tight side,
whereas the belt LM (because of less tension) is
known as slack side,
Cross belt drives

Figure 6.3 Crossed or twist Belt Drive

Figure 6.6 Compound Belt Drive
Velocity Ratio of Belt Drive:

It is the ratio between the velocities of the

driver and the follower or driven. It may be
expressed, mathematically, as discussed below:
Let d1 = Diameter of the driver,
d2 = Diameter of the follower,
Slip of Belt
Slip of Belt
• S2 is percentage slip between the driven and
the belt
EXAMPLE 6.1
An engine, running at 150 r.p.m., drives a line shaft
by means of a belt. The engine pulley is 750 mm
diameter and the pulley on the line shaft being 450
mm. A 900 mm diameter pulley on the line shaft
drives a 150 mm diameter pulley keyed to a
dynamo shaft. Find the speed of the dynamo shaft,
when 1. there is no slip, and 2. there is a slip of 2%
at each drive.
Solution. Given: N1 = 150 r.p.m. ; d1 = 750 mm ; d2 =
450 mm ; d3 = 900 mm ; d4 = 150 mm
The arrangement of belt drive is shown in Fig. 6.9.
Let N4 = Speed of the dynamo shaft
GOVERNOR
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean
speed of an engine, when there are variations in
the load e.g. when the load on an engine increases,
its speed decreases, therefore it becomes necessary
to increase the supply of working fluid. On the
other hand, when the load on the engine
decreases, its speed increases and thus less working
fluid is required.
The governor automatically controls the supply of
working fluid to the engine with the varying load
conditions and keeps the mean speed within certain
limits.
Note: The function of a flywheel in an engine is
entirely different from that of a governor. It
controls the speed variation caused by the
fluctuations of the engine turning moment
during each cycle of operation. It does not
control the speed variations caused by a varying
load. The varying demand for power is met by
the governor regulating the supply of working
fluid.
Types of Governors
Governors can broadly be classified into two
types: 1. Centrifugal governors, and 2.Inertia
governors. The centrifugal governors, may
further be classified as follows: