“Heat”

Heat is a measure of energy added to or removed from a system due to presence of a hot or cold
environment surrounding such system. This energy may result into system’s temperature change or the
system’s temperature not changed.
This energy is equivalent to the increase in the internal energy of the system i.e. Heat = (kinetic energy +
potential e energy). In this case heat may be defined as a form of energy in transfer due to temperature
differences.
In case temperature remains constant, such energy is equivalent to the increase in the system’s internal
energy plus work done to expand the system against external pressure i.e. Heat = (internal energy +
work done against external pressure).

Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness of the body. The extent to which the body feels hot
depends on the; average kinetic energy of the individual atoms or molecules with in that body. This
means that the body’s kinetic energy is directly proportional to its thermal dynamic temperature.
NB: Different bodies can be at the same temperature but with different amount of heat because;
Temperature of abody is a measure of its average kinetic energy only yet its heat is the sum of kinetic
energy which is directly propotianal to its temperature only and molecular potential energy which is
inversely propotional to its molecular separation “r”.
1.0. Thermometry
This involves the study of thermometers as instruments used to measure temperature on the basis of
certain physical thermometric properties which change with temperature and remains constant at
constant temperature. A thermometric property is a physical quantity which varies continuously,
uniformly and linearly with temperature and remains constant at constant temperature. Such properties
include;
 Pressure of fixed mass of a gas at constant volume
 Electrical resistance of platinum wire
 Electromotive force of a thermocouple
 Length of liquid column (expansion of a liquid)
 Vapor pressure of vapors
 The quantity of electromagnetic radiations emitted by a hot body
NB: A good thermometric property should;
 Considerably vary for small changes in temperature.
 Vary over a wide range of temperature (both high and low)
 Vary linearly, uniformly and continuously with temperature
 Be accurately measurable over a wide range of temperature with a simple apparatus
 1.0.0 Related concepts
Fixed point is defined as constant temperature at which a physical state of pure water is expected to
change at 760mmHg. Fixed points are basically two i.e.0 ̊C and 100 ̊C.
Lower fixed point (TL) is the temperature of pure melting ice at 760mmHg. It is 0 ̊C.
Upper fixed point (TU) is the temperature of pure steam at 760mmHg. It is 100 ̊C.
Triple point (Ttr) is the temperature at which pure water, pure steam and pure ice co –exist in
equilibrium at 760mmHg. It is -273 ̊C or 0K.
Fundamental interval (FI) is the range of the thermometer readings at the two fixed points e.g. for
thermometers which give direct readings of temperature FI =TU-TL = (100-0) ̊C.
Determination of Fixed points
L.F.P
A thermometer is placed in a glass funnel kept full of pieces of pure solid ice below which is a collecting
dish for collecting water from melted ice as shown below.
Thermometer

Retort stand
Collecting dish
The mercury column/length drops steadily until when the thermometer reading remains constant at 0 ̊C
when external pressure is760mmHg. At this state solid ice is said to be melting into liquid implying that 0
̊C is the lower fixed-point of pure water.

U.F.P
A thermometer is placed inside a double walled copper vessel containing pure water below which is
heating source as shown below.
Thermometer
Cork
Steam out

Double walled vessel

Vapor
Pure water
Heating source
The mercury thread rises steadily until when the thermometer reading remains constant at 100 ̊C when
external pressure is760mmHg. At this state pure water is said to be vaporizing, implying that 100 ̊C is the
upper fixed-point of pure water.

Note:
 All thermometers only agree at fixed points because fixed points are determined using ideal
conditions i.e. (pure ice and pure steam) whose temperature only depends on standard
atmospheric pressure of 760mmHg.
 Different thermometers do not agree at non fixed points because each thermometer uses a
unique thermometric property which varies uniquely with temperature thus unique responses.
 Lower fixed point can not be determined using impure ice because impurities in ice lower its
melting point and this would result into unique responses by different thermometers at L.F.P.
 Upper fixed point can not be determined using impure water because impurities in water raise
its boiling point and this would result into unique responses by different thermometers at U.F.P.

1.0.1 Scale of temperature.

These are scales in which the measure of hotness or coldness of a body can be expressed .i.e. the
measure of hotness or coldness of a particular body can be expressed in;
 Degrees centigrade ( ̊C) forming a Celsius scale of temperature.
 Kelvin (K) forming a thermodynamic scale of temperature.
 Degrees Fahrenheit ( ̊F) forming a Fahrenheit scale of temperature.
NB: The S.I unit for temperature is “Kelvin” with symbol “K”.

1.0.1.0 Conversion of scales

If t ̊C is temperature reading on the thermodynamic scale, its value on;
 Thermodynamic scale is given by the expression T= (t+273) K.

 Fahrenheit scale is given by the expression T = ( 95 t +32) F .

It should however be noted that if “T” ̊F is temperature reading on Fahrenheit scale of
temperature, its value on Celsius scale of temperature is given by the expression t =

( 59 F−32) ̊ C.
1.0.1.1 Establishing scales of temperature
We select a thermometric property and its values X0 and X100 at fixed points i.e. (lower fixed point
and upper fixed point) and Xtr at triple point are measured using a specified thermometer and
recorded.
The thermometric property Xθ at un known temperature θ is also measured and recorded.
 If the property is assumed to vary uniformly and linearly with temperature changes, on Celsius scale

of temperature θ =
( X θ− X 0
)
X 100 −X 0
x 100 ̊ C and on thermodynamic scale of temperature θ =

( )
Xθ
X tr
x 273 K .

1.0.1.2 Celsius scale of temperature

On this scale of temperature, temperature is measured in degrees centigrade ( ̊C) and makes use of
lower fixed point and upper fixed point. Temperatures values on this scale can either be positive or
negative.

1.0.1.2.0 Establishing a Celsius scale of temperature.

We select a thermometric property and its values X0 and X100 at fixed points i.e. (lower fixed point and
upper fixed point) are measured using a specified thermometer and recorded.
The thermometric property Xθ at un known temperature θ is also measured and recorded. If the
property is assumed to vary uniformly and linearly with temperature as shown below,
X100

Thermometric property “X”

Xθ

X0 100
0 θ
Temperature ( ̊C)

By comparison of slopes, X θ −X O − ¿ =
θ
X 100− X 0
100 (
¿ we get θ =
X θ− X 0
)
X 100 −X 0
x 100 ̊ C .

1.0.1.3 Thermal dynamic scale of temperature

On this scale of temperature, temperature is measured in “Kelvin” (K) and makes use of triple point
only. Temperatures values on this scale can also be either positive or negative.

1.0.1.3.0 Establishing thermal dynamic scale of temperature

We select a thermometric property and its value Xtr at triple point is measured using a specified
thermometer and recorded. The thermometric property XT at un known temperature”T” is also
measured and recorded.
If the property is assumed to vary uniformly and linearly with temperature changes, on

thermodynamic scale of temperature T = ( )

XT
X tr
x 273 K .
NB: The major advantage of thermal dynamic scale of temperature over Celsius scale is that thermal
dynamic scale is suitable for estimating extremely higher temperatures at which gases cease to exist as
elements e.g. Temperature of atomic explosions and Temperature of the interior of the star and the sun.

1.0.1.4 Comparison of scales of temperature

Celsius scale of temperature Thermal dynamic scale of temperature

temperature is measured in degrees centigrade ( Temperature is measured in “Kelvin” (K)

̊C)
It makes use of lower fixed point and upper fixed It makes use of triple point only
point
Un known temperature on this scale is given by Un known temperature on this scale is given by

θ= ( X θ− X 0
)
X 100 −X 0
x 100 ̊ C . T= ( )
XT
X tr
x 273 K

1.0.1 Absolute zero temperature

This is the temperature of an ideal gas which corresponds to its zero volume or zero pressure it exerts
on the walls of the container in which it is trapped. This value approximates to the triple point of pure
water i.e. -273 ̊C or 0K.

Molecular explanation for existence of absolute zero temperature

When a gas is cooled, its molecules loose kinetic energy continuously since it depends directly on
temperature. As molecules loose kinetic energy they move closer into close proximity until when they
cease to have kinetic energy. At this point the gas is said to occupy a negligible volume and its
temperature at this point is called the absolute zero temperature and the pressure the gas exerts on the
walls of the container occupied is negligible.

1.0.2.0 Estimating absolute zero temperature

A given volume of a fixed mass of an ideal gas is trapped and cooled. During cooling, the gas molecule
slow down since their average kinetic energy entirely depends on their thermal dynamic temperatures.
Molecules move closer until when their mean kinetic energy is zero i.e. molecules cannot move any
more. When a plot of gas volume “V” is plotted against its thermal dynamic temperature, the following
plot is obtained i.e.
Volume (m3)

-273 0 Temperature ( ̊C)

Absolute zero temperature is determined by extrapolating the graph until when it touches the
temperature axis and is found to be -273 ̊C or 0K.

1.0.2 Thermometers
A thermometer is device for measuring temperature based on its thermometric property. There are
several thermometers each with a unique thermometric property as listed below.
Thermometer Thermometric property
Mercury –in –glass Length of liquid column
Platinum wire Electrical resistance
Thermo couple Electromotive force
Pyrometer Quality of electromagnetic radiations emitted by a
hot body
Constant-volume gas Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas
Constant- pressure gas Volume of a fixed mass of gas
1.0.3.0 Platinum wire thermometer
 Structure
It is a thin platinum wire wound on a mica/copper former. Such arrangement is fixed into a silica
tube together with dummy leads which are identical to the copper former as shown below.

Dummy leads
Copper former
Silica tube
Platinum wire

 Action
The thermometer is connected to Wheatstone bridge as shown below

RS RS

GG
R
Calibrated rheostat

Arm of copper former Arm of dummy leads

A B
On Celsius scale
The arm of the platinum wire is immersed in steam and rheostat R is adjusted until when the
galvanometer reads zero amperes. The value of the rheostat at this temperature R100 is read and
recorded.
The above procedure is repeated when the arm of platinum wire is immersed in ice and a liquid of
unknown temperature θ such that the value of the rheostat in each case R0 and Rθ are also read and
recorded.
Assuming resistance of platinum wire to vary linearly, uniformly and continuously with temperature, the

un known temperature θ of the liquid is given by θ =

( X θ− X 0
X 100 −X 0)x 100 ̊ C .

On thermal dynamic scale

The arm of the platinum wire is immersed in a mixture of pure ice, pure water and pure steam existing
in equilibrium. The rheostat R is adjusted until when the galvanometer reads zero amperes. The value of
the rheostat at this temperature Rtr is read and recorded.
The above procedure is repeated when the arm of platinum wire is immersed in a liquid of unknown
temperature T such that the value of the rheostat RT is also read and recorded.
Assuming resistance of platinum wire to vary linearly, uniformly and continuously with temperature, the

un known temperature θ of the liquid is given by T = ( ) XT

X tr
x 273 K .

1.0.3.0.0 Advantages of platinum wire thermometer

 It is accurate since its resistance varies linearly with temperature.
 It can be used to measure over a wide range i.e. (-200 ̊C to 1200 ̊C).

1.0.3.0.1 Disadvantages of platinum wire thermometer

 Platinum wire has a low conductivity and a high s.h.c thus takes long for an observation to be
made.
 Due to the size the tube, this thermometer can not be used to measure at a point.
 The thermometer is bulky.

1.0.3.1 Thermocouples
 Structure
Two metal wires of different materials joined to form a junction
 Principle
It works on the principle that when two different metals e.g. iron and constantan are joined together
with their junctions kept at different temperatures, an e.m.f is induced in the circuit and that this e.m.f
depends on the temperature difference between the junctions i.e. Eθ =Aθ+Bθ2+Cθ3 + …. Where A, B and
C are constants.
 Action

V Constantan
Iron

Cold junction Hot junction

Liquid at 0 ̊C Liquid at temperature θ or steam point

On Celsius scale
The voltmeter reading E0 is read and recorded when both the cold junction and hot junction are
immersed in pure ice. The hot junction is now immersed in pure steam with the cold junction still in ice.
The voltmeter reading E100 is read and recorded
With the cold junction still in ice, the hot junction is dipped in a liquid whose temperature is required
such that the voltmeter reading Eθ is read and recorded. Assuming e.m.f generated to vary linearly,

uniformly and continuously with temperature, θ = ( )

Eθ
E100
x 100 ̊ C for E0 =0V.

On thermal dynamic scale

The hot junction of the thermal couple is immersed in a mixture of pure ice, pure water and pure steam
existing in equilibrium. The voltmeter reading Etris read and recorded.
The above procedure is repeated when the hot junction of the thermal couple is immersed in a liquid of
unknown temperature T such that the voltmeter reading ET is also read and recorded. Assuming e.m.f

generated to vary linearly with temperature, T = ( )

ET
Etr
x 273 K .

1.0.3.1.0 Conditions for e.m.f to be generated between junctions

 The junctions must be of different metals
 The junctions must be at different temperatures
1.0.3.1.1 Sources of errors when using a thermo couple
 Leakages due to poor insulation means
 Leakages due to strained thermocouple wires
 Stray thermo electric e.m.fs due to several contacts involved during measurements
1.0.3.1.2 Advantages of thermocouples
 The junction can be made pointed such that it can be used to measure temperature at a point.
 Metals used always have a high conductivity and low s.h.c thus suitable for measuring rapid
varying temperatures.
 The thermometers are portable since they are robust and compact.
 It can be made to measure temperature directly by connecting it to an ammeter calibrated to
read temperature.

1.0.3.1.3 Disadvantages of thermocouples

  E.m.f of a thermocouple does not vary linearly with temperature.
 Thermocouples can give two similar reading readings corresponding to different temperature
values as shown below.
EN
E.m.f (mV)
E

θ1 θ2
Thermo couple temperature
NB:
Temperature corresponding to“EN” is called the neutral point of thermocouple i.e. maximum
temperature of thermo couple just below which its e.m.fs vary fairly linearly.
For this very reason, thermo couples are only used as thermometers at temperatures below its neutral
temperature.

1.0.3.1.4 Variation of e.m.fs with temperature

For copper-iron thermo couple For copper-constantan thermo couple

E.m.f(mV) E.m.f(mV)

Temperature ( ̊C) Temperature ( ̊C)

1. 0.3.2 Liquid –in –glass thermometer e.g. clinical thermometer
Liquids which are commonly used in such thermometers are; mercury and alcohol to a small extent. The
choice of a liquid to be used is based on the following properties;
For mercury
 It is opaque thus readily seen making it readable
 It is a good conductor of heat thus responds quickly to temperature changes
 It expands uniformly making readings to be steady.
 It has a high boiling point implying that it can be used to measure high temperature.
For alcohol
 It is highly expansive making it suitable for measuring high temperatures
Why to a large extent alcohol is not used?
 Alcohol is colorless making it difficult to be read.
 Alcohol is a poor conductor of heat leading to slow responses by the thermometers
 Alcohol expands non uniformly leading to fractuating responses by the thermometer.
 Alcohol has a low boiling point making it un suitable for measuring high temperature.
Why water is not used as thermometric liquid?
 Water is colorless making it difficult to be read.
  Water expands non uniformly leading to fractuating responses by the thermometer.
 Water has a high boiling point and high s.h.c making it un suitable for measuring small
temperatures.
 Water has a small range of expansion thus used to measure temperature in a small range e.g. 0
̊C and 100 ̊C.

1.0.3.2.0 Operation
 On Celsius scale
The thermometer is dipped in pure ice and the length of mercury column l 0 is read and recorded. The
thermometer is dipped in pure steam and the length of mercury column l 100 is read and recorded. The
thermometer is dipped in a liquid whose temperature θ is required such that the length of mercury
column lθ is also read and recorded. For uniform variation of mercury column with temperature, the un

known temperature θ =
( )
lθ −l 0
l 100−l 0
x 100 ̊ C .

 On thermal dynamic scale

The thermometer is immersed in a mixture of pure ice, pure water and pure steam existing in
equilibrium. The length of mercury column ltris read and recorded.
The above procedure is repeated when the thermometer is immersed in a liquid of unknown
temperature T such that the length of mercury column lT is also read and recorded. Assuming the length

of mercury column to vary linearly with temperature, T = ( )

lT
lt r
x 273 K .

1.0.3.2.0 Advantages of liquid-in-glass thermometer.

 The thermometer is simple, cheap and portable.
 The thermometer can be calibrated to give direct readings e.g. clinical thermometer
Question:
The fundamental interval of glass-in- glass thermometer is 192mm.Calculate the temperature on
Celsius scale corresponding with mercury thread of 67.2mm long.
Solutions:
l0 =0.0mm, l100= 192.0mm and lθ =67.2mm

For θ =( )
lθ −l 0
l 100−l 0
x 100 ̊ C , θ = (
67.2−0.0
192.0−0.0 )
x 100 ̊ C .

θ =35 ̊C

1.0.3.2 Radiation Pyrometers

A radiation pyrometer is an instrument used to measure high temperatures of a body based on the
radiations emitted by the body. Such instruments are of two types i.e. optical pyrometer which responds
to only visible radiation and total radiation pyrometer which responds to both visible and infrared
radiation.
 1.0.3.2.0 Optical pyrometer
Tungsten filament at focal point”F” of “B”
B Filter

Hot body Observer

Objective lens of the telescope
Eye piece of the telescope

A R

The eye piece is focused on the filament receiving radiations from a body whose temperature is to be
determined. The objective lens is adjusted until when image of the body lies in the same plane with the
filament. At this point both the object and the filament appear red hot as seen through the filament
placed at the focal point of the objective lens of the telescope.
Current through the filament is adjusted by varying R until when the filament and the image of the body
have the same appearance i.e. when the object just disappears from the back ground of the filament.
Temperature of the hot body is read from the ammeter “A” calibrated to measure temperature in
“Kelvin”.

1.0.3.2.1 Total radiation pyrometer

Blackened copper disc “D”
Blackened tube

Hot body M
Shield

Eye piece
G M

Gold plate mirror with a hole at the middle

Radiations from the hot body fall on mirror “M” and get reflected to the copper disc “D”. The disk is
heated by the radiations until it reaches an equilibrium temperature i.e. temperature at which its rate of
heat loss = its rate of heat gain.
The deflection “θ” of the galvanometer is read and recorded and is proportional to the energy “E”
radiated by the black body given by Stefan’s law of black bodies i.e. EαT4 or θαT4…….(i)
The pyrometer is now focused on molten gold at its melting point (TAU≈1063 ̊C). The deflection θAU is
4 4
read and recorded and is proportional to T AU i.e. θAUαT AU ……(ii).

Temperature “T” is calculated using the expression T =

√
4
θ AU
θ
T 4AU .

1.0.3.3 Gas thermometers

1.0.3.3.0 Constant –volume- gas thermometer
Dead space
N
M Mercury

Bulb containing trapped gas Manometer

  On Celsius scale
The bulb is immersed in pure ice and after some time the manometer is adjusted to bring mercury to
mark “M” (to ensure constant volume of the trapped gas). The difference in the manometer readings
“h0” is measured using a metre rule and recoded.
The above procedure is repeated when the bulb is immersed in pure steam and a liquid of unknown
temperature θ such that the differences in the manometer readings “h100” and “hθ”in each case are
measured using a metre rule and recoded.
Pressure the gas exerts on mercury in the closed limb of the manometer in each case is given by
P =H-h for “N” below “M” or P =H+h for “N” above “M”.
For uniform variation of mercury column with temperature, the un known temperature

θ= ( hθ−h 0
)
h100 −h0
x 100̊ C .

 On thermal dynamic scale

The bulb is immersed in a mixture of pure ice, pure water and pure steam existing in equilibrium. The
difference in the manometer readings “htr” is measured using a metre rule and recoded.
The above procedure is repeated when the bulb is immersed in a liquid of unknown temperature T. The
difference in the manometer readings “hT” is measured using a metre rule and recoded.

Assuming the length of mercury column to vary linearly with temperature, T = ( )

hT
htr
x 273 K .

NB: With this thermometer some corrections are made to cater for;
 Expansivity of the bulb
 Temperature of air in the dead space
 Changes in temperature of mercury in the manometer and barometer

Such corrections are carried out as follows;

 A predetermined estimated correction of temperature due to expansion of the bulb is added to
the observed temperature measured by the thermometer.
  The dead space is made too small so as to contain a small fraction of the total mass of the gas to
minimize temperature changes due to much air in the dead space.
 Temperature at different points in the dead space is measured using mercury thermometer such
that effects of air in such space are catered for in the calculations.
 Temperature in the manometer and barometer is measured using mercury thermometer such
that it is catered for in the calculations
1.0.3.3.1Constant –pressure gas thermometer.

l Trough
Dry air trapped

Mercury

Collecting dish

 On Celsius scale
Dry air is trapped in the closed limb of the tube of uniform cross-section area. The tube is immersed in
pure ice and by the help of the tap, mercury in both limbs is leveled by letting some out (to ensure
constant pressure/same pressure at both ends) and the length of air column l0 is measured using a
meter rule and recorded.
The tube is now immersed in (a) pure steam and (b) liquid whose temperature θ is required such that
the lengths of air column in each case lθ and l100 are measured and using a meter rule and recorded.
Assuming the variation of air column to vary linearly with temperature, un known temperature

(
θ=
)
lθ −l 0
l 100−l 0
x 100 ̊ C .

 On thermal dynamic scale

The tube is immersed in a mixture of pure ice, pure water and pure steam existing in equilibrium. The
length of the air column “ltr” is measured using a metre rule and recoded.
The above procedure is repeated when the tube is immersed in a liquid of unknown temperature T. The
length of the air column “lT” is measured using a metre rule and recoded.

Assuming the length of air column to vary linearly with temperature, T = ()

lT
l tr
x 273 K .

1.0.3.4 Sources of errors in gas thermometers

 Air is not ideal yet the thermometer assumes ideal gases.
 Air in the tube may not be at the same temperature throughout it and this makes it
difficult to level up mercury.
1.0.3.5 Advantages of gas thermometers
  Gas thermometers are very accurate since their thermometric properties vary linearly with
temperature.
 Gas thermometers measure temperature over a wide range.
1.0.3.6 Disadvantages of gas thermometers
 Gas thermometers are very bulky
 Gas thermometers have a slow response to temperature changes because gases are poor
conductors of heat.
 Gas thermometers can not give direct readings
NB:
 The fact that thermometric properties of gas thermometers vary linearly with temperature, gas
thermometers are very accurate thus used as standard thermometers for calibrating other
thermometers.
 Constant –volume gas thermometers are preferred to constant –pressure gas thermometers
because it is easier to measure accurately changes in pressure than changes in volume

1.0.3 Examples.
1)The resistance of platinum thermometer is 2.04Ω at ice point and 3.02Ω at the steam point.
i) What should be the temperature of platinum wire so as to have a resistance of 9.24Ω?
ii) If a constant-pressure thermometer had been used, the same temperature would correspond to
1040oC. Explain the deviation.
Solutions:
i) θ= ( 9.24−2.04
3.02−2.04 )
x 100 ̊ C = 734.7 ̊C.

ii) The variation of platinum resistance with temperature is different to the variation of volume
of a fixed mass of dry gas with temperature thus the two thermometers give unique readings.

2) One junction of a thermocouple is placed in melting ice while the other is inserted into a bath whose
temperature as measured by a high temperature mercury-in-glass thermometer at 760mmHg is as shown
in the table below.
T/ ̊C 0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0
e.m.f/mV 0.0 0.64 1.44 2.32 3.25 4.32

By Graphical method determine;

i) Temperature as read from the thermocouple thermometer corresponding to 308 oC on
mercury-in-glass thermometer
ii) Temperature as read from mercury-in-glass thermometer corresponding to 250 oC on the
thermocouple thermometer.

Solutions:
i) From the graph, E380=3mV mercury-in-glass thermometer.
⇒ θ on the thermocouple scale giving 3mV

θ= ( 0.64−0.0
3.0−0.0
) x 100 ̊ C = 458.9 ̊C.
ii) On the thermocouple scale

250.0 = ( 0.64−0.0
E −0.0
θ
) x 100 ̊ C , from which Eθ=1.6mV.

On mercury-in-glass thermometer

E =1 . 6 mV is 220oC
From the graph the value of θ for which θ
3) The resistance R of platinum wire at temperature θoC as measured by mercury-in-glass thermometer is
given by; Rθ=R0(1+aθ+bθ2) where a =3.8x10-3K-1 and b=-5.6x10-7K-2. Calculate the temperature of
platinum thermometer corresponding to 200oC on glass scale.
Solutions:
( 2
)
Since both scales agree at fixed points, and that for platinum thermometer Rθ =R o 1+aθ+ bθ then;
⇒ R 100=R o ( 1+a∗100+b∗10000 )
R200 =Ro (1+ a∗200+b∗40000 )

( )
Rθ −Ro
∴ θ= ∗100
R 100−R o

θ= (200
100 a+10000 b )
a+40000 b
∗100

θ=197 ̊C.
Substituting for the values of a and b given above we get that when the temperature on mercury-in-glass
thermometer is 200oC the platinum thermometer indicates 197oC.

4) In constant volume gas thermometer, the following observations were recorded on a day when the
barometric reading was 760mmHg.
Reading in closed limb Reading in open limb
(mm) (mm)
Bulb in pure ice 126 112
Bulb in steam 126 390
Bulb at room 126 157
temperature
i) State the thermometric property of the thermometer
ii) Calculate temperature as measured by the thermometer

Solutions:
b) ii) From the table ho=112-126=-14mmHg
hθ=157-126=31mmHg
h100=390-126=264mmHg

( )
h θ−ho
θ=
h100 −ho
∗100=
31+14
264+14( )
∗100=16 .18 o C
5) The volume of some air in a constant-pressure thermometer and length of an Iron rod are measured at
0oC and at 100oC and the following results where obtained.
0oC 100oC

Volume of air 28.5 38.9

Length of rod 100.00 100.20

Calculate (i) absolute zero temperature of this air scale

(ii) The length of the Iron rod at this temperature given that lθ=l0(1+θα).
Solutions:
i) At absolute zero, Vθ=0.0m3

θ= (380−28
. 9−28. 5 )
.5
∗100=−274 C o

ii)
l =l o ( 1+αθ )
Using θ
100 .20=100 ( 1+α∗100 )
α = 2.0x10-5 ̊C-1
∴ l−274=100 ( 1−2. 0∗10−5∗274 )
=99. 450 m
 1.0. 5. Test 1
1) Temperature θ of a liquid is determined using a resistance thermometer and a constant-pressure gas
thermometer and the following measurements were obtained.
Ro= 2.00Ω, R100=2.50 Ω, Rθ=2.09 Ω
V0 = 4.00m3, V100=5.50 m3, Vθ=4.25 m3
Determine the value of θ for each thermometer and account for their discrepancy

2) The resistance R of platinum wire at various temperatures on a mercury-in-glass scale is given by

T/oC 0 20 40 60 80 100
R/Ω 10.0 10.26 10.6 11.02 11.48 12.00

Use graphical method to determine;

(i) Temperature as read from platinum wire thermometer corresponding to 65 oC on
mercury-in-glass thermometer
(ii) Temperature as read from mercury-in-glass thermometer corresponding to 45 oC on
platinum wire thermometer.

3) A particular resistance thermometer has a resistance of 30Ω at ice point, 41.58Ω at steam point and
34.59Ω when immersed in a boiling liquid and constant-volume-gas thermometer reads 1.33×10 5pa,
1.62×105pa, 1.528×105pa at the three points stated above respectively. Calculate temperature of the
boiling liquid as measured by each thermometer.

4 (a)(i) Define the terms heat and temperature.

(ii) State four quantities of a good thermometric property.
(b) Describe how you would estimate absolute zero temperature.
(c) Describe how unknown temperature of a liquid can be measured by liquid-in-glass thermometer.
(d) Use kinetic theory of gases to explain the existence of absolute zero temperature.
(e) A copper-constant thermocouple with its cold junction at 0 ̊C had an e.m.f of 4.28mV when the other
end is immersed in pure steam and 9.29mV when the second end is immersed in a liquid at 200 ̊C. Given
that its e.m.f is related to temperature difference θ by the expression Eθ =Aθ+Bθ2 determine the values
of A and B.
5(a)(i) Define the terms Fixed point and Lower fixed point.
(ii) In tabular form state any four kinds of thermometers with their corresponding thermometric
property.
(b)(i) Describe the structure of platinum resistance thermometer.
(ii) Explain why constant –pressure thermometer gives a slow response.

(c) One Junction of a thermocouple is placed in melting ice while the other is inserted into a bath
whose temperature as measured by high temperature mercury- in- glass thermometer is T°C as shown in
the table below.
T//°C 0 101 212 302 425 552 635
e.m.f/mV 0 0.75 1.4 2.33 3.22 4.3 5.14
0 5
By graphical method find;
(i) Temperature as measured from thermocouple thermometer corresponding to 380°C on
mercury-in-glass thermometer.
(ii) Temperature as read from mercury-in-glass thermometer corresponding to 250°C on the
thermocouple thermometer.

6(a)(i) Define a thermometer.

(ii) Describe how unknown temperature of a liquid can be determined by platinum resistance on
thermodynamic scale.
(b)(i) State two advantages and two disadvantages of thermocouples.
(ii) In constant-volume gas thermometer, the following observations were recorded on a day when
barometric reading was 760mmHg.
Reading in closed limb (mm) Reading in the open limb (mm)

Bulb in pure ice 130 123

Bulb in steam 130 165
Bulb at room temp 130 178

State the thermometric property of the thermometer and calculate the temperature value as measured by
the thermometer.

(c) Explain the following in relation to liquid – in –glass thermometer.

(i) Mercury is the best liquid for measuring high temperatures.
 (ii) Alcohol is the best liquid for measuring small temperatures.
(d) Sketch graphs of e.m.fs against temperature for;
(i) Copper – iron thermocouple.
(ii) Iron-constantan thermocouple.

7(a)(i) Define neutral point of a thermocouple.

(ii)Describe how total radiation pyrometer can be used to determine temperature of a very hot body.
(b)(i) State the principle of operation of the thermocouple.
(ii)Temperature of a liquid is determined using a resistance thermometer and constant –pressure gas
thermometer with the following measurements.
Ro = 4.53Ω, R100 = 8.54Ω Rθ = 7.59Ω
Vo = 4.02m3 V100 = 5.85cm3 Vθ = 4.52m3
Calculate the temperature value as measured by each thermometer and explain the discrepancy

8 (a)( i) State the requirements for establishing thermal dynamic scale of temperature.
(ii) Explain why scales of temperature based on different thermometric properties may not agree.
b) (i) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how a constant volume gas thermometer is used to
measure temperature on thermal dynamic scale.
(ii) Give disadvantages and advantages of gas thermometers.
c) If a wire has a resistance of 4Ω at the triple point of water, find its resistance at 80 oC.
d) (i) What are Pyrometers?
(ii) With the aid of a diagram, describe how the optical pyrometer is used to measure temperature
of a hot body.

9 (a) What is meant by the following terms;

i) Absolute zero temperature
ii) Triple point of water
b) i) Describe the steps taken to establish scales of temperature.
ii) State three advantages of thermocouple over an electrical resistance thermometer

c) With a well labeled diagram describe how room temperature can be measured using platinum
wire thermometer.
d) i) State and explain the source of inaccuracies while using mercury-in glass thermometer
10(a) Explain the following observation as applied to gas thermometer
i) Constant-volume gas thermometer is preferred to constant –pressure gas thermometer.
ii) Gas thermometers are used to calibrate other thermometers.
b) (i) Explain why it is possible for two different bodies at different temperatures may have the
amount of heat.
 (ii) Resistance of platinum wire is 6.750RoΩ at room temperature. Calculate the value of room
temperature if temperature coefficient of platinum is 2.07x10-4K-1.
c) Resistance of a metal wire at temperature θ measured on standard scale is given by Rθ=R0
(1+Aθ+Bθ2) where A and B are constants. Given that B = 10-3A, calculate the temperature value on the
resistance thermometer corresponding to 60 ̊C on standard scale.
d) (i) State corrections made on constant-volume gas thermometer before being used to measure
temperature.
(ii) Explain how the corrections mentioned in d(i) above are carried out.

2.0 Calorimetric
2.0.0 Related concepts.
It should be noted that;
 Heat absorbed by a body of mass m at temperature θ is given by
Q =mc𝛉 =C𝛉 where c is the specific heat capacity and C is heat capacity. This implies that;
 Heat capacity “C” is the amount of heat required to raise temperature of any given mass of a
substance by 1K.
 Specific heat capacity “c” is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg mass of
a substance by 1K.
NB: Hydrogen is used as a cooling gas for enclosed electric generators because it has a high s.h.c and is
highly conductive.
 Liquids have a higher s.h.c than solids because liquids are less dense with lower conductivity
than solids.
 Wet foods stay hot longer than dry foods because; water in wet food has a high s.h.c which
enables it to maintain heat in wet foods for a longer time than in dry foods.
 The sea remains colder than land during day and hotter than land during night because;
The high s.h.c of water than that of land enables it to absorb less heat than that absorbed by land during
day. This much heat absorbed by land heats up air above its surface making to rise as it gets replaced by
the cooler air from the sea thus sea breeze
.
At night both land and sea are in a cooling state but since the s.h.c of land is lower than that for water,
land cools faster than sea. This makes air above the sea surface to be heated up by the released heat
absorbed during the day making it to rise as it gets replaced by the cooler air from land thus land breeze.
2.0.1 Methods for determining specific heat capacity.
a) For solids we use;
 Method of mixtures
 Electrical method
b) For non volatile liquids we use;
 Method of mixtures
 Electrical method
 Continuous flow method.
 2.0.1.0 For solids
2.0.1.0.0 Method of mixtures
A known mass ms of solid is heated to a known temperature θ1 and quickly transferred into water of
known mass mw and known specific heat capacity cw contained in a calorimeter of known mass mc and
known specific heat capacity cc at a common temperature θ2. The mixture is stirred gently until a new
common steady temperature of mixture θ3 is obtained. This temperature is read from the thermometer and
recorded.

Assuming no heat loss to the surrounding then;

Heat lost by the solid = Heat absorbed by (water + calorimeter) i.e.
ms c s ( θ1 −θ3 ) =mw c w ( θ3 −θ2 ) +mc c c ( θ 3−θ 2 )
, from which cs can be obtained.
Precautions
 The specimen must be transferred as fast as possible but with care to avoid splashing of water
from calorimeter.
 The calorimeter must be insulated and placed on an insulating stand in a constant temperature
bath.
 The calorimeter must be polished on its inner and outer surface to reduce heat loss by radiation.
 Stirring must be done to ensure uniform distribution of heat.
 2.0.1.0.0.0 Cooling correction.
Cooling correction is the temperature value added to the maximum observed temperature of a mixture
whose temperature is being raised so as to cater for heat loses to the surroundings.
Determination
A rubber bung is placed in water being heated and heating is continued until the boiling point of water is
reached. It is then removed and shaked to remove water drops which clings on it and then quickly
transferred to a calorimeter which contains water at room temperature.
The temperature of the mixture is recorded for every after ½ minute and the following curve is obtained.

( )
A1
x= y
A2
The cooling correction where A1 and A2 are obtained by counting squares under curve in
each region.
NB: Generally average temperature fall (cooling correction)
1 1
e= (Rate of temperature fall)x(Time of heating) i.e. e = ¿RfxTh).
2 2

Example:
75g of a liquid is placed in copper calorimeter of mass 50g at 17.2 ̊C. A heater of negligible thermal
capacity is immersed in a liquid and operated at 1.8A and 6.3V for 4minutes such that temperature is
raised to 25 ̊C. Subsequently temperature falls to 24.7 ̊C after 2minutes since heating was stopped.
Calculate s.h.c of the liquid given that s.h.c of copper is 0.42Jg-1K-1.
Solutions
Cooling correction =
2(
1 25.0−24.7
2 )
x 4 =0.3 ̊C.
Corrected temperature rise = 25.3 -17.2 =8.1K
Heat supplied by the heater = Heat absorbed by (liquid + copper)
6.3x1.8x4x60 =50x0.42x8.1 + 75x8.1xcl
cl = 4.2Jg-1K-1

2.0.1.0.1 Electrical method

When K is closed, current flows through the circuit such that the heater heats the solid of known mass ms
and specific heat capacity cs is required at initial temperature 𝛉0.
After a given time interval t1 seconds (when the thermometer reading is steady), ammeter, voltmeter and
thermometer readings I1, V1 and θ1 respectively are read and recorded.
Assuming that electrical energy supplied is only used to raise the solid’s temperature uniformly then;
…(i) where h is the heat lost to the surrounding.
K is opened, R is set to a new value R2 and K is reclosed .After the same time interval t1 of heating the
solid, the ammeter, voltmeter and thermometer readings I2, V2 and θ2 respectively are read and recorded
I 2 V 2 t 1 =m s c s ( θ 2−θ )0 + h
such that …… (ii)

Combining equations (i) & (ii) yields cs as cs =

( ( V 1 I 1−V 2 I 2) t 1
m3 ( θ1 −θ2 ) ) .

2.0.1.1 For non volatile liquids

2.0.1.1.0 Method of mixtures
Arrangement;
A solid of known heat capacity Cs is heated to a known temperature θ1 and quickly transferred into a
calorimeter of known mass heat capacity Cc containing a liquid of known mass ml whose specicic heat
capacity cl is required at common temperature 𝛉2. The mixture is stirred gently until when a new steady
common temperature θ3 of the mixture is obtained. This temperature θ3 is read from the thermometer and
recorded. If heat losses to the surrounding are negligible we get that; Heat lost by the solid = Heat
absorbed by (liquid+calorimeter) i.e. Cs (𝛉1-𝛉3) = mlcl(𝛉3-𝛉2)+Cc(𝛉3-𝛉2) from which cl is determined.

Disadvantages of the above method

 There is heat loss to the surrounding through convection, radiation and conduction.
 There is likely to be an increase in the mass of water in the calorimeter because some water clings
to the surface of the solid

2.0.1.1.1 Electrical method

R is set to some value and K is closed such that the heater heats a known mass ml of liquid whose specific
heat capacity cl is required in a calorimeter of heat capacity Cc at common initial temperature 𝛉0.
Stirring is done and at steady state values of I1, V1 and 𝛉1 are read from the ammeter, voltmeter and
thermometer respectively and recorded. The time of heating t is also read from the stop clock and
recorded such that I1V1 =mlc1(θ1-θ0)+Cc(θ1-θ0)+h……..(i)
K is opened, R is set to a new value and K is reclosed. After the same time of heating as before, the
ammeter, voltmeter ant thermometer values of I2, V2 and θ2 are read and recorded such that;
I2V2 =mlc2(θ2-θ0)+Cc(θ2-θ0)+h……. (ii)
( V 2 I 2−V 1 I 1 ) t−C c ( θ2 −θ1 )
Combining equations (i) and (ii) yields cl = .
ml ( θ 2−θ1 )
2.0.1.1.2 Continuous flow method

The rate of flow of liquid is adjusted to some value by either lowering or raising P.
The liquid is heated by the coil on closing K and when the two thermometers read steady temperatures θ1
and θ2, the ammeter and voltmeter readings I1 and V1 and the time of heating t are read and recorded. The
mass m1 of the liquid collected is determined by measuring cylinder and recorded such that for uniform
rate of fluid flow,
I1V1t =m1cl(𝛉2-𝛉1) +h …… (i)
K is opened, the rate of flow is increased by raising P and Current in the circuit is adjusted by re-setting
R such that (θ2-θ1) is kept constant to ensure the same heat loss h in the same time interval t. The
ammeter and voltmeter readings I2 andV2 are read and recorded. The mass m2 of the liquid collected is
determined using a measuring cylinder and recorded such that for uniform rate of fluid flow,
I2V2 =m2cl(𝛉2-𝛉1) +h…….(ii)
( I 1 V 1−I 2 V 2 ) t ( I 1 V 1 −I 2 V 2 )
Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously yields cl = or, cl=
( m1−m2 )( θ2−θ1 ) ( m' 1−m' 2 ) ( θ2−θ1 )
m1 m
Where; m ' 1= and m ' 2= 2 .
t t
Precautions
 Readings must be taken at steady state
 Platinum resistance thermometer should be used
 Experiment is repeated to cater for heat loses to the surrounding
 The potential difference across the coil is measured accurately by the potential meter
 The apparatus is evacuated to prevent heat loss by convection
 The rate of flow of the liquid (water) should be constant

Advantages of continuous flow method

 Specific heat capacities of the apparatus need not to be known since readings are read at steady
state.
 The presence of a vacuum around a glass tube minimizes heat losses by convection and
conduction.
 The inlet and outlet temperatures are measured at steady states thus increased accuracy.
 No cooling correction is required since heat losses to the surrounding can be eliminated by
repeating the experiment.
Disadvantages of continuous flow method
 The apparatus is bulky.
 The method can only work with liquids.
 Large quantities of the liquid are needed since liquid flow is continuous.
 It is really very hard to maintain constant temperature difference (𝛉2-𝛉1) at both ends.
NB:
 Steady state conditions are achieved when the thermometer readings stop fluctuating.
 Readings are only taken at steady state conditions because at these states the apparatus does not
extract heat from the circuit.
 The p.d across the heater is accurately measured by potential meter because it is very sensitive to
small voltages.
 Temperature is accurately measured using platinum wire thermometer since its resistance varies
linearly with temperature.

2.0.2 Examples
1) Water from a tap is flowing at a speed of 5ms-1 over a height of 50m into a still pool below it.
Calculate the rise in temperature of water given that s.h.c of water is 4200Jkg -1K-1.
Solutions:
The loss in mechanical energy=Gain in heat energy of water
2
0.5 ( 5 ) + 9.8 x 50
∆θ = ≈ 0.12K.
4200
2) A Silver bullet with a speed of 500ms-1 initially at temperature of 20oC stops suddenly such that
all its kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy. Find its temperature rise (s.h.c of Silver
=234Jkg-1K-1).
Solutions:
The loss in kinetic energy of Silver=Gain in thermal energy of Silver
0.5mv2 = mc∆θ
2
0.5 ( 500 )
∆θ = ≈534K.
234
3) An electrical heater supplies 500J of heat energy to a copper cylinder of mass 32.4g. Find the
increase in temperature of the cylinder (s.h.c of Cu=385Jkg-1K-1) assuming no heat loss to the
surrounding.
Solutions:
Heat supplied by the heater=Heat gained by the cylinder
500 = 32.4x10-3x385x∆θ
 500
∆θ = −3 = 40.08 ̊C
385 x 32.4 x 10
4) A metal block of heat capacity 36.0JoC-1 at 700oC is plugged into an insulated beaker containing
200g of water at 18oC. The block and the water eventually attain the same temperature of θ oC.
Assuming no heat loss to the surrounding or used to heat the beaker, find θ (s.h.c of water
4200Jkg-1K-1)
Solutions:
Heat lost by the block=Heat gained by water
Since 1oC change is equivalent to 1K change
36x (70-θ) = 200x10-3x4200x (θ-25)
From which 𝛉 =20.14 ̊C.

5) A liquid of mass 200g in a calorimeter of heat capacity 500JK-1 is heated such that its temperature
changes from 25oC to 50 oC. Find the specific heat capacity of the liquid if the heat supplied was
14000J
Solutions:
Heat supplied = Heat gained by the liquid +Heat gained by the calorimeter
14000 = 0.2xcx (50-25) + 500x (50-25)
c = 300Jkg-1K-1

6) Use the information given below to calculate the specific heat capacity of the solid by the method
of mixture.
Initial temperature of solid = 80oC, mass of solid = 600g, mass of liquid = 80g, H.C of calorimeter =
500JK-1
Initial temperature of liquid = 25oC, s.h.c of liquid = 2200Jkg-1K-1
Final temperature of the mixture = 35oC.
Solutions:
Heat lost by the solid = Heat gained by the solid + Heat gained by the calorimeter.
600x10-3xcsx (80-35) = (500+2200x80x10-3)(35-25)
cs = 250.4Jkg-1K-1

7) A substance of mass 1.0kg is supplied with 2800J of energy and it’s temperature was raised by 5 oC.
Find its specific heat capacity.
Solutions:
Heat supplied = Heat which raises the temperature of the substance
2800 = 1xcsx5
cs = 560Jkg-1K-1

8) A mass of 1000g is forced through a tube 2m long by a steady force of 500N. Find the rise in its
temperature of the substance when it is fully forced into the tube.
Work is done to raise the temperature of the substance
Force x distance = mcs∆θ
1 x 2800 x ∆ θ
500x2 = , ∆θ ≈ 1.79 ̊C.
5

9) In a continuous flow method, the following results were obtained

Experiment 1 2
P.V/V 6 4.5
Current/A 2 1.5
In let 38 38
 temperature/K
Out let 42 42
temperature/K
Time/s 60 180
Mass collected/g 42.3 70.3

Calculate the specific heat capacity of the liquid and the rate of loss of heat to the surrounding.
Solutions:
42 .3∗10−3
m1 = =7 . 05∗10−4 kgs−1
i) Rate of flow 60
70. 3∗10−3
m2 = =3 . 91∗10−4 kgs−1
Rate of flow 180
I 1 V 1 −I 2 V 2 6∗2−4 .5∗1 .5
cl= = =4179 Jkg−1 K −1
( m1−m2 )( θ2 −θ1 ) ( 7 . 05−3. 91 ) ( 42−38 )∗10−4
I 1 V 1=m1 cl ( θ 2 −θ1 ) + h
ii) From
h=6∗2−7 . 05∗10−4∗4179 ( 42−38 )=0 . 215 J /s
10) Using water which enters at 18 oC and leaves at 22 oC, the rate of flow is 20gmin-1, current in the
heating coil is 2.3A and the p.d across is 3.3V. Now using oil which flows in and out at the same
temperature as water, the rate of flow is 70g/min and the current is 2.7A with p.d of 3.9V. If the s.h.c of
water is 4200Jkg-1K-1, find;
i) The rate of heat loss from the apparatus, briefly explain your method.
ii) The specific heat capacity of the oil.

Solutions:
i) We assume steady state conditions such that the heat supplied is equal to the heat absorbed by the
circulating liquid to upset the heat losses to the surrounding.
For experiment 1,
I 1 V 1=m1 c ( θ 2−θ 1 ) +h
2 .3∗3 . 3=0 . 33∗10−3∗4200∗4 +h
⇒ h=1 . 99W
iii) Since the mean temperature is the same in both cases, then h is the same so that
For experiment 2,
I 2 V 2 =m2 c 1 ( θ2 −θ1 ) +h
( 3 .9∗2 .7−1 . 99 )
c 1= −3
=1830 Jkg−1 K −1
1. 77∗10 ∗4
b) Explain how else you would determine c1 if that of water was not known.
Solutions:
Carrying out two experiments with different rates of flow but in each, current and p.d are set such that the
same steady temperatures are obtained. The two experiments would yield
 ( I 1 V 1−I 2 V 2 ) t
c1 = .
( m1−m2 )( θ2−θ1 )
11) A car of weight 15KN is moving uniformly at 12m/s down a 1 in 6 hill with the engine switched off.
If the break pedals have a mass of 30Kg and specific heat capacity of 0.40KJKg -1K-1, find the rate of
increase in the pedal’s temperature.
Solutions:
The car’s rate of gain in Kinetic energy = m
1
2 ( vt ) v = 1/2xDriving force × v = 1/2xmg×sinθ×v
0.5x15x1000x1/6x12 =15W
Assuming this rate of gain in kinetic energy to be converted into heat absorbed by the pedals as the car
Δθ Δθ
gets on the leveled ground; 147150=30x400 x from which =12.2625Ks-1
Δt Δt

12) Two identical conductors each of heat capacity 12JK-1 cools from 325K. One holds to 8×10-5m3 of
water and takes 150s to cool from 325K to 320K and the other holds an equal volume of unknown liquid
which takes 50s to cool over the same range.
If the density of the liquid is 8.0×102kgm-3, what is the average specific heat capacity of the liquid over
325K to 320K?
Solutions:
Since the containers are identical, the rate of heat loss from each is the same i.e.
Rate of heat lost by container A = Rate of heat lost by container B
θ1 −θ2 θ1 −θ2
⇒ ( mw c w +c ) =( m1 c1 +c )
tw t1
( 8∗10−5∗1000∗4200+12 )∗5 =( 8∗10−5∗800∗c l +12 )∗
5
150 50
∴ c l=1625 JKg−1 K −1

13) Water flows at a steady rate of 6.0gs-1 through a continuous flow calorimeter. When the p.d across
the coil is 11V and current is 5.0A. The difference between the inflow and outflow temperatures is 2.0K.
When the flow changes to 2.0gs-1, current is adjusted to 3.1A so as to produce the same temperature rise.
Find
(i) The p.d across the heating coil, and hence the new input
(ii) The specific heat capacity of the water.
Solutions:

i)
(
V 1 =I 1 R= 3. 1∗
11
5.0 )
V =6 . 82 V
1 1
The new input =I V =3 .1∗6 . 82=21. 1 W
 (t t )
1
( IV −IV i )= m −m cΔθ
5∗11−3. 1∗6. 82=( 6−2 )∗10−3∗c∗2
ii)⇒ c=4238 Jkg−1 K −1
14) 50N on a cord is turned through 200 revolutions over a copper rod of diameter 25.0mm and mass
0.2kg using a motor. Calculate specific heat capacity of the copper rod if its temperature is raised by 10K.
Solutions:
Mechanical energy used = heat generated in the copper rod
Circumference x force x number of revolution made = mc∆θ
50x (πx0.0250x200 =0.2xcx10
c = 390.0Jkg-1K-1.

2.0.3 Test 2
1) When water was passed through a continuous flow flask, a rise in temperature from 16 oC to 20 oC was
recorded. The mass of water flowing was 100g in 1 minute. The P.d across the heating coil is 20V and
current is 1.5A. Another liquid at 16 oC was then passed through the flask and to get the same change in
temperature, the P.d was changed to 13V and the current to 1.2A with 110g of the liquid flowing in 1
minute. Given that the s.h.c of water is 4200Jkg-1K-1, calculate;
i) The rate of heat loss to the surrounding.
ii) The specific heat capacity of the liquid.

2) In a continuous flow method for determining the s.h.c of a liquid of density 800kgm-3, a volume of
3.6×10-3m3 of liquid flows through apparatus for 10 minutes. If energy is supplied to the heating coils at a
rate of 44W, a steady temperature difference of 4K is obtained between the inlet and outlet temperatures.
If the rate of flow is increased to 4.8×10-3m3 in 10 minutes, the electrical power required to maintain the
same temperature difference is 58W. Find
i) The specific heat capacity of the liquid.
ii) The rate of heat loss to the surrounding.

3) In the Nernst calorimeter, the mass of the solid was 0.8kg and the temperature rise was 1.2K when a
current of 3.0A with a P.d of 2.0V flows for 22s. When a current of 2.7A with P.d of 1.8V flows for the
same time, the temperature rise was 0.97K. Find for this temperature rise;
i) The specific heat capacity of the solid.
ii) The power loss.

4) A drill using a current of 2.0A when connected to 240V mains supply makes a hole in a piece of Iron
of mass 0.80kg. Find the temperature rise in 20s assuming 60% of electrical energy is converted into
Iron’s internal energy (heat) (specific heat capacity of Iron is 460Jkg-1K-1)

5 (a) In continuous flow experiment explain how you would achieve the following.
(i) Steady state conditions.
(ii) Accurately Measure temperature difference between in flow and out flow liquid
(iii) Accurately measure P.d across and current through the coil.
(b) Explain why in continuous flow experiment, readings are only recorded when conditions are
steady
(d) (i) Define cooling correction.
(ii) State the precautions taken when performing continuous flow experiment.
(e) Explain how cooling correction may be estimated in the determination of heat capacity of a poor
conductor of heat by method of mixtures.

6 (a) (i) Define specific heat capacity of a substance.

(ii) State how heat losses are minimized in the colorimeter.
(b) Describe how you would determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid by the continuous flow
method.
c) Give two advantages and two disadvantages of continuous flow method.

(d) In a continuous flow method for measuring specific heat capacity of a liquid, 3.6 x 10 -3m3 of a liquid
flows through the apparatus in 10 minutes, when the electrical energy is supplied to the heating coil at the
rate of 44w a stead difference of 4k is obtained between the temperature of the out flowing and inflowing
liquid. When the flow rate is increased to 4.8 x 10 -3m3 of the liquid in 10 minutes, the electrical power
required to maintain the temperature difference is 58w. Find the;
i) Specific hat capacity of the liquid.
ii) Rate of heat loss to the surrounding.
[-Density of liquid = 800kgm-3]

7 (a) Describe an experiment to determine s.h.c of a solid by electrical method (b)

-1
A metal container of heat capacity 200JK holds 0.15kg of liquid. An immersion heater rated at 3.0A and
12V was placed into the container for some time.
Temp/ ̊C 15.0 20.0 24.7 29.3 33.9 32.8 31.7 30.6
Time/min 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

Plot a suitable graph to determine the cooling correction, hence find the s.h.c of the liquid.
8) (a) 7g of a liquid is placed in a copper calorimeter of mass 50g at 16.8 ̊C. An immersion heater of
negligible heat capacity rated 1.8A and 7.0V was used to heat the liquid for 4minutes such that its
temperature rises by 11.9 ̊C. Subsequently temperature dropped to26.1 ̊C during the next two minutes
from when heating end. Calculate s.h.c of copper in Jg-1K-1 given that that of the liquid is 4.2Jg-1K-1.

(b) A copper calorimeter of mass 50g and s.h.c 400Jkg-1K-1 contains a liquid of mass 100g at 19.3 ̊C .
Temperature of the mixture is raised to 28.7 ̊C by an immersion heater rated 1.5A and 11.5V with
negligible thermal heat capacity for 5.4minutes. Subsequently temperature falls to 27.9 ̊C after 2.5minute
since when heating was stopped. Caliculate;
(i) Cooling correction.
(ii) Corrected maximum temperature
(iii) Corrected temperature rise
(iv) Specific heat capacity of the liquid
(v) Heat lost during heating
(vi) Rate of heat loss during heating the mixture
Ans (0.864 ̊C, 29.564 ̊C, 10.264 ̊C, 470.7J and 5245Jkg-1K-1, 1.45Js-1)

9(a) A copper block of mass 250g with s.h.c of 410Jkg-1K-1 is heated to 145 ̊C and then dropped into a
copper calorimeter of mass 300g which contains 250m3 of pure water at 20 ̊C. Calculate the new
equilibrium temperature of the liquid and sketch a graph to show variation of temperature with time
for;
(i) Copper block
(ii) Water
(iii) Both copper block and water on the axes.
(b) A copper calorimeter of mass 50g and s.h.c 400Jkg-1K-1 contains a liquid of mass 100g at 19.3 ̊C .
Temperature of the mixture is raised to 28.7 ̊C by an immersion heater rated 1.5A and 11.5V with
negligible thermal heat capacity for 5.4minutes. Subsequently temperature falls to 27.9 ̊C after 2.5minute
since when heating was stopped. Taking the rate of heat loss during heating process to be 1.45Js -1,
calculate;
(i) Cooling correction
(ii) Corrected maximum temperature
(iii) Corrected temperature rise
(iv) Heat lost during heating
(v) Specific heat capacity of the liquid
Ans (0.864 ̊C, 29.564 ̊C, 10.264 ̊C, 470.7J and 5245Jkg-1K-1)

10) a) The same amount of heat used to raise temperature of120g of water from 25 ̊C to 60 ̊C is used
to heat a metal rod of 1.7kg and s.h.c 300Jkg-1K-1 at 20 ̊C. Find the temperature to which the solid is
raised.
b) Hot water at 90 ̊C and cold water at 10.6 ̊C are into a tank of capacity 1.5m3 at rates of
0.0065m3perminute and V respectively. When the tank is full, temperature of water was 41.7 ̊C.
Determine the duration of filling the tank if the tank has a negligible thermal heat capacity.
c) In a continuous flow experiment the first readings were; 6.0V, 2.1A, θ 1=17.0 ̊C, θ2=22.0 ̊C 35g per
minute followed by 4.0V, 1.4A, θ1=17.0 ̊C, θ2=22.0 ̊C, and 15gper minute. Calculate s.h.c of the liquid and
the rate of heat loss to the external environment.
11) (a) 21.0g of a liquid at 60.0 ̊C is mixed with 100g 0f water contained in a metal calorimeter of mass
70.0g and s.h.c of 400Jkg-1K-1 at 12.5 ̊C. calculate the equilibrium temperature of the mixture given that;
s.h.c of water is 4200Jkg-1K-1 and that of the liquid is 4000Jkg-1K-1.

b) 90g of a liquid were placed in a 40g copper calorimeter of s.h.c 400Jkg-1K-1 and heated for one
minute and 40s using 14V and 3.0A. Temperature rose from 10.0 ̊C to 30.1 ̊C and subsequently fell to
28.8 ̊ C during the next 50s from when heating was stopped. Calculate s.h.c of the liquid if thermal
capacity of the heater is negligible.

12) (a) A metal block of heat capacity 360JK-1 at 70 ̊C is dropped into an insulated copper calorimeter of
s.h.c 400Jkg-1K-1 and mass of 500g containing 200g of water of s.h.c 4200Jkg-1K-1 at a common
temperature of 18.0 ̊C. Calculate the final temperature of the mixture and mention any assumption
made.
(b) A solid of mass 600g at 80.0 ̊C and s.h.c of 250.4Jkg-1K-1 is dropped into a liquid of 80.0g in a
calorimeter of heat capacity 500JK-1 such that temperature of the liquid is raised from 25.0 ̊C to 56.5 ̊C.
Calculate the s.h.c of the liquid.
c) An electrical heater rated 6.0V and 3.50A is used raise temperature of an insulated copper block
of s.h.c of 400Jkg-1K-1 from 20.0 ̊C to 41.9 ̊C for 2.0minutes. Calculate mass of copper used.
(d) How long would it take a heater rated 100W to raise temperature of a liquid of heat capacity
1800JK-1 by 11.5 ̊C contained in a copper calorimeter of mass 800g and s.h.c 400Jkg-1K-1 by such a heater.
State major assumptions made.
2.0.4Latent heat
2.0.4.0Related concepts
(i) Latent Heat is the amount of heat absorbed or given out by a substance at constant temperature and is
usually used to change the physical state of that substance. For example;
 Liquid to steam by process of vaporization like boiling water at 100oC.
 Solid to liquid by process of liquefaction/melting like melting ice at 0 ̊C.
 Liquid to solid by process of solidification/freezing like liquid cooling at its freezing point.
 Solid to vapor by a process of sublimation like camphor, ammonium chloride and Naphthalene which
produce a sent which rapidly spreads throughout the room.
(ii) Specific latent heat is the amount of heat required to change a physical state of 1kg mass of a
substance at constant temperature.
(iii) Latent heat of fusion(Qf) is the amount of heat required to change any mass of a solid at its melting
point into a liquid at the same temperature or a any mass of liquid to solid at constant temperature.
(iv) Specific latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the amount of heat required to change a 1kg mass of a solid at
its melting point into a liquid at the same temperature or a liquid to solid at constant temperature i.e. Q f
=mLf.
(v) Latent heat of vaporization (QV) is the amount of heat required to change any mass of liquid at its
boiling point to vapor at the same temperature or any mass of vapor to liquid at constant temperature i.e.
Qv =mLv .

(vi) Specific latent heat of vaporization (Lv) is the amount of heat required to change a 1kg mass of
liquid at its boiling point to vapor at the same temperature or vapor to liquid at constant temperature.

2.0.4.1Change in the physical state of matter

The processes involving a change in the physical state of matter are summarized using the following
block diagram i.e.
6
1 3
Solid state Liquid state Gaseous state
2 4
Summary;
(a) Exothermic processes 5
1: Melting/liquefaction
3: Boiling/vaporization
5: Sublimation
(b) Endothermic processes
2: Freezing/solidification
4 and 6: Condensation

2.0.4.2 Kinetic theory explanation for latent heat of vaporization and latent heat of fusion
In solids, molecules are in constant vibrations about their mean positions yet in liquids molecules are
relatively free to move.
Energy is therefore required to weaken the mutual attractions of solid molecules to let them free to move
as the case in liquids. This absorbed energy is called latent heat of fusion of solid to liquid.
In vapors, molecules are completely free from mutual attractions of their neighbours thus occupying a
lager volume to that a liquid occupies.
Energy is required to completely break the mutual attractions of the liquid molecules and to enable its
expansion against atmospheric pressure. This absorbed energy is called latent heat of vaporization of
liquid to vapor.
NB:
Latent heat of vaporization is greater than latent heat of fusion of the same substance because for
vaporization to occur bonds of that substance must be completely broken yet for fusion to occur bonds are
just weakened.
2.0.4.3 Determining specific latent heat of fusion
2.0.4.3.0 By method of mixtures

A known mass mw of water of known specific heat capacity cw, is heated up to a temperature θ1 and put
into a polished calorimeter of known heat capacity Cc as shown above.
A known mass of pure ice mi is dropped into the calorimeter and the mixture is stirred until equilibrium
temperature θ2 of the mixture is attained. This temperature θ2 is read from the thermometer and recorded.
Neglecting heat losses to the surrounding implies that;
( Heat lost by calorimeter∧water ∈¿ ) =( Heat which melts ice ) + ( Heat which raises its temperaturefrom 0 ̊ C ¿ θ 2 )
( mw c w + Cc )( θ1 −θ2 )=mi Lf +mi c w θ 2
2.0.4.3.0 .0 Main sources of errors in this experiment.
 Ice may be wet but this is minimized by pressing ice between bloating paper to dry it first.
 Condensation of dew on the outside surfaces of the calorimeter may lead to evolution of Latent
heat from the calorimeter.
2.0.4.3.1 Electrical method

Dry pure ice is put into the funnel such that it submerges the heater.
With R set, K is closed and the stop clock is started.
A beaker of known mass is used to collect the melting ice and after a given time interval t, values of I, V
are read and recorded.
K is opened and the mass of melted ice mi is determined by a beam balance.
Assuming no heat losses to the surrounding,
IVt=m L i f
N.B: If heat loss to the surrounding (h) is not neglected, then;
IVt=m i Lf +h ……… (i)
The experiment is repeated with new dry ice and R set to a new value R 1 within the same time interval t
of heating.
I 1 V 1 t=m 1i L f + h ………(ii)
( IV −I 1 V 1) t
Combining equation (i) and (ii) yields Lf = .
( m1−m11 )
2.0.4.4Determining latent heat of vaporization
2.0.4.4.0 By method of mixtures

A known mass mw of water and known specific heat capacity cw is put into a calorimeter of known mass
mc and known specific heat capacity cw at common temperature 𝛉1.
Steam from boiling water is passed into the mixture and T eliminates any water carried along with steam
such that it does not enter the calorimeter.
The mass ms of steam passed through is determined by weighing the calorimeter again so that ms= new
mass-(mw +mc).
At steady state the reading of the thermometer 𝛉2 is read and recorded. Assuming no heat losses to the
surrounding,
Heat lost by steam = heat absorbed by (water+ calorimeter) i.e.
msLv+mscw(100-θ2) = mccc(θ2-θ1)+mwcw(θ2-θ1)

2.0.4.4.1 Electrical method.

The specimen liquid at its boiling point vaporizes when K is closed.

Vapor passes through holes H down-tube T and is condensed by the water jacket (condenser).
At steady state i.e. (when the liquid is boiling at steady temperature) the liquid emerging from T is
collected in a beaker of known mass for a measured time t.
The mass ms of condensed steam is determined by weighing the collecting dish on abeam balance such
that ms = mass of (condensed steam+dish) –mass of the empty dish.
The readings I1, V1 of the ammeter and voltmeter are read and recorded such that
I 1 V 1 t=ms Lv +h …………… (i) Where h is heat lost to the surroundings in time t.
The experiment is repeated with R set to a new value R1 and heating done in the same time interval so that
1
at steady state, I 2 V 2 t=m s Lv +h ……………… (ii)
( I 1 V 1−I 2 V 2 ) t
Combining equations (i) and (ii) yields Lv = .
(ms−m1s )

2.0.4.5 Examples
1) Water in a vacuum flask is boiled steadily by a coil of wire immersed in it. When the p.d across the
coil is 5.25V and the current through it is 2.58A, 6.85g of water evaporates in 20 minutes. When the p.d
and current are maintained at 3.20V and 1.57A respectively, 2.38g of water evaporates in 20 minutes
other conditions being the same. Find Latent heat of vaporization of water and the rate of heat loss.
Solutions:
( I 1 V 1−I 2 V 2 ) t ( 5.25 x 2.58−3.2 x 1.57 ) x 20 x 60
From Lv = = =2.29x106Jkg-1
m1−m2 ( 6.85−2.38 ) x 10−3
−3 6
6.85 x 10 x 2.29 x 10
h= I 1 V 1−m' 1 Lv =5.25x2.58- =0.4729W.
20 x 60
2) An alluminium pail of mass 1.5kg contains 1kg of water and 2kg of ice at 0oC. If 3kg of water at 70 oC
is poured into this pail, calculate the final temperature of the pail plus water (s.h.c of Aluminium=910Jkg -
1 -1
K , s.h.c. of water=4200Jkg-1K-1 and Lf of ice=33600Jkg-1).
Solutions:
Heat lost by water at 70 oC = Heat gained by 1.5kg of water + Heat gained by calorimeter + Heat which
melts ice + Heat which raises the temperature of the ice to θf.
3∗4200∗( 70−θ f ) =( 1 .5∗910+1∗4200 ) ( θ f −0 ) + ( 2∗3. 36∗105 +2∗4200 ) ( θ f −0 )
⇒θ f =7 . 9o C

3) A stream of electrons each of mass 9.0×10-31kg and velocity 2.0×107m/s strikes 5×10-4kg of silver
initially at 20 oC mounted in a vacuum. Assuming 106 electrons strike the silver per second and that
energy is converted into heat which is retained by the silver, calculate the time taken for the silver to melt
(s.h.c. of silver between 20 oC and 960 oC is 2.35×102Jkg-1K-1, melting point of silver=960oC and specific
latent heat of fusion of silver=1.09×104 Jkg-1).
Solutions:
Heat lost by hitting electrons =
( Heat which raises silve r ' s temp ¿ 20 ̊ C ¿ 960 ̊ C ) + ( Heat which melts silver at 960 ̊ C )
Kinetic energy of electrons in a unit time, (k.e)’= 0.5x9.0x10-31x (2.0x107)2x106 =1.8Js-1
Therefore, k.e = (k.e)’ × time 1.8tJ
Heat required to melt ice =5x10-4x2.33x102x (960-20) + (5x10-4x1.09x104) =115.9J
Then for the steady state, 1.8t=115.9 ⇒ t=64 . 4 s

4) Calculate the external work done and internal energy gained when 200g of water at 100 ̊C with density
1.43kgm-3 at standard atmospheric pressure of 1.01x105pa is converted to steam given that Lv
=2.26X106Jkg-1.
Solutions:
Pm 1.01 x 105 x 200 x 10−3
Work done = Pressure x Volume = = ≈14,125.87J.
ρ 1.43
Internal energy = mLv = 200x10-3x2.26x106 =452,000J.

5) An electric heater rated 500W is immersed in 4kg of water at 27 ̊C contained in a copper vessel of s.h.c
of 400Jkg-1K-1 and mass 0.584kg with negligible heat losses to surroundings. Taking Lv = 2.26x106Jkg-1
determine;
(i) How long it takes to heat water to 100 ̊C.
(ii) How long it takes to boil off the whole water.
(iii) How much it costs to achieve (i) and (ii) if 1kW costs 7.0/=.
Solutions:
(i) Electrical energy = Heat which raises temperature of (water+ calorimeter) from 27 ̊C to 100
̊C.
500t1 = 400x0.584x (100-27) + 4x4200x (100-27)
 t1= 0.69hrs.
(ii) Electrical energy = Heat which vaporizes the liquid.
500t2 = 4x2.26x106
t2 = 5.02hrs.
(iii) Total time 5.71hrs.
Total power = 500x5.71 =2.855kWhr.
1kWhr costs 7.0/=
2.855kWhr costs 2.855x7 = 19.985/=.

2.0.4.6 Test 3
1) Ice at 0oC is added to 200g of water at 70 oC in a vacuum flask. When 50g of ice has been added and
has all melted, temperature of the flask and its contents is 40 oC. When a further 80g of ice has been added
and melted, temperatures further reduces to 10 oC. Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice and heat
capacity of the flask neglecting heat loses to the surroundings.

2) In an experiment to determine the latent heat of vaporization, the following data was obtained.
Ammeter reading/A 1.00 2.00 2.3 2.63
0
Voltmeter reading/V 5.0 5.4 7.0 8.0
Mass of liquid vaporized in 100s/g 0.8 3.6 6.0 8.4
Plot a suitable graph and use it to determine latent heat of vaporization and the rate of heat loss to the
surrounding (Hint: IV =m’1Lv +h).

3) A copper calorimeter of mass 0.4kg contains 0.2kg of water at 25 oC. Crushed ice at 0 oC is introduced
into the calorimeter as the mixture is continuously stirred. When all the ice has melted, the temperature of
the calorimeter and its contents is found to be 20 oC. Find the mass of ice added and state the assumptions
made (specific heat capacity of Cu=400Jkg-1K-1, specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.4×105Jkg-1).

4) (a) Explain the following observations;

(i) A volatile liquid like mentholated spirit or ether cause a more noticeable coldness if poured on a
human body than a less volatile liquid like water.
(ii) Latent heat of vaporization is greater than latent heat of fusion of the same substance.
(iii) A scar is more dangerous than a burn.
(iv) Water is preferred to any other liquid to be used in cooling systems of vehicles i.e. car radiators.
(b) Use kinetic theory to account for the occurrence of latent heat of fusion and latent heat of
vaporization

5) (a) If melting point of lead is 327 ̊C, with s.h.c of 140Jkg-1K-1 and specific latent heat of fusion
2.7x105Jkg-1. Determine the amount of heat required to melt 200g of lead initially at;
(i) 27 ̊C
(ii) 327 ̊C
(b) A calorimeter of mass 35.0g and s.h.c 840Jkg-1K-1 contains 143.0g of water at 7.0 ̊C. Dry steam at 100
̊C is bubbled through water in the calorimeter until when temperature rises to 29 ̊C. If mass of steam
condensed is 5.8g, determine specific latent heat of fusion of steam.
c) The cooling system of a refrigerator extracts 0.7kW of heat. How long will it take to convert 500g of
water at 20 ̊C to solid ice at 0 ̊C given that s.h.c of water is 4200Jkg-1K-1 and latent heat of fusion of ice is
3.46x104J?

6) (a) A copper container of heat capacity 60JK-1 contains 0.05kg of pure water at 23.0 ̊C. Dry pure
steam is passed through into the container and rises to 61.8 ̊C. Calculate the mass of stead condensed
given that Lv of steam is 2.26x106Jkg-1 neglecting heat losses to the surroundings.
(b) A copper can of mass 0.25kg and s.h.c of 390Jkg-1K-1 contains 20.0g of water at 11.6 ̊C. The can with
its contents is placed in a refrigerator. Calculate the quantity of heat the refrigerator extracts to reduce the
temperature of the can to -2.1 ̊C given that specific latent heat capacity of fusion of ice is 3.6x10 5Jkg-1 and
s.h.c of ice is 2150Jkg-1K-1.
c) Describe a simple experiment to determine latent heat of fusion of ice by electrical method.

7) (a) With aid of a labeled diagram, describe how you would determine latent heat of vaporization of
pure water electrically.
(b) 1.0kg of pure steam is converted to vapor at standard atmospheric pressure and temperature
(s.t.p). Determine;
(i) External work done by steam.
(ii) Internal gained by steam
c) A piece of ice of mass 0.0006kg at 272K is dropped into a vacuum flask containing 8.0x10-4m3 of
nitrogen of density 1.25kgm-3 which melts at 77K. Determine s.h.c of ice between 272K and 77K given
that Lv of nitrogen is 2.13x105Jkg-1.

8) In an experiment to determine specific latent heat of vaporization of alcohol using a self-jacketing

vaporizer the following results were obtained.
Experiment 1
V1=7.00V, I1=2.60A, m1 =5.80g collected in300s.
Experiment 2
V2 = 10.0V, I2 =3.60A, m2 =11.90g collected in 300s.
Calculate;
(i) Specific latent heat of vaporization
(ii) Average rate of heat loss
(iii) Rate at which the heater should be rated such that the rate of evaporation is 1,5gmin -1.
 3.0 Boiling, Melting, Evaporation and Cooling
3.0.0 Boiling/vaporization:
This is defined as the process by which a liquid turns to vapor at constant temperature (boiling
point) i.e.
Boiling point is the constant temperature of a liquid at which its saturated vapor pressure is equal to
external atmospheric pressure.
Steam point is the constant temperature at which (pure water ↔vapor) at 760mmHg.
It is 100 ̊C.
NB:
It should be noted that boiling of any liquid occurs only when its saturated vapor pressure equalizes with
external pressure implying that when a liquid is boiling, there is change of state thus occurring constant
temperature called boiling point.
Experiment to show that boiling occurs at constant temperature (s.v.p = external pressure).

Saturated vapor

Stirrer

Thermometer

Water

Water

Heating source

Water is trapped in a closed end of J-shaped tube and the tube is placed in a beaker containing water
being heated from the base as it is stirred to ensure uniform distribution of heat throughout the liquid.
When water in the beaker starts boiling, its vapor escapes and exerts pressure on water in the open limb of
the J- shaped tube.
At this point the thermometer reading remains constant and water in the J- shaped tube levels up
indicating that saturated vapor pressure is equal to external pressure.
3.0.0.0 Determining boiling point of a liquid whose Boiling point is less than 100oC e.g. Alcohol
The liquid whose boiling point is to be determined is trapped my mercury in the closed end of a U-tube.
The tube is placed in a large beaker of water together with a thermometer.
Water is slowly heated as continuous stirring is done to ensure uniform distribution of heat.
As temperature rises, the liquid vaporizes and exerts pressure on mercury in the open limb until when
mercury in both limbs levels up i.e. (Vapor pressure = Atmospheric pressure).
The reading of the thermometer is taken to be the boiling point of the liquid.

3.0.0.1 Cooking at a higher altitude

Since boiling only occurs when vapor pressure is equal to the external atmospheric pressure, and that
boiling point decreases with decrease in atmospheric pressure, yet atmospheric pressure reduces with
altitude, then cooking is slower on a higher altitude than on a leveled ground though occurs faster.

3.0.0.2 Pressure cooker

Cooking with a pressure cooker is faster than ordinary cooking because most of its top surface is covered
leaving just a small opening to let out vapor.
This covering reduces the space of escape for vapor molecules which increase the pressure inside due to
random collisions of vapor molecules thus raising the boiling point to about 120 oC, hence faster cooking
due to much heat.
NB:
 Water can be made to boil at temperature less than 100 ̊C by boiling it at higher altitude or boiling
it when it is free of impurities.
 Addition of impurities raise the boiling point of a liquid since impurities absorb some of the
supplied heat making the liquid to boil at a higher temperature than its normal boiling point thus
faster cooking.

3.0.1 Melting
This is defined as the process by which a solid turns to liquid at constant temperature called melting
point i.e.
Melting point is constant temperature at which a solid substance liquidizes at constant atmospheric
pressure.
 Freezing point is constant temperature at which a molten substance solidifies constant atmospheric
pressure.
Ice point is a constant temperature at which (pure solid ice ↔ pure liquid ice) at 760mmHg.
It is 0 ̊C.

3.0.1.0 Determining melting and freezing points of naphthalene

Thermometer

Naphthalene

Heating source

A test tube containing solid naphthalene with a thermometer is held vertically using a retort stand.
It is heated gently until when naphthalene has just completely melted
At this instant, the reading of the thermometer is recorded as the melting point of naphthalene.
For determining the its freezing point, heating is continued until when temperature of melted naphthalene
is relatively high i.e. about 110 ̊C
Heating is stopped and readings of thermometer are read and recorded after every one minute until when
temperature is relatively low i.e. about 10 ̊C.

Freezing point is the temperature value read from the graph corresponding to its flat portion.

NB:
  Skaters glide/slide easily over ice because the work done against friction is transferred into
internal energy which makes ice to melt forming a thin film of water between the blades of the
skate and ice which eases the gliding.
 A weighed wire passes through a block of ice with out cutting it into two pieces because
increased pressure due to weights on the wire lower the melting point of ice as water no longer
under pressure refreezes as it gives out latent heat.
 Impurities like salt lower the melting point of a solid e.g. freezing point of pure ice is 0 ̊C but that
for impure ice is less than 0 ̊C.

3.0.2 Evaporation
This is defined as the process by which a liquid turns to vapor molecules leave the liquid surface. It takes
place at all temperatures but it is greatest when the liquid is at its boiling point.
The rate of evaporation of a liquid is increased by;
 Increasing the surface area of the liquid e.g. same amount of water put in a basin and cup
exposed to the same drought, one in a basin reduces faster than that in a cup.
 Increasing the temperature of the liquid since increase in temperature directly increases the
average kinetic energy of the molecules escaping.
 Providing drought which removes the vapor molecules from the liquid surface before
returning to it e.g. water exposed to direct sunshine evaporates faster than that under a shade.
 Reducing the pressure of the air above the liquid surface (atmospheric pressure) e.g.
evaporation is faster on a mountain than on a leveled ground.

3.0.2.0 Comparison of boiling and evaporation

Evaporation. Boiling.
Increases with increase in heat. Independent of heat supplied.
Occurs on the surface of the liquid. Occurs throughout the liquid.
It doe not necessary need saturated vapor pressure Occurs when saturated vapor pressure is equal to
to be equal to atmospheric pressure. atmospheric pressure.
It is invisible. It involves formation of visible bubbles
Occurs at all temperatures Occurs at constant standard temperature.
Can be accelerated by providing drought to remove Drought does not affect boiling point o f a liquid.
vapor molecules from the neighbor hood.

3.0.3 Cooling
This is defined as the continuous fall of temperature of a body placed in drought until when it attains an
equilibrium state.
3.0.3.0 Kinetic theory of cooling by evaporation
Liquid molecules have their average kinetic energy directly proportional to their mean temperature.
Surface molecules are always moving faster than at their average speed thus capable of escaping the
mutual attractions of their neighbors to leave the liquid surface.
Such molecules collide with other molecules just above the liquid surface such that the more energetic
molecules escape and the less energetic molecules are bounced into the liquid.
The bounced molecules reduce the average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules leading to a
decrease in their temperature thus cooling.
3.0.3.1 Factors affecting the body’s rate of cooling
 Temperature of the body’s surface e.g. a body at higher temperature cools faster than an identical
body at low temperature placed in the same environment.
  Temperature of the surrounding environment e.g. a body cools faster when placed in an
environment of relatively low temperature compared to when is placed in an environment of
relatively high temperature.
 The nature of the cooling body e.g. a good conductor of heat loose heat faster than a bad
conductor of heat.
 Humidity of environment i.e. humidity is defined as the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere.
The body’s rate of cooling increases as humidity increase since much humidity corresponds to
low temperature.
 The size of the body’s enclosure e.g. a body cools faster when placed in a wider enclosure than
when placed in a smaller enclosure due to difference in the ratios of volume to surface area.
 The nature of the body’s enclosure e.g. a body cools faster when placed in an enclosure with
openings than when placed in a closed enclosure.
 Size of the body e.g. smaller bodies cool faster than larger ones due to larger volume to surface
area i.e. the larger the volume-surface area of a particular body, the faster is rate of cooling since
dQ Δθ
the rate of temperature fall is inversely proportional to the body’s volume i.e. from =mc ,
dt ∆t
dQ
Δθ 1
we get that Δ θ dt  𝛂 .
= Δt V
Δ t Vcρ

3.0.3.2 Newton’s law of cooling

The law states that the rate of heat loss (temperature fall) of an object is directly proportional to the
dQ dθ
magnitude of the excess temperature of the surrounding i.e. =k(𝛉s-𝛉o) or =β(𝛉s-𝛉o).
dt dt
 Verification.
A calorimeter initially with water at relatively high temperature θ> 85 oC is put in an air drought and its
temperature is measured with a thermometer and recorded for every after 1 minute.
A cooling curve is obtained as shown below

d θ0
The slopes of the cooling curve are plotted as a function of the magnitude of excess temperature (θs-
dt
θ0) and a straight line through the origin is obtained as shown below.
/ ̊Cs-1

0 (θs-θ0)/ ̊C

The linear graph obtained above verifies the law stated above where; 𝛉s is temperature of the surrounding
and 𝛉0 is the temperature on the cooling curve at which the slope is calculated.
 NB:
Using Newton’s of cooling it can be shown that the rate of fall of body’s temperature is directly
proportional to the excess temperature (θs-θt) where; 𝛉s is temperature of the surrounding and 𝛉t is
temperature of the body at time t.
Solutions:
dQ
By Newton’s law of cooling =k(𝛉s-𝛉t)……..(i)
dt
The quantity of heat Q = mc∆𝛉 ……….(ii) where m is the body’s mass and c is the body’s specific heat
capacity.
dQ dθ
Deffericianting equation (ii) with respect to temperature yields =mc …..(iii).
dt dt
dθ
Comparing equations (i) and (ii) implies that k (𝛉s-𝛉t) = mc …..(iv)
dt
dθ k
Equation (iv) clearly shows that =β(𝛉s-𝛉t) where β = .
dt mc

3.0.3.3 (Cooling and Heating) curves

3.0.3.3.0 Heating ice which is at less than 0 ̊C

Temp/ ̊C

100 ̊C D E

0 B C
Time/s

A
Between:
 A to B, heat supplied is used to raise temperature of ice below 0 ̊C to 0 ̊C.
 B to C, heat supplied is used to weaken the bonds of ice at 0 ̊C to water at 0 ̊C by a
process of melting.
 C to D, heat supplied is used to raise temperature of water at 0 ̊C to 100 ̊C.
 D to E, heat supplied is used to completely break the bonds of water at 100 ̊C to form
vapor at 100 ̊C by process of vaporization.

3.0.3.3.1 Cooling steam below 0 ̊C

Temp/ ̊C

A B
100 ̊C

0 C D
Time/s

E
 Between;
 A to B, heat is lost as steam turns to liquid at 100 ̊C a process called condensation.
 B to C, heat is released so as to cool water at 100 ̊C to water at 0 ̊C.
 C to D, heat is released so as to turn water at 0 ̊C to solid ice at 0 ̊C by a process called
solidification.
 D to E, heat is released below the freezing point of ice thus supper cooling of the liquid i.e.
Supper cooling is the fall of temperature of a substance below its freezing point with out change
of state.

3.0.3.3.2 Related explanations

Metallic utensils being good conductors of heat, they absorb heat (from food) which would be carried
away by the volatile liquid to the cooling fins thus delaying the refrigerating process. Such utensils are
not recommended to be used in refrigerators.

Milk in a bottle wrapped in a wet cloth cools faster than that placed in a bucket exposed to a drought. This
is because the wet cloth speeds up the rate of evaporation thus more cooling.

It advisable for a heavily perspiring person to stand in a shade other than drought because drought speeds
up evaporation thus faster cooling which may lead to over cooling of the body and eventually this over
cooling may lower the body’s resistance to infections.

When taking a bath using cold water, the individual feels colder on a very shiny day than on a rainy day
because on a shiny day, the body is at high temperatures such that on pouring cold water on the body,
water absorbs some of the body’s heat thus its cooling. Yet on a rainy day the body is at a relatively low
temperature implying that less heat is absorbed from it when cold water is poured on it.

Two individuals; A (suffering from serious malaria) and B (normal) taking a bath of cold water at the
same time of the day, A feels colder than B because the sick person’s body is at relatively higher
temperature than of a normal person. When cold water is poured on the sick person’s body, much heat is
absorbed from it compared to that absorbed from a normal person thus more coldness.

Two normal identical individuals; A (takes a bath of water at 35 ̊C) and B (takes a bath of water at 25 ̊C)
after the bath, A experience more coldness than B. This is because Water at 35 ̊C raises the body’s
temperature more than that at 25 ̊C. This means that after the bath, the individual who takes a bath of
water at 35 ̊C looses more heat to the surrounding than what one who takes a bath of water at 25 ̊C would
loose to it.

Water bottles are made of plastic other than glass and not fully filled because when water cools, it
expands such that ice takes up a bigger volume. The un filled space is to cater for increase in volume on
solidification and the bottle is made plastic to with stand breaking due to increase in volume.
Example
A calorimeter of heat capacity 500JK-1 is filled with 2kg of a liquid and the cooling curve of the liquid is
obtained. The rate of temperature fall just before solidification starts is 9.0Ks -1 and complete solidification
takes 4.2minutes.
i) Sketch and explain the cooling curve obtained.
ii) If specific heat capacity of the liquid is 495Jkg-1K-1 find the specific latent heat of fusion for the
liquid.
Solutions:

Explanations:
 The cooling of liquid along AB is due to heat loss to the surroundings.
 Temperature along BC remains constant because the would be heat lost to the surrounding is
compensated for by the latent heat of fusion released during conversion of liquid state to solid
state.
 The fall of temperature along CD is due to the cooling of the solid as it looses heat to the
surroundings.
(ii) In region BC
( The amount of heat lost by the calorimeter +that lost the liquid=The amount of heat that solidifies the liquid )
Note that the rate of temperature fall ( )
Δθ
Δt B
is constant throughout BC
 C ( ΔΔθt ) ∆ t+m c ( ΔΔθt ) ∆ t = m L
l l l f

500x9x4.2x60 +2x495x9x4.2x60 =2Lf from which Lf = 1689660Jkg-1.

3.0.4 Test 4
1) (a) (i) Explain why water bottles are plastic and not fully filled.
(ii) Explain why temperature of a liquid remains constant when it is boiling.
(iii) Use kinetic theory to explain why a liquid cools when it evaporates.
(b) (i) Explain why cooking with a pressure cooker is faster than ordinary cooking.
(ii) Explain what may happen when a person is to cook food from a very high altitude.
c) (i) Define boiling point and freezing point.
(ii) Describe an experiment to show that boiling only occurs when saturated vapor pressure is
equal to external pressure.
(d) A calorimeter of heat capacity 700JK-1 is filled with 2kg of a liquid whose freezing point is 88 ̊C and
initially at 150 ̊C. The cooling patterns of the liquid are studied up to 35 ̊C. It is found out that the rate of
temperature fall liquid just before solidification starts is 8.87s -1 and complete solidification takes
6.39minutes.
i) Sketch and explain the cooling curve obtained.
ii) If specific heat capacity of the liquid is 654Jkg-1K-1 calculate the specific latent heat of fusion for
the liquid.

2) (a) (i) Define ice point and steam point.

(ii) Describe how boiling point of alcohol may be determined.
(iii) Explain how pressure affects melting point of a substance.
(b) (i) Define evaporation and supper cooling.
(ii) State ways of increasing the rare of evaporation of a liquid.
(iii) Distinguish between evaporation and boiling.
c) (i) Define melting and cooling.
(ii) State factors which affect the body’s rate of cooling.
(iii) Explain how shape and size of body’s enclosure affects its rate cooling.

3) (a) (i) Define melting point and freezing point.

(ii) Describe a simple experiment for determining freezing point and melting point of
Naphthalene.
(b) (i) State Newton’s law of cooling.
 (ii) Describe how the law stated in 3 b(i) above can be verified.
(iii) Use Newton’s law of cooling to show that the body’s rate of temperature fall is directly
proportional to the excess temperature (θs-θt) where; θs is temperature of the surrounding and θt is
temperature of the body at time t.
c) Explain the following observations
(i) Two individuals “A” (suffering from malaria) and “B” (normal) taking a bath of cold water, A feels
colder than B.
(ii) When taking a bath using cold water, the individual feels colder on a very shiny day than on a
rainy day.
(iii) Milk in a bottle wrapped with a wet cloth cools faster than that placed in a bucket exposed to
drought.
(iv) Metallic utensils are not recommended to be used in refrigerators.
(v) Small bodies cool faster than identical larger bodies placed in the same drought.
(vi) A bare cemented floor is felt colder than a carpeted floor.

4) (a) Equal volumes of water at the same temperature are poured in a basin and jug exposed to the
same drought. Explain which water evaporates faster.
(b) Use kinetic theory to explain the following observations
(i) Ice melts faster when salt is sprinkled on it
(ii) Liquids expand more than equal volumes of solids when heated through the same temperature
change.
c) 2.0kg of ice initially at -10 ̊C is heated until when it changes to steam at 100 ̊C.
(i) Sketch and explain the graph showing temperature against time.
(ii) Calculate the internal energy required in each phase if (s.l.h.f of ice=3.36x105Jkg -1, s.h.c of ice
=2100Jkg-1K-1 and s.l.h.v of water 2.26x106Jkg-1).
 4.0 Vapors
When a liquid in a closed container is heated some molecules leave its surface and occupy the space just
above it.
These molecules constitute what we call vapor and the pressure they exert to the walls of the container as
they collide with them selves and the walls of the container is called vapor pressure.
When these molecules bounce off from the walls of the container, they strike the liquid surface and re-
enter the liquid until when a state of thermo dynamic equilibrium is attained i.e. (rate of evaporation =rate
of condensation).
In this state vapor is said to be saturated exerting saturated vapor pressure and before this state, vapor is
un saturated (with rate of condensation >rate of evaporation) exerting un saturated vapor pressure.
Therefore;
(i) Vapor is the gaseous state of a substance below its critical temperature i.e.
 Critical temperature (Tc) is the minimum temperature above which the gas can not be liquidized
no matter how much pressure is applied.
 Critical pressure (Pc) is the minimum pressure needed to liquidize the gas at its critical
temperature.
 Critical volume (Vc) is the volume occupied by a gas at its critical pressure and critical
temperature.
 Specific critical volume is the volume occupied by 1kg mass of a gas at its critical pressure and
critical temperature.
 Specific critical pressure is the minimum pressure needed to liquidize 1kg mass of a gas at its
critical temperature.
(ii) Saturated vapor is one which is in thermal dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid i.e. whose rate of
evaporation = rate of condensation.
(iii) Un saturated vapor is one which is not in thermal dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid i.e.
whose rate of evaporation ≠ rate of condensation.
(iv) Supper saturated vapor is one whose rate of evaporation > its rate of condensation.
(v) Thermal dynamic equilibrium is the liquid’s thermal state at which its rate of evaporation is equal to
its rate of condensation.
(vi)Vapor pressure is one exerted on the walls of the container by the vapor molecules
(vii) Saturated vapor pressure (s.v.p) is one exerted by vapor which is in thermal dynamic equilibrium
with its own liquid.
(viii) Un saturated vapor pressure is one exerted by vapor which is not in thermo dynamic equilibrium
with its own liquid.
(ix) Supper saturated vapor pressure is one exerted by vapor whose rate of evaporation > its rate of
condensation.
(x) Dew point is defined as temperature saturated atmospheric air.
NB: A cloudy film forms on screens of cars being driven in rain because of the condensation of the
excess water vapor in atmospheric moist air as a result of exceeding its dew point.
4.0.0 Comparison of vapor pressure

Saturated vapor. Un saturated vapor.

It does not obey ideal gas laws. It obeys ideal gas laws.
It is achieved at thermal dynamic equilibrium. Its rate of evaporation its rate of condensation.
Its pressure remains constant at particular Its pressure increases with increase in
temperature. temperature.

4.0.1 Kinetic theory explanation for the occurrence of saturated vapor pressure (s.v.p)
 When a liquid is heated in a closed container, its molecules gain kinetic energy and evaporate to
form vapor just above the liquid surface.
 These vapor molecules are free and randomly collide with each other.
 The collision make less energetic molecules to be pushed back into the liquid as the energetic one
remaining leaving the liquid surface until when the rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of
condensation.
 At this state the vapor is said to be saturated and exert saturated vapor pressure to the walls of the
container.

4.0.2 Vapor pressure and temperature

 Initially vapor pressure increase slowly with increase in temperature exponentially because fewer
molecules are energetic to leave the liquid surface but as the liquid’s boiling point is approached,
vapor pressure rapidly increases i.e. un saturated vapor pressure.
 At boiling point vapor pressure remains constant (saturated vapor pressure) since vapor is
saturated.
 Heating the liquid beyond its boiling point results into supper saturated vapor whose rate of
evaporation is greater than its rate of condensation and vapor pressure (un saturated vapor
pressure) increases linearly with increase in temperature due to increased multiple collisions of
vapor molecules with the walls of the container.

Supper saturated vapor/ Un saturated vapor

s.v.p
Saturated vapor
4.0.3 Vapor pressure and vapor volume
 A reduction in vapor volume of saturated vapor only leads to an equal reduction in the number of
vapor molecules above the liquid surface. Since s.v.p is achieved at constant temperature (boiling
point), the vapor remains in thermal dynamic equilibrium. This means that the force per squared
meter exerted on the walls of the container remains constant due to an equal reduction in the
surface of the walls for colliding molecules.
Question: Explain how increasing vapor volume of saturated vapor would affect the pressure it
exerts.
 Since un saturated vapor is in position to accommodate more vapor molecules, reducing vapor
volume implies compiling a larger number of vapor molecules in a smaller surface above the
liquid. This results into increased number of collisions of such vapor molecules with surface of
the walls of the container thus increased pressure exerted.
Question: Explain how increasing vapor volume of un saturated vapor would affect the pressure it
exerts.
This therefore means that saturated vapor pressure does not obey Boyle’s law of perfect gases yet un
saturated vapor pressure does as shown below.

NB:
Saturated vapors do not obey ideal gas laws because its mass changes due to condensation or
evaporation as conditions change yet gas laws only apply to a constant mass of a gas.
It should be noted that saturated vapor occurs for a very short time and constant temperature (boiling
point).

4.0.4 Determining saturated vapor pressure

4.0.4.0 Bent-pipette method
This method is used to determine the s.v.p of a volatile liquid at a particular temperature.
 Procedure.
The volatile liquid whose s.v.p is to be determined is introduced with the help of a bent pipette in the
vacuum space above the mercury level in one of the barometric tubes as shown below.
Some of the volatile liquid evaporates to fill the space above the mercury and its vapor exerts a pressure
on the mercury causing it to drop.
When mercury has stopped dropping, the vapor is said to be in dynamic equilibrium, thus saturated vapor.
The pressure hρg is the s.v.p of the volatile liquid and ρ is its density.
Merits of mercury for this experiment
 Mercury is very dense compared to many liquids
 Mercury is opaque thus easily seen and read.

4.04.1 Dynamic method

This is used to determine s.v.p at different temperatures.
 Procedure.

The pressure “h” above the liquid is set to a suitable value (preferably below atmospheric pressure) by
means of a vacuum pump.
The liquid is heated until when it boils at temperature value read from the thermometer.
Vapor escaping from the flask get condensed condenser X and returns to the flask as more vapor leave the
flask
When the reading of the thermometer is constant (steady), vapor just above the liquid surface is said to be
saturated and the pressure it exerts (s.v.p) at this temperature is given by P =H-h for ‘m” below”m 1” or
P=H+h for “m” above “m1”.

NB1: The same arrangement can be used to investigate the variation of s.v.p with temperature i.e. the
experiment is repeated for different values of h and the corresponding boiling points are read and
recorded.
A plot of p (s.v.p) set by vacuum pump against temperature (boiling point) read from the thermometer is
as shown below.
Saturated vapor pressure Temp/ ̊C

100
760mmHg
or
 NB2: s.v.p increases with increase in temperature because;
 Increasing temperature increases the average kinetic energy of liquid molecules thus increasing
their rate of escape from the surface.
 This result into increased number o f vapor molecules above the liquid surface which leads to
multiple collisions of such molecules with the walls of the container thus increased vapor
pressure (s.v.p).

4.0.5 Solving problems which involve vapors

Here we need to identify whether the problem involves a mixture of a gas and an unsaturated vapor or
saturated vapor i.e.
For the mixture of a gas and unsaturated vapor, we can apply the equation of state on the mixture since
they both obey Boyle’s law.
For the mixture of a gas and saturated vapor for which the gas obeys Boyle’s law but the vapor does not
obey Boyle’s law, we apply Dalton’s law of partial pressure to the mixture to get the air pressure (P air)
and saturated vapor pressure (Pvapor) i.e. Ptotal =Pair +Pvapor and then apply equation of state on the gas only.

4.0.5.0Examples
1) A volume of 4.0×10-3m3 of air is saturated with water vapor at 100 ̊C. This air is cooled to 20 ̊C at
a pressure of 1.33×105Pa. Calculate the volume of air after cooling if the s.v.p of water at 20 oC is
2.3×103Pa and pressure of dry atmospheric air at 100 ̊C is 1.01×105Pa.
Solutions:
At 20 ̊C, PT=1.33×105Pa, Ps=2.3×103Pa, Pair=PT-Ps=1.307×105Pa.
Now we apply the equation of state on air alone i.e.
5
1 .01∗105∗4 .0∗10−3 1 . 307∗10 ∗V 20
=
( 100+273 ) ( 20+273 )
−3 3
V 20=2 . 428∗10 m
2) A closed vessel contains air saturated with water vapor at 60 ̊C. The total pressure in the vessel
is 1000mmHg. Calculate the new air pressure if its temperature is reduced to 27 ̊C. Take s.v.p of
water vapor at 60 ̊C to be 314mmHg and 112mmHg at 27 ̊C.
Solutions:
Total pressure (PT) =1000mmHg. At 60 ̊C, s.v.p=314mmHg
⇒ P a =P T −P s=1000−314=686 mmHg
Now we apply the state equation to air alone i.e.
 686 P
= 27
( 273+60 ) ( 273+27 )
686∗300
P27= =618 mmHg
333
(PT)27 =(Pair)27+(s.v.p)27
= 618 +112 =730mmHg.
3) A column of air is sealed in a horizontal uniform capillary tube by a water index which is
sufficient to saturate the air. At 20 ̊C, the length of the air column is 15.6cm at atmospheric
pressure of 762.5mmHg. When the air in the capillary tube is heated to 50 ̊C, the length of air
column becomes 19.1cm at the same atmospheric pressure. If the saturated vapor pressure of
water at 20 ̊C is 17.5mmHg, what is its value at 50 ̊C?

Solutions:

At 20 ̊C, PT=762.5mmHg, s.v.p (Ps) =17.5mmHg, Pair= (762.5-17.50) =745mmHg

Now applying state equation to air alone
Initial conditions: Temp = 20 ̊C, Volume = 15.6cm3 and Pressure = 745mmHg
1
Final conditions: Temp =50 ̊C, Volume = 19.1cm3 and Pressure = Pa
1
74 . 5∗16 .6 Pa∗19 . 1
=
293 323
1
⇒ P a =670 .8 mmHg
Now applying Dalton’s law of partial pressure on the mixture at 50 ̊C, we have
P1s =PT −P1a=762 . 5−670 . 8=19 . 7 mmHg

4) A uniform capillary tube sealed at one end contains air enclosed by a thin film of water which keeps it
saturated with vapor. The length of air column is 15.6cm at 20 ̊C and 25cm at 70 ̊C. Assuming s.v.p of
water to be 17mmHg at 20 ̊C, calculate the s.v.p of water at 70 ̊C (Hint: take total pressure at 20 ̊C to be
88cmHg and 104cmHg at 70 ̊C ).
Solution: At 20 ̊C, Pa= (88-1.7) =86.3cmHg.
Now applying state equation to air only,
1
86 . 3∗15. 6 Pa∗25
=
293 343
1
⇒ P a =63 .04 cmHg
Now applying Dalton’s law to the mixture at 70 ̊C;
P1s =P1T −P1a=104−63. 04=40. 96 cmHg

5) Moist air at 50 oC and pressure of 760mmHg is contained in a sealed vessel. When the vessel is cooled,
saturation starts at 20 ̊C. What will be the total pressure at 10 ̊C? (s.v.p of water at 20 ̊C and 10 ̊C are
17.5mmHg and 9.0mmHg respectively).
Solutions:
 Since the vessel is sealed, then V is constant.
 Moist air is a mixture of air and water vapor. This means that since saturation starts at 20 ̊C, the
vessel contains air and unsaturated vapor between 50 ̊C to 20 ̊C and for 20 ̊C to 10 ̊C it contains air
and saturated vapor.
 Since such mixture obeys Boyle’s law between 50 ̊C to 20 ̊C we can apply the equation of state to
it during this temperature interval.

760 PT ⇒ ( PT )20=689. 4 mmHg

For 50 ̊C to 20 ̊C =
323 293
For 20 ̊C to 10 ̊C, its only air which obeys Boyle’s law
P =689 . 4−17 .5=671. 9 mmHg
Applying Dalton’s law at 20 ̊C: air
Now we apply state equation to air alone i.e.
671.9V P ' a V
= From which Pair at 10 ̊C =649.0mmHg
293 283
Therefore when we apply Dalton’s law of partial pressures we get;
( PT )10 =649.0+9.0 =658.0mmHg
6)A column of air 10cm long is trapped in a horizontal uniform capillary tube by a mercury thread 8cm
long. One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere and the other is closed. Find volume of air when the
tube is held vertically with the open end exposed to the atmosphere.
Solutions:
For horizontal posture L1=10cm 8.0cm
For vertical posture 76cmHg
76.0cmHg

8.0cmHg

L2
 For P1L1 = P2L2  76x10 = (76+8)xL2 from which L2 =9.0cm.

4.0.6 Test 5
1) (a) (i) Define saturated vapors and supper saturated vapors.
(ii) Describe an experiment to investigate temperature dependence of saturated vapor pressure
of water.
(b) Explain the following observations
(i) Saturated vapor pressure does not obey Boyles’s law 0f perfect gases.
(ii) Vapor pressure increases with increase in temperature.
c) (i) Explain how increasing vapor volume of saturated vapors would affect the pressure they exert.
(ii) Explain how decreasing vapor volume of un saturated vapors would affect the pressure they
exert.
2) (a) Use kinetic theory to explain;
(i) The occurrence of saturated vapor pressure
(ii) The increase in vapor pressure when temperature of a liquid is increased.
(b) Write short notes on the following terms;
(i) Critical volume
(ii) Critical pressure
(iii) Critical temperature
(iv) Specific critical volume
(i) Specific critical pressure
c) (i) Define vapor and dew point.
(ii) A sealed vessel contains a mixture of air and saturated vapor with total pressure of 1.0x105pa and
1.3x105pa at 27 ̊C and 60 ̊C respectively. Determine saturated vapor pressure of water at 60 ̊C if s.v.p at
20 ̊C is 23000pa.
3) (a) (i) Distinguish between saturated vapors and un saturated vapors.
(ii) Describe an experiment to determine saturated vapor pressure of water.
(b) A volume of 0.004m3 of air at pressure of 1.01x105pa is saturated with water vapor at 100 ̊C. This
moist air is cooled to 20 ̊C at total pressure of 1,33x105pa. Calculate the new volume of air at 20 ̊C if s.v.p
at 20 ̊C is 2.3x103pa.
c) Use sketch graphs only to show how vapor pressure varies with;
(i) Vapor volume
(ii) Temperature
(d) S.v.p of ether at 0 ̊C is 185mmHg and 440mmHg at 20 ̊C. Constant volume-gas thermometer
whose bulb contain both dry air and sufficient ether to saturate air measures 100mmHg at 20 ̊C.
Determine the value it measures at 0 ̊C.

4) (a) (i) State with reason two merits of using mercury in a barometer.
(ii) Describe a simple experiment to investigate the effect of pressure on boiling point of water
(Hint describe the dynamic method).
(b) Describe an experiment for determining saturated vapor pressure of volatile liquids.
c) Air confined in a container at 27 ̊C and total pressure of 1.23x105pa is saturated with water vapor.
This air remains saturated at 77 ̊C and total pressure of 1.64x105pa. Calculate the s.v.p of water at 77 ̊C
if its value at 27 ̊C is 3600pa.
(d) A column of air is sealed in a horizontal uniform capillary tube by water index which is just
sufficient to saturate air. At 20 ̊C the length of air column is 15.6cm at total pressure of 762.5mmHg.
When air in the capillary tube is heated to 50 ̊C, the air column becomes 19.3cm at the same total
pressure. Calculate the value of s.v.p at 50 ̊C given that its value at 20 ̊C is 17.5mmHg.
(e) Moist air at 56.5 ̊C and pressure of 760mmHg is contained in a sealed vessel. When the vessel is
cooled, saturation starts at 30.7 ̊C. saturated vapor pressure of water at 30.7 ̊C and 12.5 ̊C are 67.5mmHg
and 19.0mmHg respectively. Calculate the total pressure of air at 12.5 ̊C.
 5.0 Laws of perfect gases
Laws of ideal gases include;
 Boyle’s law which assumes constant temperature of the gas.
 Pressure law which assumes constant volume of the gas.
 Charles’s law/Gay-lussac’s law which assumes constant pressure exerted by the gas.
NB1:
 The free volume “V” of the container the gas can occupy, pressure “P” exerted by the gas to the
container and thermodynamic temperature ”T” of the gas are called the variables.
 In verification of all the above laws, the mass of the gas under investigation is fixed/kept constant
such that any change noticed is only due to changes in the variables being investigated.
5.0.0. Kinetic theory of ideal gases
This theory looks at perfect gases as those with;
 Spherical molecules of negligible volume.
 Fast moving molecules and that their continual bombardments with the walls of the container
they occupy constitute the pressure they exert to it.
 Molecules continuously and perfectly colliding thus no loss of their kinetic energy due to
their collisions.
 Negligible intermolecular forces of attraction.
 Molecules whose duration of collision is negligible compared to time between their
collisions.
 Molecules which travel in a straight line.
5.0.1 Boyle’s law of perfect gases
This law states that pressure of a fixed mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to its volume at
constant temperature i.e. PV = constant.
 Verification.
Dry ideal gas is trapped in a closed limb of a U tube by mercury as shown above.
Pressure exerted by this gas on mercury in the closed limb is varied by exerting a compressive force at the
open limb of the tube. This pressure is given by P =H+h for “B” above “A” or P =H-h for “B” below “A”.
Different values of h and their corresponding values of l are measured using a meter rule and recorded in
a suitable table including values of P.
P/Nm2 1
A plot of P against l is and that of P against is P/Nm2
l

l/m /m-1

Any of the above plots verifies Boyle’s law of ideal gases.

5.0.1.0 Kinetic theory explanation for Boyle’s law
When the open limb of the “U” tube is compressed, mercury in the closed limb rises up reducing the
available free volume of the gas above it. This slows down the gas molecules as they are brought closer to
each other making more collisions than before. The increased number of collisions results into increased
pressure the gas exerts on mercury in the closed limb and the walls of the tube thus Boyle’s law.
4.0.2 Pressure law of perfect gases
This law states that pressure of a fixed mass of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its absolute
P
=cons tan t
temperature at constant volume of the gas i.e. T
 Verification.

Stirrer

Dry ideal gas of fixed mass trapped in bulb B is heated to increase its temperature by heating the liquid
which submerges B.
The gas molecules gain kinetic energy and move randomly exerting pressure on mercury in the closed
limb (displacing it down wards below mark “M”).
Mercury level in the open end of the tube is adjusted by compressing the tube such that mercury in the
closed end is brought back to mark M to ensure constant volume of the gas above mercury in the closed
limb.
The measured values of ‘h” when mercury in the closed limb is at mark M and the corresponding read
values of temperature from the thermometer are recorded including values of P=H+h for “M” below “N”
or
P =H-h for “M” above “N”.
A plot of P against temperature is linear as shown below thus verifying pressure law of ideal gases.

5.0.2.0 Kinetic theory explanation for pressure law of perfect gases

This theory proposes that the pressure exerted by a gas is as a result of many collisions between the
molecules of the gas and the walls of the container.
When temperature of the gas is increased, the average kinetic energy of gas molecules increase and
molecules move faster.
But since its volume is constant, the increase in speed results into rapid collisions of the gas molecules
with the walls of the container thus increase in pressure exerted to the walls.
5.0.3 Charles’s law/Gay-lussac’s law of perfect gases
This law states that volume of a fixed mass of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its thermodynamic
V
=cons tan t
temperature at constant pressure of the gas i.e. T
 Verification.

Dry ideal gas is trapped in the closed limb and its temperature is varied (increased) by passing steam into
the water bath Due to increase in temperature, the gas exerts pressure on mercury in the closed limb such
that mercury is displace upwards in the open limb.
The liquid is stirred and at steady state, mercury in the limbs is leveled by releasing some out through the
tap to ensure constant pressure (atmospheric pressure).
The value of l is measured by a meter rule and recorded including the thermometer reading.
Several values of l are obtained at various corresponding temperature values and a plot of l against
temperature is linear as shown below thus verifying Gay-lussac’s law of ideal gases.
 l/m

5.0.3.0 Kinetic theory explanation for Charles’s law of perfect gases

When a gas is heated, average kinetic energy of the gas molecules increases. This results into increased
number of collisions such that for pressure exerted by the gas on mercury and walls of the tube to remain
constant distance between collisions must be made longer than before thus increased volume due to
increased temperature.
Likewise, decrease in temperature leads to a decrease in the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules.
This result into fewer collisions such that to maintain a constant pressure exerted by the gas, distance
between collisions must be reduced thus reduction in volume of a gas as stated by Charles’s law of ideal
gases.

5.0.4 Thermal coefficients of ideal gases

These are mainly four as defined below;
Coefficient of thermal expansion of a gas at constant volume (𝛂v) is the fractional increase in the
pressure exerted by an ideal gas for every 1K rise in its temperature.
P θ−P0
Therefore 𝛂v = since P𝛉 =P0 (1+ 𝛂v𝛉).
P0θ
Coefficient of thermal contraction of a gas at constant volume (𝛂v) is the fractional decrease in the
pressure exerted by an ideal gas for every 1K rise in its temperature.
P θ−P0
Therefore 𝛂v = since P𝛉 =P0 (1+ 𝛂v𝛉).
P0θ
Coefficient of thermal expansion of a gas at constant pressure (𝛂p) is the fractional increase in the
volume of an ideal gas for every 1K rise in its temperature.
V θ−V 0
Therefore 𝛂p = since V𝛉 =V0 (1+ 𝛂p𝛉).
V0θ
Coefficient of thermal contraction of a gas at constant pressure (𝛂p) is the fractional decrease in the
volume of an ideal gas for every 1K rise in its temperature.
V θ−V 0
Therefore 𝛂p = since V𝛉 =V0 (1+ 𝛂p𝛉).
V0θ

NB:
  𝛂v can be determined experimentally by verifying pressure law such that the slope of the graph
obtained is given as P0𝛂v = Slope (S1).
 𝛂p can be determined experimentally by verifying Charles’s law such that the slope of the graph
obtained is given as V0𝛂p = Slope (S2).

5.0.4.0 Proof that 𝛂v =𝛂p for ideal gases

We consider an ideal gas initially at 0oC, pressure Po and volume Vo to undergo changes as shown below.

Since in (i) temperature raises, the gas expands from Vo to Vθ such that
V θ =V o ( 1+α p θ )
…………(i)
In step (ii) temperature is constant implying that increasing pressure from P o to Pθ compresses the volume
P V =P θ V o ……(ii)
of the gas from Vθ back to Vo such that by Boyle’s law o θ
Pθ =Po ( 1+α v θ ) V θ =V o ( 1+α p θ )
Now substituting for and into (ii) yields
 Po V o ( 1+α p θ ) =P o V o ( 1+α v θ )
⇒ α p =α v
N.B: Any discrepancy in 𝛂v and𝛂p is a measure of the gas’s departure from ideal state.

5.0.4.1 Ideal gas equation/ state equation

This relates the gas variables i.e. pressure “P”, volume “V” and thermal dynamic temperature “T” of a
fixed mass of gas which approximates to ideal state i.e. ‫׀‬αv-αp0≈‫׀‬
 Derivation.
We consider a gas initially at T1, P1, and V1 to go through changes shown below.

NB: It should be noted that since the gas is not perfectly ideal, it does not necessary mean that when
pressure is increased from P1 to P2 volume is compressed from V2 to V1 as the case for pure ideal gases.
V1 V V 1T 2
During step (i) Charles’s law is obeyed i.e. = from which V= …..(i).
T1 T2 T1
P2V 2
During step (ii) Boyle’s law is obeyed i.e.P1V =P2V2 from which V = ….(ii)
P1
P2 V 2 V 1 T2
=
Equations (i) and (ii) are equal i.e. P1 T1
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
⇒ = =cons tan t
T1 T2 …. (iii)

N.B1:
PV
=R
(a)For 1 mole of an ideal gas, equation (iii) gives the universal gas constant (R) i.e. T Where; V is
the free volume of a container a gas can occupy, P is the pressure exerted on the walls of the container by
the gas and T is the thermal dynamic temperature of the gas.

(b)At s.t.p (standard temperature and pressure) for which;

 Thermodynamic temperature, T=273K
 Atmospheric pressure P=hρg=760×10-3×9.81×13600=101396.16Pa
 Molar volume V=22.4 liters =22.4dm3i.e.
Since 1litre=1dm3 =10-3m3 then;
−3
10 x 22.4 3
22.4litres=22.4dm3 = m.
1
101396. 16∗0 . 0224
R= ⇒ R=8 . 314 Jmole−1 K −1
Therefore, at s.t.p 273
 PV
=nR
(c) For a gas of n moles at s.t.p T , for which;
N Number of atoms Known mass o f the gas
n= = = .
N A Avogadr o ' sconstant Molar mass of the gas

5.0.5Examples
1) What is the temperature of 19m3 of an ideal gas at 600mmHg if the same gas occupied 12m3 at
760mmHg at 27oC?
Solutions:
Using the state equation
600∗19 760∗12
=
T1 300 ⇒T 1 =375 K

2) A gas has a volume of 60cm3 at 20oC and 900mmHg. What would be its volume at s.t.p?
Solutions:
60∗900 760∗V 2
=
293 273
V2=66.2cm3
3) A vessel containing 400m3 of a gas at a pressure of 8.7×10-2Pa and temperature 20oC is compressed
isobarically to half its initial volume. Find the new temperature.
Solutions:
Isobaric process imply constant pressure
400 200
=
293 T 2 ⇒T 2 =146 .5 K
4) A cylinder contains 2.4×10-3m3 of Hydrogen gas at 17oC and 2.32×106Pa. the relative molecular mass
of hydrogen is 2 and universal gas constant R=8.314Jmol-1K-1 and NA=6.02×1023mol-1. Find
i) The number of moles of hydrogen in the cylinder
ii) The number of hydrogen atoms present in the cylinder
iii) The mass of hydrogen in the cylinder
iv) The density of hydrogen at that temperature

Solutions:
PV
=nR
(i) Using T
2 . 32∗106∗2. 4∗10−3
n= =2 .3 moles
290∗8. 314
N
n=
(ii) Number of atoms
N=nN A , since NA
N=2. 3∗6 .02∗1023=1 .38∗1024 atoms
 m
n=
(iii) From M , m=nM=2. 3∗2=4 . 6 g
m 4 . 6∗10−3
= = −3
=1. 916 kgm− 3
(iv) Density V 2. 4∗10
5) A cylinder contains 0.25m3 of a gas at a pressure of 2.0×106Pa and a temperature of 17 oC. Find;
i) The number of moles of the gas in the cylinder
ii) The pressure of the gas if the temperature of the gas is raised to 37 oC at a constant volume of the
gas.
Solutions:
PV 2. 0∗106∗0 . 25
n= = =207 moles
i) RT 290∗8 .314
PV
=cons tant
ii) Using T
2. 0∗106∗0 . 25 P 2∗0. 25
= ⇒ P2 =2. 14∗106 Pa
290 310

6) The density of Oxygen at s.t.p is 1.43kg/m3. A 20litre cylinder is filled with Oxygen at pressure of 25
atmospheres at temperature of 27 ̊C. What is the mass of Oxygen in the cylinder?
Solutions:
m R
PV =nRT = RT=mR 1 T R1 =
From M , where M
PV P 1 . 01∗105
1
R= = = =259 Jmol−1 kg−1 K−1
Or mT ρT 1. 43∗273 at s.t.p
1
From PV =mR T . At 25 atmospheric pressure and 27 oC we have
25∗1 .01∗105∗20∗10−3
m= =0 . 65 kg
300∗259

7) The volume of air in a tyre is 24.6 litres when the pressure is 2.0×105Pa at constant temperature.
i) What volume will this air occupy at a pressure of 1.0×105Pa?
ii) How much air will escape from the tyre when the valve is removed?
Solutions:
i) Using Boyle’s law, PV=constant
24 . 6∗2. 0∗105 =1 .0∗105∗V 2
∴ V 2=12 . 3litres
ii) When the valve is removed, volume reduces from 24.6 litres to 12.3 litres at atmospheric
pressure i.e.
 New volume of the gas V = 24.6 -12.3 =12.3litres.

8. A balloon of weight 0.8N is filled with helium at 0 ̊C and 1 atmospheric pressure. The balloon contains
20 moles of helium. Find
i) The volume of the air in the balloon.
ii) The extra weight that the balloon can lift at the earth’s surface. (molar mass of helium and air are
4.0g and 29.0g respectively)
Solutions:
i) Using PV =nRT
20∗8 . 314∗273
V= 5
=0 . 44 m3
1 .01∗10 ∗1
ii) Weight of the balloon = 0.8N
Total weight the balloon can lift = weight of air displaced (by the law of floatation).
−3
Mass of air displaced = Molar mass × Moles =29 . 0∗10 ∗20
−3
Weight of air displaced = 29 . 0∗10 ∗20∗9. 8=5. 7 N
⇒ Total weight the balloon can lift is 5.7N.
Weight lifted by the balloon is = (its actual weight + weight of helium gas).i.e.
−3
Mass of helium gas =4∗10 ∗20
−3
Weight of helium gas =4∗10 ∗20∗9 . 8=0 . 78 N
∴ The extra weight = Total weight – (Weight of helium + Weight of balloon)
=5 .7− ( 0. 8+0. 78 ) =4. 1 N

5.0.6 Test 6
1) (a) (i) State Boyle’s Law
(ii) Use kinetic theory of ideal gases to account for Charles’s Law.
(iii) Describe an experiment to verify pressure law of ideal gases.
(b) A cylinder contains 2.4 x 10-3 m3 of Hydrogen at 20 ̊C and 2.0 x 106 pa. The relative molecular
mass of Hydrogen is 2.0g and (R = 8.314 Jkg-1mol-1k-1, NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1). Find;
(i) The number of hydrogen molecules present in the cylinder.
 (ii) The number of hydrogen moles present in the cylinder.
(iii) The mass of hydrogen in the cylinder.
(iv) The density of hydrogen at this temperature.
(c) Explain how pressure of the surrounding affects the rate of cooling of the body.
2) (a) (i) Define ideal gas equation.
(ii) State Charles’s Law of ideal gases.
(iii) Use kinetic theory to account for pressure law of ideal gases.
(b) Describe an experiment to verify Boyle’s law of ideal gases.
c) A cylinder contains 0.25m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 2.0 x 106pa at 25°C. Find;
(i) number of moles of a gas in the cylinder.
(ii) Pressure of the gas if the temperature of the gas is raised to 37°C at constant volume.

(d) Explain how the thermodynamic scale of temperature is established.

3) (a) (i) Define coefficient of expansion of ideal gases at constant pressure.

(ii) Given that an ideal gas goes through the following changes as indicated in the diagrams
below.

Prove that coefficient of expansion of an ideal gas at constant volume (∝v) is equal to coefficient of
expansion of an ideal gas at constant pressure (∝p).
(b) (i) State pressure law of ideal gases.
(ii) Use kinetic theory to account for Boyle’s law of ideal gases.
(iii) Describe an experiment to verify Charles’s law of ideal gases.
(c) The density of oxygen at s.t.p is 1.43kg/m3. A 20 litre cylinder is filled with oxygen at 25
atmospheres and temperature 27°c, what is the mass of oxygen in the cylinder.(Hint, Assume 0 2 to be
ideal)

4) (a) (i) Use the following changes gone through by a fixed mass of a gas to derive the equation of
state.
(b) A balloon of weight 0.8N is filled with helium at 10°c and 2.5 atmospheres.
The balloon contains 2.3moles of helium. Find;
(i) The volume of helium in the balloon.

(ii) The extra weight that the balloon can lift at the earth’s surface.(molar masses of
helium and air in which the balloon floats are 4.0g and 29.0g respectively) (Hint,
Assume He to be ideal).

c) (i) A fixed mass of the has a volume of 200m3 at 57 ̊C and 780mmHg. Find its volume at s.t.p.
(ii) A cylinder contains 2.0kg of nitrogen at a pressure of 3.0x10 6pa and 17.9 ̊C determine its mass at
s.t.p i.e. at 0 ̊C and 1.01x105pa.

6.0 Behavior of gases

A gas is defined as a state of a substance above its critical temperature.
Gases are either ideal/perfect or real for instance;
  Ideal gases are those which obey Boyle’s law of perfect gases at all temperatures and pressure
with negligible intermolecular forces of attraction and negligible size of each of their molecules
thus occupy negligible volume of the container the gas occupies.
 Real gases are those which only obey Boyle’s law of perfect gases only at temperatures greater
than the critical temperature and pressure less than the critical pressure.
This is because their intermolecular forces of attraction and volume of their molecules compared
to that of the container are not negligible.

6.0.0 Comparison of gases

Ideal. Real.
Their intermolecular forces of attraction are Their intermolecular forces of attraction are not
negligible. negligible.
The size of the molecules is negligible thus occupy Molecules have a noticeable volume thus occupy a
negligible volume compared to that of the container noticeable volume.
the gas occupies.
Their internal energy is independent of their Their internal directly depends on both their
volume but only depends on temperature. volume and temperature.
They obey Boyle’s law of perfect gases at all They obey Boyle’s law of perfect gases at
temperature and pressure. temperature>Tc and pressure P<Pc.

6.0.1 Isothermals of gases.

An isothermal of a gas is its behavior at constant temperature for instance;
6.0.1.0 Isothermals for ideal gases
By Boyle’s law, PV=constant implying that PV is independent of pressure such that the PV against P or
P against V for an ideal gas are as shown below.

T3>T2>T1
T3

T2
T1

6.0.1.1Isothermals for real gases

(i)A plot of PV against P is as shown below
 BelowTB

 At T<TB, intermolecular forces of attractions of a real gas out weigh its intermolecular forces of
repulsion such that gas molecules are less free to move randomly within the container in which
the gas is trapped. Due to this restricted motion, gas molecules exert less pressure than what an
ideal gas would exert thus reduction in PV at T<TB.
 At T>TB, intermolecular forces of repulsion of a real gas out weigh its intermolecular forces of
attraction such that gas molecules are more free to move randomly within the container in which
the gas is trapped. Due to this less restricted motion, gas molecules exert much more pressure
than what an ideal gas would exert resulting into increased PV at T>T B.

(ii)The P against V is as shown below

Expla
nation:
At T>Tc the gas obeys Boyle’s law since at high temperatures (T>Tc), intermolecular forces of real gases
are weakened thus negligible.
Compressing the gas atT<Tc, volume reduces at constant pressure due to condensation of the gas until it is
completely liquid in region R1.
The sharp rise in pressure with small change in volume in region R1 is due to the fact that liquids are
difficult to compress unlike gases.

6.0.2 Behavior of real gases

When deriving the equation of state (PV=nRT) we assume that;
 The intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules are negligible.
 The volume of the molecules is negligible compared to the entire volume the container
occupied by the gas.
However, these assumptions hold for real gases only at
 Pressures < Pc (critical pressure).
 Temperatures above Tc (critical temperature).
Therefore a real gas is one which does not obey ideal gas laws at temperatures < T c and pressure >Pc that
is;
Its intermolecular forces of attraction and volume occupied by gas molecules compared to the volume of
the container occupied are not negligible
6.0.2.0 Modification of ideal gas equation to Vander Waal’s equation
 Since molecules of real gases occupy noticeable volume, the available free volume for random
motion of the gas molecules is reduced to VN = (V-nb) where;’ n’ is the number of molecules
for the gas, ‘b’ is the volume of each molecule and ‘V’ is the volume of the container occupied.
 Due to intermolecular forces of attraction in real gases, the gas molecules are slowed down
resulting into fewer collisions of the molecules with the walls of the container occupied. This
na
leads to a reduction in the pressure exerted to the walls by a factor 2 where; ‘a’ is a negative
V
constant, ‘V’is volume of the container occupied and ‘n’ is the number of molecules of the gas.

The new pressure exerted is given as PN= P+( na

V
2 . )
 (
na
)
Therefore the state equation is modified to P+ 2 (V-nb) = nRT.
V

6.0.3 Pressure exerted by a gas

A gas exerts pressure to the walls of the container it occupies because of their continuous bombardment
with the walls of the container. When the gas molecules hit the walls at right angles their momentum is
reversed. The rate of change of this momentum results into a force exerted on the walls and the pressure
exerted is this force per squared meter.
 Derivation of P =⅓ρ<⃗ c 2>.
When deriving this expression the gas is assumed to approximate to ideal state i.e.
 Molecules of an ideal gas move randomly and continuously make perfect elastic collisions with
themselves and the walls of the container (i.e. kinetic is conserved).
 Intermolecular forces (both attractive and repulsive) are negligible.
 The volume occupied by the gas molecules is negligible compared to that of the container
implying that they are free to move randomly in the container.
 The duration of collision is negligible compared to the time between collisions i.e. the time the
molecules spend in contact with the walls is negligible compared to that a molecule takes to move
to the opposite wall and back.
Consider a cube of sides L containing N identical molecules of the same gas.
y
v
u
w L
A
x
L
z L

Let c⃗ be the root mean speed of a single molecule of mass m at an instant inside the cube such that
c⃗ =⃗u i+ ⃗
wk + ⃗v j .
When a molecule moving along x collides with face A normally its momentum changes such that the
resulting change in momentum is = 2mu⃗ . m
m
Since the gas is assumed to make elastic collisions with the wall, the duration of collision is negligible
2L
compared to the molecule’s time between its collisions i.e. t = .
u⃗
u⃗ m ⃗2
The force this molecule exerts on the wall = the rate of change of momentum = 2m u⃗ x = u .
2L L

⃗2
1 m⃗u2 = m u = m ⃗
u2
Pressure exerted on this wall by this molecule P¿ 2 x where V is volume of the
L L L3 V
container since the gas molecules are assumed to occupy a negligible volume.
Since the gas is assumed to have negligible intermolecular forces of attraction, pressure exerted on this
m ⃗2 ⃗2
wall by N identical molecules PN = ( u + u +−−−+⃗
V 1 2
u N ).
2

( u⃗1 + u⃗2+−−−+ ⃗
uN )
2 2 2
⃗2 ⃗2
If <u >¿ is the mean square speed of N molecules along x then; <u >¿ = .
N
m
 PN = N<⃗ 2
V u >¿
Since molecules are identical and are in independent motion, <u2>=<v2>=<w2> such that for 3-
dimensions <u2> =⅓<c2>.
Therefore the total pressure PT due to motion of N molecules in 3-dimensions
PT =⅓ ( mNV )<⃗c >¿=⅓( MV )<⃗c >¿ =⅓ρ<⃗c >.
2 2 2
6.0.3.0 Deductions from P =⅓ρ<⃗
c 2> = ( mNV )<⃗c >¿=⅓( MV )<⃗c >¿
2 2

6.0.3.0.0 Kinetic energy of a gas

N
Taking PV =⅓Nm¿ ⃗
c 2 >¿…. (i) and that PV =nRT = RT ……(ii)
NA
N
 ⅓Nm¿ ⃗
c 2 >¿ = N RT
A

⅓ N A m¿ ⃗
c 2 >¿ = RT …….. (iii)

But since
N A m is the total Molar mass M then 2 ¿=RT= 2 ( k . e )
3 3
3 RT
 The total kinetic energy of the gas at temperature T is k.e. = implying that k.e𝛂T.
2
From equation (iii) we deduce that kinetic energy of a single molecule (k.e)’ =
3 RT
2 NA( ) 3
= kBT where kB
2
R 8.314
is called the Boltzmann constant i.e. kB = = =1.381x10-23JK-1.
N A 6.02 x 1023

6.0.3.0.1 Avogadro’s hypothesis

Avogadro’s hypothesis states that equal volumes of ideal gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same number of molecules/moles.
 Proof.
Consider two different gases of equal volumes and at the same temperature and pressure.
N1RT1
For gas 1, P1V1 = ⅓N1m1 ¿ ⃗
c 21 >¿= =N1kBT1…. (i)
NA
N2RT2
For gas 2, P2V2 =⅓N2m2 ¿ ⃗
c 22 >¿= =N2kBT2…. (ii)
NA
 Since these gases have equal volumes and are at the same temperature and pressure we get that
N1kBT= N1kBT thus N1=N2.

6.0.3.0.2 Graham’s law of diffusion of gases

For an ideal gas its rate of diffusion (speed) is inversely proportional to the square root of its density at
1
constant pressure and temperature i.e. rate of diffusion𝛂
√ρ
 Proof.
3P
For gas 1 P1 =⅓ ρ1<⃗
c 21> <⃗
c 21> = ….(i).
ρ1
3P
For gas 1 P2 =⅓ ρ2<⃗
c 22> <⃗
c 22> = ρ …..(ii).
2
 √
⃗2 ¿ ρ2 Rate of gas 1 ρ
Taking (i)/(ii) yields ¿ c 1 > ⃗2 ¿=  = 2.
¿ c 2>¿ ¿ ρ1 Rate of gas 2 ρ1
6.0.3.0.3 Boyle’s law of perfect gases
Pressure of a fixed mass of a perfect gas is inversely proportional to its volume at constant temperature.
 Proof.
2 2
From PV =⅓Nm¿ ⃗
c 2 >¿ = ¿ = ( k . e )… (i).
3 3
2
PV = ( k . e ).
3
Since (k.e)T yet with Boyle’s law T is constant, it implies that for a fixed mass of an ideal gas
PV =cons tan t

6.0.3.0.4 Charles’s law of perfect gases

Volume of a fixed mass of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its temperature at constant pressure.
 Proof.
2 2
From PV =⅓Nm¿ ⃗
c 2 >¿ = ¿ = ( k . e )…..(i)
3 3
3 RT
But k.e. = ……(ii)
2
Substituting for k.e. =
3 RT
2
into equation (i) we get PV =
3 2 (
2 3 RT
)
=RT  V=
R
P
T. ( )
V
Therefore = constant as Charle’s law states.
T

6.0.3.0.5 Dalton’s law of partial pressures

The total pressure of a mixture of gases which do not chemically mix at constant temperature is equal to
the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases that constitute the mixture.
The term partial pressure refers to the pressure a gas would exert if allowed to fill the entire volume
initially occupied by mixture of gases which do not chemically mix at constant temperature.
 Proof.

From PV =nRT= N ( )
R
NA
T =NkBT.
For a gas of N1 molecules occupying a container of volume V we have that P1V =N1kBT… (i)
For a gas of N2 molecules occupying a container of volume V we have that P2V =N2kBT…(i)
When a mixture of these gases occupy the same container we have that P TV =(N1+N2)kBT…(iii).
This implies that (i) + (ii) = (iii).
(P1+P2)V =PTV  PT =P1 +P2.

6.0.3.0.6 Root mean square speed of gases

From PV =⅓Nm¿ ⃗ c 2 >¿…. (i). And PV =nRT …..(ii)
 ⅓ρ¿ ⃗
NB:
c 2 >¿ = nRT from which <c⃗ > =
√ 3 nRT
ρ
and <⃗
c 2>𝛂T.

Root mean square speed is the average speed of gas molecules at a particular temperature “T” i.e. <c> α
√T.
Mean square speed is the average square speed of the gas molecules at a particular temperature “T” i.e.
<c2>αT.

6.0.4 Examples
1) Calculate the speed of sound in the atmosphere of Jupiter at temperature of -130 oC and mainly
composed of methane gas of mass 6.04g. Assume that the speed of sound is 0.682 times the r.m.s speed
of one mole of methane.
Solutions:
1
PV = Nm< c 2 >= nRT
From 3 . For one mole N=NA.
3 nRT
¿ c 2 >=
Nm
3∗1∗8. 314∗(−130+ 273 )
¿ c 2 >= =9 .8∗10−19 m 2 / s2
6 . 02∗1023∗6 .04∗10−3
√ −19
∴ The speed of sound =0. 682∗ 9. 8∗10 =6 . 75∗10 m/ s
−10

2) Calculate the root mean square speed of the hydrogen molecules at 27 oC, given that the density of
hydrogen at 1.0×105N/m2 and temperature 0 oC is 0.09kg/m3.
Solutions:
1
P= ρ<c 2 >¿ ¿
From 3 . For P=1.01×105Pa, T=273K
2 3∗1 .01∗105
¿ c >= =3 . 3∗106 m/ s
0. 09
2
Now using ¿ c > ¿T
 ¿c >¿ 300 273
2 √
3.3∗106 273 3.3∗106∗300 3
= ¿<c>= =1.9∗10 m/s

3) Two gas bulbs of volume 200cm3 and 100cm3 respectively, are connected by a capillary tube. The
apparatus is hermetically sealed and contains air at a pressure of 760mmHg and 15 oC. The 200cm3 bulb is
immersed in steam at 100oC and the other remaining at 15oC. Find the new pressure of the air in the tube.
Solutions:
Using PV=nRT
At 15 oC
PV 76∗( 200+100 )∗10−6
n= =
RT R∗288 ………… (i)
After raising the temperature to 100oC and the other left at 15 oC, then
P2∗200 P2∗100
n1 = n2 =
R∗373 , and R∗288
But the total number of moles remains the same i.e. n1+n2=n
76∗300 200∗P 2 100∗P2
= +
288∗R 373∗R 288∗R
76∗300 200∗P 2 100∗P2
= +
288 373 288
8504400
P2 = =89 .6 cmHg
( 200∗288+37300 )

4) A mole of an ideal gas at 300K is subjected to a pressure of 1.0x105Pa such that its volume changes to
0.025m3. Find
(i) Molar gas constant.
(ii) Boltzmann constant.
(iii)The average translational kinetic energy of a single molecule of the gas
Solutions:
PV 1∗105∗0 . 025
R= = =8 . 33 JK −1 mol−1
(i) T 300
R 8. 33
k B= = =1 .38∗10−23 JK −1
(ii)
N A 6 .02∗1023
3 3
k . e= k B T = ( 1 . 38∗10−23 )∗300=6 . 21∗10−21 J
(iii) 2 2
5) Two cylinders “A” and “B” containing an ideal gas are connected by a tap having a negligible volume.
“A” contains 3m3 of the gas at 250K and 5×104N/m2 while “B” contains 7.2m3 of the gas at 400K at
2.0×104Pa. Find the pressure after the connecting tap has been opened and equilibrium has been reached,
assuming that the temperature of “A” and “B” remains constant.

Solutions:
At equilibrium before opening the tap nT=nA+nB.

From PV =nRT ,
P A V A PB V B
⇒ + =nT
RT A RT B
5∗104∗3 2. 0∗104 ∗7 .2
nT= +
250 R 400 R
On opening the tap, gases escape from A to B (since it’s at a higher temperature) until similar pressure is
achieved in both containers i.e.

n1T =n1A + n1B =P (2503 R + 4007 .2R )

1
But these changes do not alter n, i.e. nT =nT

∴P
3
( +
7.2
250 400
=
250 )(
5∗10 4∗3 2∗10 4∗7 . 2
+
400 )
P=3 . 22∗10 5 Pa

6) Two cylinders A and B of volumes V and 3V respectively are separately filled with a gas and
connected by the tap at a common temperature “T” as shown below.

The pressure of the gas in A and B are P and 4P respectively. When the tap is opened, the cylinders’
equilibrium pressure is found to be 60Pa. Find the value of P.
Solutions:
Before opening the tap, at equilibrium nT =n A +n B
PV 12 PV 13 PV
nT = + = …… (i)
RT RT RT
After opening the tap, equilibrium is attained when both cylinders are at the same pressure.
60 V 180 V 240 V
n 'T = + = ……. (ii)
RT RT RT
Since the number of moles do not change, then;
13 PV 240 V
= …….(iii) From which P ≈18.5pa.
RT RT

7) (a) At a certain time speeds of seven molecules are as follows:

Number of particles n 1 3 1 1 1
-1
Speed/ms 2.0 3.0 4.0 7.0 5.9
 Calculate the root mean square speed of the particles.
Solutions:
¿¿
<c2> = ( 1 x 4 ) + ( 3 x 9 )+ ( 1 x 16 ) + ( 1 x 49 )+ ( 1 x 34.81 )+ 2 -2
7 ≈18.7m s

<c> ≈4.3ms-1

(b) (i) Calculate the root mean square speed of air molecules of density 1.56kgm-3 in a container at a
pressure of 1.38x105pa.
Solutions:

<c> =
√ √
3 P = 3 x 1.38 x 105 ≈515.2ms-1
ρ 1.56
(ii) Calculate the temperature of oxygen gas at which its root mean square speed is twice its root mean
square speed at 59.3 ̊C.
Solutions:
¿ c 21 > ¿ ¿
2 T 1 , T1= 4x(59.3+273) =1329.2K.
¿ c >¿= ¿
2
T2

6.0.5 Test 7
1) A vessel of volume 1.0×10-3m3 contains helium at a pressure of 2.0×105Pa and temperature of 300K.
(i) What is the mass of helium in the vessel?
(ii) How many helium atoms are there in the vessel?
(iii) Calculate the r.m.s speed of the helium atoms (Molar mass of helium is 4.0g)

2) Calculate the root mean square speed of the molecules of an ideal gas at 127 oC given that the density
of the gas at a pressure of 1.01×105Pa and temperature of 0 oC is 1.43kg/m3.

3) (a) Two bulbs A of volume 100cm3 and B of 80cm3 are connected as shown below

The connecting tube is of negligible volume. Initially “A” is filled with ideal gas at 20 ̊C at 3.5×105Pa and
“B” is filled with an ideal gas at 100 ̊C at 1.2×105Pa.
(i) Calculate the equilibrium pressure inside the bulbs when temperature of A is maintained at 20
̊C and that of B is reduced to 65 ̊C.
(ii) Calculate the equilibrium pressure inside the bulbs when temperature of both A and B
maintained at 54 ̊C.
4) (a) (i)Define an ideal gas.
(ii)Distinguish between ideal gases and real gases.
(iii) State the conditions under which a real gas behaves like an ideal gas.
(b)(i) Sketch a P versus V isothermals of a real gas below and above its critical temperature.

(ii) Account for the isothermal at T >TC in b(i) above.

(iii) Explain the features of the isothermal of a real gas being compressed below its critical
temperature as shown in 4b (i) above.
c) (i) Sketch PV against P isothermal of a real gas below above its Boyle temperature.
(ii) Account for the isothermals drawn in 4c (i) above.

5) (a) (i)Define a real gas.

(ii)State four major assumptions made when deriving P=1/3 ρ < C2> of a gas.
(Hint: The terms take their usual meanings)
(iii) Modify two of the assumptions stated in a(ii) to cater for real gases.
(iv) Explain how these modified assumptions in a(iii) affect the ideal gas equation.
(b) (i) State and derive Dalton’s law of partial pressure.
(ii) Define Partial pressure.

c) 2V V
A B

Two vessels A and B of volume 2V and V respectively are connected by a tube of negligible volume
shown above. The vessels contain air of total mass 3.0 x 10-3kg at 30°C and pressure of 1.0 x 105 pa.
Vessel A is cooled to 0°C and vessel B is heated to 100°C.Calculate the new equilibrium pressure inside
the vessels and mass of the gas in each vessel at this new state.

6) (a) (i) State Avogadro’s hypothesis.

(ii) Prove that kinetic energy of an ideal gas molecule is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
(iii) Calculate the root mean square speed of the hydrogen molecules at 30°c given that
density of Hydrogen at 1.5 x 105 pa and 2°c is 0.19kg/m3.
(b) (i) State Graham’s law of diffusion of ideal gases.
(ii) Two gas bulbs of volume 200cm3 and 100cm3 respectively are connected by a capillary
tube and contain air at 760mmHg and 15 ̊C. The 200cm3 bulb is immersed in steam and the other left at
15 ̊C. Find the new pressure in the bulbs at equilibrium state.
7) (a) (i) Account for the pressure exerted on the walls of the container occupied by an ideal gas using
kinetic theory of ideal gases.
(ii) Sketch PV versus P and P versus V isothermals of an ideal gas.
(b) (i) Derive P= ⅓ <c2> for an ideal gas clearly pointing out the assumptions made (Hint: take the
terms to take on their usual meanings)
(ii) Use the above expression in a(i) to derive a Avogadro’s hypothesis.
(c) The following table shows the distribution of speed of gas particles. Use the information given to
calculate root mean square speed of the particles.
Speed/ms-1 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 21.5
Number of particles 1 3 8 5 4 2

7.0 Thermal dynamics

This deals with the behavior of a gas enclosed in a container to which heat is supplied or removed.
First law of thermal dynamics
Heat supplied to a gas in a closed system is only used to raise its internal energy and to do work in
expanding the gas against external pressure i.e. ∆Q =∆U +∆W where ∆U is the change in the gas’s
internal energy and ∆W is the work done to expand the gas against external pressure.

7.0.0 Internal energy of a gas

Real gases have both kinetic energy and potential energy since they have intermolecular forces of
attraction and are always in random motion i.e. ∆U =k.e +p.e. Kinetic energy is due to the random motion
of its molecules and is directly proportional to temperature of the gas yet potential energy is due to the
intermolecular forces of attraction which depends on the separation of the molecules.
Since ideal (perfect) gases have negligible intermolecular forces of attraction then their internal energy
has no potential component which means that ∆U is independent of the gas’s volume but only depends on
its temperature.

7.0.1 External work done by an expanding gas

We consider a gas confined in a frictionless cylinder by a piston such that when heated, it expands and
moves the piston by a displacement ∆x.
 →
If the gas displaces the piston by a force F , then the work done during the expansion is F∆x.
But if the cross sectional area of the piston is A, then this work done ∆W =PA∆x.
Since A∆x= change in volume ∆V, then ∆W =P∆V.
If during expansion, the volume changes from V1 to V2, then the total work done is
V2

W =∫ PdV .
V1

7.0.2 Heat capacities of a gas

Heat capacity of a gas is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a gas by 1K.
Temperature of a gas can be raised when either its volume or pressure is kept constant. There fore;
Heat capacity of a gas at constant volume is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a gas by 1K at constant volume.

Heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a gas by 1K at constant pressure.

Molar heat capacity/principal heat capacity of a gas at constant volume “Cv” is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1mole of a gas by 1K at constant volume. The units are Jmol -1K-1.This
means that Cv = ( ∆∆ QT ) where ∆Q =∆U  ∆U =C ∆T for one mole and Q = nC ∆T for n moles of a gas.
V
v v

Molar heat capacity/principal heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure (Cp) is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1mole of a gas by 1K at constant pressure. The units are Jmol -1K-1.
This means that Cp = ( ∆∆ QT ) where ∆Q =∆U +∆W i.e. =C ∆T for one mole and Q = nC ∆T for n mole of a
p
p p

gas.

Specific heat capacity of a gas is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg
mass of a gas by 1K.

Specific heat capacity of a gas at constant volume (cv) is the amount of heat required to raise the
Cv
temperature of 1kg mass of a gas by 1K at constant volume cv = and its units are Jkg-1K-1.
Molar mass

Specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure (cp) is the heat required to raise the temperature of
1kg mass of a gas by 1K at constant pressure
Cp
cp = and its units are Jkg-1K-1.
Molar mass

7.0.2.0 Relation between heat capacities

By definition;


( ΔQ
C P=
ΔT ) P

C =( ) =(
ΔT )
ΔQ ΔU
V
 ΔT V V , since at constant volume ΔV =0 ⇒ ΔQ=ΔU
 o Then for ΔQ=ΔU +ΔW (first law of thermodynamics)
o
C P ΔT=C V ΔT +PΔV
 But from the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT such that for one mole of a gas PΔV =RΔT
C P ΔT =C V ΔT +RΔT
 ∴ C P −C V =R
Where “R” is called the molar gas constant
R
Also taking Cv = Mcv and Cp = Mcp, we can deduce that cp-cv =r where r = (Specific heat gas
M
constant)
7.0.3 Thermo dynamic processes
A gas can be made to go through a number of changes by changing its variables like pressure, volume and
temperature for example;
Isothermal process is one which involves change in pressure and volume of a fixed mass of a gas at
constant temperature i.e. ∆Q =∆W since ∆U =0 because ∆T =0. This implies that heat supplied during
isothermal process is only used to expand the gas with out increasing its internal energy
Adiabatic process is one which involves a change in volume, pressure, and temperature of a fixed mass
of a gas at constant heat i.e. =∆U +∆W =0 ∆U = -∆W. This means that during adiabatic expansion, the
gas cools because it uses part of its internal energy to do work during expansion against external pressure
and on compression the gas’s temperature rises.
Isobaric process is one which involves a change in volume and temperature of a fixed mass of a gas at
constant pressure i.e. .∆Q =∆U +∆W =Cv∆T +P∆V. This implies that heat supplied during isobaric
process is used to both expand the gas against external pressure and to increase its internal energy.
Isovolumetric process is one which involves a change in pressure and temperature of a fixed mass of a
gas at constant volume i.e. .∆Q =∆U since ∆V =0. . This implies that heat supplied during isovolumetric
process is only used to increase its internal energy with out expanding it against external pressure.
NB:
 When a gas is heated at constant pressure, heat supplied is used to raise its internal energy and to
do work in expanding the gas against external pressure.
 Meanwhile, if heating is done at constant volume of the gas, heat supplied just raises the
temperature of the gas implying that Cp>Cv.

7.0.3.0 Reversible processes

A reversible process is a change in a state of fixed mass of a gas which can be retraced (made to go in
reverse direction) by infinitesimal (infinitely small) changes in its variables. Therefore;
Isothermal reversible process is a change in a state of fixed mass of a gas which can be retraced (made
to go in reverse direction) by infinitesimal (infinitely small) changes in its variables i.e. volume or
pressure at constant temperature.
Isobaric reversible process is a change in a state of fixed mass of a gas which can be retraced (made to
go in reverse direction) by infinitesimal (infinitely small) changes in its variables i.e. volume or
temperature at constant pressure
. Isovolumetric reversible process is a change in a state of fixed mass of a gas which can be retraced
(made to go in reverse direction) by infinitesimal (infinitely small) changes in its variables i.e.
temperature or pressure at constant volume.
Adiabatic reversible process is a change in a state of fixed mass of a gas which can be retraced (made to
go in reverse direction) by infinitesimal (infinitely small) changes in its variables i.e. volume or pressure
or temperature at constant heat.
Isothermals of reversible processes
Pressure/pa
T1 T2>T1
1: Reversible isothermal
2: Reversible adiabatic

1
2

Volume/m3
7.0.3.1 Isothermal processes
For an isothermal process as defined above ∆ Q =P∆V since ∆U =Cv∆T yet T is constant i.e.. Internal
energy is constant. Heat is gained during isothermal expansion and lost during isothermal compression.
This implies that in an isothermal process heat is used to do work in expanding the gas against the
external pressure but not to raise its temperature.

7.0.3.1.0 Examples of isothermal processes

 Slowly compressing the gas by a light frictionless piston in a highly conducting cylinder.
 The changes in pressure and volume of a frictionless support in a vacuum over which the
pendulum bob moves.
 The changes in pressure and volume of sound as its waves pass through vacuum.

7.0.3.1.1 Conditions for isothermal process to take place

 The gas must be contained in a thin walled and highly conducting vessel such that the rate at heat
leaves is equal to the rate at which it leaves to ensure constant temperature.
 The container must be in thermal contact with a constant temperature bath.
 The process must be carried out slowly to allow time for heat exchange.
 The piston must be light in weight and frictionless to eliminate temperature rise due to friction.

NB1:
In practice, it is difficult to achieve an isothermal process because in real sense, heat can not flow
through the walls of the vessel unless there is at least a small difference in temperature across the vessel.
This implies that the temperature of the system is bound to fall or rise a little during isothermal expansion
or isothermal compression respectively.

NB2: Isothermal processes obey Boyle’s law therefore, their isothermals are as follows.

This implies that for calculations involving isothermal process, we only make use of “Boyle’s law” i.e.
PV =constant. This must be taken as a point of emphasis.
7.0.3.1.2 Work done in an isothermal process
Consider an isothermal expansion in which the volume of the gas changes from V 1 to V2 with an
infinitesimal change ∆V.

dV =nRTln( )
V2 V2
V2
Work done =∫ PdV =∫
V1 V1
( nRT
V ) V 1
NB1: If V2>V1, the process is an isothermal expansion and work done is positive meanwhile, if V 1>V2, the
process is an isothermal compression and work done is negative.
NB2: Since for isothermal process PV=constant (nRT), then

W =nRTln
( )
V2
V1
=nRTln
P2
P1 ( )
= P1V1ln
P2
P1 ( )
=P2V2ln
P2
P1 ( )
= P1V1ln
V2
V1 ( )
= P2V2 ln
V2
V1
.
( )
7.0.4 Adiabatic processes
For an adiabatic process as defined above ∆ Q = Cv∆T +P∆V =0 since heat Q is constant. This means that

( ∆∆ VT ).
for an adiabatic process no heat enters and no heat leaves the container thus ∆U = -∆W i.e. P =- C v
Therefore work done during adiabatic compression is positive and negative for adiabatic expansion.
7.0.4.0 Examples of Adiabatic processes
The following processes are assumed to be adiabatic because they are fast i.e.
 The warming of a bicycle pump/valve when pumping i.e. pressure, volume and temperature but
change in heat is negligible.
 Air rushing out of the valve of the tube of the tyre which has burst.
 The expansion and contraction of air through which a sound wave passes.
7.0.4.1 Conditions for adiabatic processes
 The gas must be contained in a thick perfectly container such that no heat enters or leaves.
 The process must be carried out quickly/rapidly to minimize time lag for heat exchange.
 The gas must trapped in a perfectly lagged container,
 The container containing the gas must be isolated i.e. no need for constant temperature bath.
7.0.4.2 Expression related to adiabatic processes
From the definition of adiabatic process;
RT
Cv∆T+P∆V= 0 , but PV =RT (for one mole of a gas)  P =
V
Therefore Cv ( ∆TT )+( VR )∆V=0 ……. (i)
Integrating equation (i) yields C ∫ ( ) dT +R∫ ( ) dV = 0.
1 1
v
T V
Cvln (T) +Rln(V) =constant

For Cp –Cv = R we get Cvln ( VT ) +C ln (V) = constant.

p
 ( )T Cp
ln +ln(V) = constant where  = .
V Cv
Therefore ln( T V −1 V ❑ ) = constant
TV −1 = constant…… (ii)
PV
T=
Substituting for R into (ii)
−1
PV V ❑
= c onstant  PV = constant……. (iii)
R
RT
V=
Substituting for P into (iii)

P ( )
RT γ
P
=
Constant
γ 1−γ
⇒T P = Constant ………. (iv)
NB:
Cp c p
= .
“γ” is called the coefficient of principal heat capacities of a gas given by; γ =
C v cv
5 7
This coefficient is ≈1.67for diatomic gases like; oxygen, carbon dioxide etc and = 1.4 for
3 5
monatomic gases like; hydrogen, helium and carbon monoxide.

As a point of emphasis, it should be noted that for calculations involving adiabatic processes, we only
make use of the following equations i.e.
PVγ=constant
TVγ-1 = constant
TγP1-γ= constant

7.0.4.3 Work done by an adiabatic process

Consider an adiabatic expansion illustrated by the following sketch.

Pressure/pa P1

T2>T1
P2 T1
 V2

Work done = Area under the curve =∫ PdV

V1
γ
But for adiabatic process PV =k
V2
k k
 W =k∫ V
−¿dV
¿= =
V1
1−¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ 1−¿ ¿ ¿
γ γ
But k =P1 V 1 =P2 V 2
1 1
Therefore W = W= .
1−¿ ¿ ¿ 1−¿ ( P2 V 2−P1 V 1 ) ¿

7.0.5 Examples
1) Sketch pressure against volume curves on the same axes for a fixed mass of an ideal gas undergoing
through the following changes.
(a)Isothermal expansion (b)Isothermal compression (c) Adiabatic expansion (d) Adiabatic compression
(e) Isovolumetric (f) Isobaric expansion (g) Isobaric compression..
Solutions:

(g) (f)
Pressure/pa

(e) (d)
(d) (a)
(c)
T3>T2>T1
T2>T1
T1

Volume/m3
2) A vessel contains 2.5×10 m of an ideal gas at a pressure of 3.5×104N/m2 and a temperature of 35oC.
-3 3

The gas is compressed isothermally to a volume of 1.0×10-3m3. It is then allowed to expand adiabatically
to its original volume( γ=1 . 4 ) . Find;
i) the final temperature of the gas
ii) the work done in the isothermal compression
iii) final pressure during isothermal compression
iv) final pressure during adiabatic expansion

Pf
T2

P2
 Solutions:

i) For adiabatic expansion TVγ = constant.

( )
0.4
1.0
T2= 308 ≈297.3K
2.5
ii) For isothermal compression

W =nRTln
( )
V2
V1
=nRTln
P2
P1 ( )
= P1V1ln
P2
P1
=P2V2ln
( )
P2
P1 ( )
= P1V1ln
V2
V1 ( )
= P2V2 ln
V2
V1
.
( )
W =3.5x104x2.5x10-3xln(1.0/2.5) ≈-80.2J
(iii) PV = constant
3.5x104x2.5x10-3 =P2x1.0x10-3
P2 =8.75x104pa
(iv) PVγ = constant

( )
1.4
1.0
4
Pf =8.75x10 x ≈2.43x104pa
2.5

3) A gas at 27oC, volume of 3000cm3 and a pressure of 80cmHg expands isothermally to double its
volume. The gas is then compressed adiabatically to half its original volume.
i) Show the changes on a P-V sketch
ii) Calculate the final temperature and pressure of the gas (γ=1 . 4 ).
Solutions:
(i) Pf

80mmHg
T2

P2 T1=300K

1500 3000
6000cm3

i) For isothermal expansion PV = Constant.

P1V1 = P2V2
80×V1 = P2×2V1 ⇒ P2 = 40mmHg.
 γ
For adiabatic compression PV = Constant
P2 V 2γ =Pf V γf

( )
1.4
2V1 1. 4
Pf =80 =40 x ( 4 ) =278 . 6 mmHg
V1
2
γ −1
Also for adiabatic compression, TV = Constant
T 2 V γ−1 γ−1
2 =T f V f

( )
2 V 1 0. 4 0 .4
⇒T 2 =300 =300 ( 4 ) =522 .33 K
V1
2
4) A mass of air occupying initially a volume of 2000cm3 at a pressure of 76cmHg and at temperature of
20oC is expanded adiabatically and reversibly to twice its volume and then compressed isothermally and
reversibly to a volume of 3000cm3. Find the final temperature and pressure, assuming the ratio of the
5
molar specific heat capacities of air to be 3 .
Solutions:
76cmHg

T2

Pf
T1=293K

P2

2000 3000 4000 Volume/cm3

γ γ
For adiabatic expansion P1 V 1 =P2 V 2

( )
1.4
2000 1. 4
⇒ P 2=76∗ =76 ( 0 .5 ) =28 . 792cmHg
4000
For isothermal compression PV = Constant
1. 4
( 4000 )
∴ P 2 V 2=P f V f ⇒ P f =76 ( 0 . 5 ) 3000 =76∗( 0 .5 )
1. 4
3 (4 ) =38.398cmHg.
γ −1
For adiabatic expansion TV = Constant i.e.
T 1 V γ−1 γ−1
1 =T 2 V 2

(2000
4000 )
0. 4
T 2=293 =293 ( 0 . 5 )0 . 4 =222. 1 K
5) The specific heat capacity of neon at a constant pressure is 1.03×103Jkg-1K-1. The molecular mass of
CP
neon is 20.2. Find C V for neon (R=8.314Jmol-1K-1).
Solutions:
C P=c P . M =20 . 2∗1 . 03∗10 3=20 . 8 Jmol−1 K −1
C V =C P−R=( 20 . 8−8 . 314 )=12. 6 Jmol−1 K −1
C
γ= P =
CV (
20 . 8
12. 6 )
=1 . 64

6) 2 litres of nitrogen at a pressure of 1.0×105Pa and a temperature of 27oC are heated at a constant
pressure until its volume is doubled. It is then cooled at constant volume until its pressure is 2.5×10 4Pa.
The gas is then compressed adiabatically to its original volume (γ=1 . 4 for nitrogen).
i) Show on a well labeled P-V diagram the above cycle.
ii) Find the final temperature
iii) Pressure of the gas at the end of the compression
iv) If the molar heat capacity of nitrogen at constant pressure is 29.2Jmol -1K-1, how much heat is
supplied to the gas during the expansion at constant pressure?
v) Find the internal energy generated during the isovolumetric process.
Solutions:

1: Isobaric expansion
Pressure/pa 2: Isovolumetric
3: Adiabatic compression
1

2 3

V1 2V1
Volume/m3
V1
=
(ii) For isobaric expansion, T 1 Constant i.e.

( )
V1 V2 2V1
= ⇒T 2 = ∗300 =600 K
T1 T2 V1
P2 P3
=
For isovolumetric cooling, T 2 T 3

T 3=
(
2. 5∗104
1 .0∗10 5 )
×600=
10( )
2. 5
×600=150 K
γ −1
For the adiabatic compression, TV = Constant
 ( )
0.4
2V 1
⇒ ×150= (2 )0. 4 ×150=197 . 9 K
T 3 V γ−1 γ−1
3 =T 4 V 4
V1
γ
(iii) For adiabatic compression, PV = Constant
P3 V 3γ =P f V γf

( )
1.4
V1
⇒ P f =2 .5∗10 4∗ =2 .5∗104 ( 0 .5 )1 . 4 =6 . 6∗104 Pa
2V1

(iv) Heat supplied

=nC P ΔT
During the isobaric expansion, ΔT =( 600−300 )=300 K
1. 0∗105∗2∗10−3
⇒ n= =0 . 08 moles
Also, applying PV = nRT at X 8 .314∗300
Heat supplied =0. 08∗29 .2∗300=700 . 8 J
(v) Internal energy generated = heat released V =nC ΔT
The temperature change ΔT =150-300=-150K
U =−nC V ΔT
=0. 08 ( 29 .2−8 .314 )∗−150=−250 . 632 J

7) (a) The specific heat capacity of a diatomic gas at constant volume is 0.410kJkg -1K-1. Calculate specific
heat capacity at constant pressure and specific gas constant.
Solutions:
Since the gas is diatomic, γ=1.4
cp=γcv =1.4x0.410 =0.574kJkg-1K-1
Specific gas constant “r” = cp-cv = 0.574-0.410 =0.1640kJkg-1K-1

(b) 2.00moles of oxygen at 290K is enclosed in an insulated container by a frictionless piston and
pressure outside the cylinder is 0.4Mpa. When 1.16kJ of heat is supplied to this gas, its temperature
increases to 310K and increases by 0.00083m3. Calculate the principal heat capacities of the gas and the
universal gas constant.
Solutions:
Heat supplied =nCp∆T
1.16 x 1000
Cp = =29.0JK-1mol-1
2 x (310−290)
Work done = P∆V = 0.00083x4.0x105 ≈ 332J
∆U =Heat supplied – work done = 1160-332 =828J
By definition ∆U =nCv∆T
828
Cv = ≈20.7JK-1mol-1
2 x (310−290)
R =Cp –Cv =29.0-20.7 =8.3JK-1mol-1

c) A gas is enclosed in a cylinder by frictionless piston of area 100cm2. . 250J 0f heat is supplied to this
gas and it expands against external pressure of 0.1Mpa and the piston is displaced by 15.0cm along the
cylinder. Calculate external work done by the gas and increase in the gas’s internal energy.
Solutions:
Force exerted = 100x10-4x1.0x105=1000N, Work done = Fxdistance =1000x15x10-2=150J
∆U = Heat supplied – work done = 250-150 =100J

8) A fixed mass of a gas is taken through a closed cycle ABCD of pressure and volume changes as shown
in the graph below.
Pressure/Mpa7.0

6.0 A

5.0

4.0 B

3.0 D C

2.0

1.0
Y X
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
(a) Calculate; Volume/10-4m3
(i) The work done by the gas on expansion from A to B.
(ii) The work done by the gas on contraction from C to D.
(iii) The net work done by the gas during one cycle ABCD.
(b) If the engine rotates at 50cycles per second and it has four cylinders, calculate the power
generated by the engine.
Solutions:

1
(a) (i) Work done =area of ABXY = x(AY+BX)xYX = 0.5x(6.0+4.0)x106x3.5x10-4 =1750J.
2
(ii) Work done =area of DYXC =3.5x10-4x3.0x106 = 1050J
1
(iii) Net work done = area of ABCD = x(AD+BC)xDC= 0.5x(3.0+1.0)x106x3.5x10-4 =700J
2
(b) Total cycles made per second = 4x50 =200cyclesper second.
Total power= 200xenergy of one cycle
= 200x700=140Kw.
 7.0.6 Test 8

1) An ideal gas of specific heat capacity ratio γ=1 . 4 is expanded adiabatically and reversibly from
70cmHg, volume 4m3 and temperature of 110oC to a pressure of 34cmHg. It then undergoes a reversible
isothermal compression to its original pressure. It is expanded isobarically to its original volume.
Sketch the P-V graphs for the above cycle.
Find;
i) the temperature at the end of the isothermal compression
ii) the volume at the end of the adiabatic expansion
iii) the work done during the isobaric expansion ( ( 2 1) )
W =P V −V
iv) the work done during the isothermal expansion and the adiabatic compression
−1
v) the heat supplied to the gas in the isobaric process (C P =29 . 0 Jmol K −1 )

2) Nitrogen gas in an expandable container is raised from 0oC to 50 ̊C at a constant pressure of 4.0×105Pa.
The total heat added is 3.0×104J. Find;
i) the number of moles of the gas
ii) the change in internal energy of the gas (
ΔU =nCV ΔT )
−1
iii) the work done by the gas (C P =29 . 1 Jmol K−1 )

3) An ideal gas at a pressure of 2.0×106N/m2 occupies a volume of 200cm3 47.5 ̊C. The gas expands
adiabatically to a final pressure of 1.1×106N/m2 (γ=1 . 40 , R=8 .314 Jmol
−1
K−1 ). Find;
i) the number of moles of the gas
ii) the final volume of the gas
iii) the final temperature of the gas

4) A vessel containing 1.5×103m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 8.7×104Pa and temperature 25 ̊C is

compressed isothermally to half its volume and then allowed to expand adiabatically to its original
volume (γ=1 . 67 ). Find;
i) the final pressure and temperature of the gas
ii) sketch the P-V curves for the process
iii) the work done during the isothermal process

5) A cylinder with a piston contains 0.5 moles of oxygen at 2×105Pa and 300K. The gas first expands at
constant pressure to twice its original volume. It is then compressed isothermally back to its original
volume, and finally it is cooled at constant volume to its original pressure.
a) Show the series of processes on a P-V diagram
b) Find;
i) the work done, the heat supplied and the change in internal energy during the initial expansion
ii) the work done during the entire cycle
6) A certain ideal gas hasγ=1 . 67 .
a) Find its CP and CV
b) A 0.70m3 of the sample of this gas initially at a pressure of 4.5×104Pa is compressed adiabatically to a
volume of 0.5m3. Calculate;
i) the final pressure
ii) the ratio of the final to the initial temperature
iii) the work done by the gas

7) A fixed mass of a gas is taken through a closed cycle ABCD of pressure and volume changes as shown
in the graph below.
Pressure/Mpa7.0

0.60 A

0.50

0.40 B

0.30 D C

0.20

0.10
Y X
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
(c) Calculate;
(iv) The work done by the gas on expansion fromVolume/10-3m3
A to B.
(v) The work done by the gas on contraction from C to D.
(vi) The net work done by the gas during one cycle ABCD.
If the engine rotates at 50cycles per minute and it has four cylinders, calculate the power generated by
the engine

8)(a) Distinguish between;

(i) Reversible isothermal change and a diabetic expansion of gas.
(ii) Isovolumetric change and isobaric change.

(b) Explain the significance of heat supplied to a gas that goes through;
(i) isothermal change
(ii) isovolumetric change
(iii) Isobaric change
(c) Starting from the same point (P1V1) sketch P – V curves for;
(i) reversible isothermal
(ii) A diabetic expansion
(d) A fixed mass of a gas in the state (P1V1) under goes an isothermal expansion to state
(P2V2). Obtain the expression for work done by the gas.
(e) Explain why molar principal heat capacity of a solid at constant pressure is less than
molar principal heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure.
9) (a) An ideal gas at 2.0 x 106pa occupies 2.0 x 10-3 m3 at 47.5°C. The gas expands adiabatically to a

final pressure of 110 x 105pa

( Cp
Cv
=1.4
)
Calculate;
(i) Number of moles of the gas
(ii) Final volume of the gas
(iii) Final temperature of the gas(R=8.314Jmol-1K-1)

(b) Explain why molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure is greater than molar heat capacity of a
gas at constant volume i.e. CP>CV
c) Distinguish between;
(i) A reversible process and an irreversible process giving two examples of each.
(ii) An isothermal change and a diabatic change.
(d) Derive the relationship between molar principal heat capacity at constant pressure and molar principal
heat capacity at constant volume for one mole of a gas.

10) (a) Explain what happens when a quantity of heat is supplied to a fixed mass of a gas.
(b) A gas initially occupying a volume of 1.0litres at 273K and 1.0 x 105pa is
compressed isothermally to a volume of 0.5litres. It is then allowed to expand

adiabatically to its original volume

( Cp
Cv )
=5 /3

calculate;
(i) Final temperature and pressure of a gas
(ii) Indicate the process on P.V diagram

(c) A vessel containing 1.5 x 10-3 m3 of an ideal gas at 8.7 x 10-2 pa and 25°c is compressed
isothermally to half its original volume and then allowed to expand a adiabatically to its
original volume
( ¿ 1.4 )Calculate;
(i) Final temperature and pressure of the gas.
(ii) Sketch the P.V diagram
(iii) Work done during isothermal process.

11) (a) By considering a gas confirmed in a cylinder by a movable piston, use kinetic theory
to explain why adiabatic expansion of a gas results into cooling.

(b)A fire extinguisher is filled with 1.0kg of compressed nitrogen gas at a 1.2 x 10 6 pa
and 20°C. The gas expands adiabatically to 1.0 x 105pa when the nozzle of the extinguisher is opened
( ¿ 5/3 ) Calculate;
(i) Original volume of the gas
(ii) Final temperature of gas
(c) Explain why gas A (real gas) and gas B (ideal gas) at a common temperature T,
have different amount of internal energies.
(d) State examples of the following;
(i) isothermal changes
 (ii) Adiabatic changes

12) (a) Explain why the difference between the principal heats of a solid is small.
(b) (i) Define principal specific heat capacity of a gas at a constant pressure.
(ii) Explain why internal energy of an ideal gas Is independent of its volume yet
that for real gas depends on its volume.
(iii) Show that work done in expanding the gas of volume V1 to volume V2 is given
V2

by W = ∫ Pdv where; P is the pressure it exerts on the piston.

V1

(c) Define isothermal and adiabatic process.

(d) A vessel contains 2.5 x 10-3m3 of an ideal gas at 3.5 x 104 pa and temperature of 20°C. The gas is
compressed isothermally to a volume of 1.0 x 10-3 m3. The gas is allowed to expand adiabatically to its
original volume. Given that  = 1.4 , find;
(i) The final temperatures of the gas

(ii) Work done during isothermal compression.

13) (a) (i) State first law of thermal dynamics.

(ii) Define a reversible process.
(b) 2 litres of nitrogen at a pressure of 1.0 x 105 pa and temperature of 27°c is heated at a constant
pressure until its volume is doubled. It is then cooled at constant volume until its pressure is 2.5 x 10 4pa.
5
The gas is the compressed a adiabatically to its original volume. Given that = . Calculate;
3
(i) Final temperature of the gas
(ii) Final pressure of the gas
(iii) Supplied heat during the isobaric expansion if CP= 29.2Jmol-1k-1.
(iv) Internal energy generated during isovolumetric process.
8.0 Heat transfer
There are mainly three modes of heat transfer i.e.
 Conduction which is the transfer of heat through a material media as a result of temperature
difference without the apparent movement of the media.
 Convection which is the transfer of heat by relative motion of the fluid parts due to
differences in density and up thrust caused by temperature differences.
 Radiation which the transfer of heat through vacuum i.e. no material medium is required for
this transmission.
8.0.0 Mechanism of heat transfer
(a) In good conductor solids.
In these, heat is transferred by the free electrons moving around the whole lattice of the conductor. Such
electrons at the hotter end gain more kinetic energy and drift. As they drift, they collide with the
neighbouring cooler free electrons. During collision energetic free electrons pass on some of their kinetic
energy to the less energetic free electrons thus transferring heat to the cooler end.
(b) In poor conductor solids.
In these, heat is transferred by fixed atoms. Atoms at the hotter end gain kinetic energy and vibrate at
their mean positions, colliding with their neighbouring cooler atoms. During collision energetic atoms
pass on some of their kinetic energy to the less energetic atoms thus transferring heat to the cooler end.
(c) In liquids.
In these, heat is transferred by molecules locked in their mean positions. Molecules at the hotter end gain
kinetic energy and get set into motion, colliding with the cooler molecules (those with less kinetic
energy). During collision energetic molecules pass on some of their kinetic energy to the less energetic
free molecules thus transferring heat to the cooler region.
(d) In gases.
In these, heat is transferred by molecules which are free. Such molecules at the hot end gain more kinetic
energy and move at a faster speed colliding with the less energetic molecules. During collision energetic
free molecules pass on some of their kinetic energy to the less energetic free molecules thus transferring
heat to the cooler region.

8.0.1Thermal conduction
Thermal conduction is the process by which heat flows from a hotter region to the colder region without
the net movement of the media itself.
When we consider a slab of material of thickness L, cross sectional area A with temperatures θ1 and θ2 at
dQ Δθ dQ Δθ
its ends; it’s the rate of heat flow is 𝛂A i.e. =kA …….(i)
dt L dt L

NB:
Equation (i) is only true for steady state conditions i.e. a conductor is said to be at steady state conditions
only if temperatures along its length are steady.
Equation (i) implies that we can not have exchange of heat between bodies at the same temperature.
dQ
A larger object transfer much heat than smaller object of the same nature since (cross-section area).
dt

From equation (i), we see that factors which affect the amount of heat conducted through a conductor are;
 Area of transmission of the conductor.
 Temperature gradient which is the magnitude of temperature difference for every 1 metre
∆ θ θ1−θ2
length of a conductor at steady state conditions = .
L L
 Thermal conductivity (coefficient of thermal conduction),“k”/nature of the conductor i.e.
Thermal conductivity is the per squared meter rate of heat flow through a conductor at steady
state for every one temperature gradient.
dQ
dt
Thermal conductivity “k” = and the units for k are Wm-1K-1 and the numerical value is
A
∆θ
L ( )
characteristic of a given material.
k dQ
NB: The value “ “ of a material is called its “U” value i.e. =UA∆θ. The S.I units of “U” are;
L dt
Wm-2K-1

8.0.1.0Temperature distribution along conductors

(a) Lagged conductor/ insulated conductor
In this case, there is no heat loss to the surrounding implying that temperature gradient is uniform.
For 𝛉2> 𝛉1 and θe is the body’s equilibrium temperature.
(b) Un-lagged thick conductor/ un-insulated thick conductor
Such conductors experience heat losses to the surrounding air by convection resulting into non uniform
temperature gradient.
Ll For 𝛉2>𝛉1
𝛉2 𝛉1

The non uniform temperature gradient is as shown below.

Temperature/ ̊C

θe
c) Un-lagged thin conductor Length of the bar
Since thin objects loose much heat than thick objects, their temperature fall is steeper than of thick objects
as shown below.

Temperature/ ̊C

(d) Composites

θe
Length of the bar
Different conductors can be joined to form different composites for instance;

𝛉2 >𝛉1
𝛉2 Lagged Thick Thin 𝛉1

Temperature distribution along such composite is as shown below.

Temperature/ ̊C For lagged
For thick

For thin

𝛉e

Length of composite/m
 (d) A thin layer of dirt on a lagged conductor.
If the lagged conductor contained some thin layer of dirt, the temperature distribution along its length is
as shown below.

8.0.1.1 Determination of thermal conductivity

8.0.1.1.0 Good conductor (“Searle’s method”)

A lagged thin bar of known uniform cross section area A is heated at one end with an electrical heater as
water is passed through copper tubes rolled over the cold end at a constant rate. The two thermometers
which are to give readings θ1 and θ2 are put in the holes filled with mercury to ensure good thermal
contact at a known separation L.
When all the four thermometer readings θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 are steady, the mass of water flowing through the
copper tube in measured time t is determined by using a measuring cylinder.
At this steady state, the quantity of heat flowing through the bar is equal to the heat absorbed by the
collected water of mass m and of known specific heat capacity c.

This implies that kA ( θ −θL )

2 1
=
m
t (
c( θ 4−θ 3 ) from which k = m’cL
)
θ4 −θ3
θ2 −θ1
m
where m’= .
t
Precautions:
The metal rod should be properly/completely lagged to minimize heat loses to the surrounding.

The two holes for the thermometers should be filled with mercury to minimize error due to poor thermal
contacts.

The material should be of uniform cross sectional area to ensure steady states i.e. steady temperatures at
all points of the rod.

The rod is made longer than its diameter i.e. rod of small cross sectional area is used to obtain a
dQ
∆θ dQ
measurable temperature gradient i.e. since = dt , and for steady state = constant, it implies that
L dr
kA
∆θ 1
𝛂 since k is constant. This implies that the smaller the cross-section area the bigger the
L A
temperature gradient value thus measurable.

8.0.1.1.1Poor conductor (“Lee’s method”)

 Procedure.
A thin disc S (specimen) of known uniform cross section area A and thickness L is sandwiched between
steam chest C and a thick brass plate B of known heat capacity “CB” as shown below.

The specimen S is heated by steam and at the steady state; values of θ 2 and θ1 are read and recorded such

that the rate of heat flow through S is kA

( θ2−θ 1) ……(i)
L
The specimen S is removed and B is heated directly until its temperature is relatively higher than θ 1.
Steam chest is removed and B is lagged. Temperature of B is measured and recorded every after half a
minute and its cooling curve is plotted as shown below.

Temperature/ ̊C

𝛉1
The slope Sθ at temperature θ1 is obtained such that the rate of heat loss by B is given as
1

mc Sθ …..(ii) . And at steady state; the body looses heat at the same rate as it absorbs heat.
1

The rate of heat loss by B at 𝛉1 = The rate of heat B absorbed from S at the same temperature 𝛉1
( θ2−θ 1) C B L Sθ
 CB Sθ = kA
1
from which k = .
1
L A ( θ2−θ1 )
NB:
 Examples of poor conductors of heat are; glass, cardboard, wood, e.t.c.
 Searle’s method is not appropriate because it is difficult to obtain adequate heat flow along
the specimen (measurable temperature gradient).
 The adjoining faces of steam chest C, disc (specimen) and brass plate are flat and smeared
with grease so as to ensure good thermal contact.

8.0.1.2 Series and parallel heat flow

(a) Series heat flow
If we consider two or more series sided slabs of thickness X1 and X2 with conductivities k1 and k2 in
thermal contact and perfectly insulated as shown below

dQ ( θ1 −θ ) ( θ−θ2 )
=k 1 A =k 2 A =
The rate of heat flow dt x1 x2 Constant
NB: For series heat flow e
R =R +R +. .. .. .. .+R
1 2 n
Where R is called thermal resistance i.e. thermal resistance is the opposition to the flow of heat through
a conductor of heat. Thermal resistance
Thickness of a conductor
R= and the units for R are KW-1.
Thermal conductivityxArea of transmission of theconductor
NB:
Double gazed windows are commonly used in cold countries because; such windows contain a thin layer
of air. Air is poor conductor of heat since its conduction involves no material medium. There fore double
gazed windows are in position to heat exchanges across it so as to maintain temperature inside the
building at relatively room temperature.
Tea cups are made of clay other than alluminium because; clay is a poor conductor of heat yet aluminium
is a good conductor of heat. Tea in clay cups take relatively longer time to cool than tea in an alluminium
cup. A person taking tea using clay cup is least likely to be burnt as it may be the case if one takes tea
using an alluminium cup.

(b) Parallel heat flow

This is common with heat flow through a vertical composite of different layers like;
 Brick wall with glasses
 Glass window composed of portions of different materials, e.t.c.

0
⇒θ1=269.12 C
N.B: For parallel heat flow, temperature difference is the same, unlike in series heat flow.
The total rate of heat flow through the composite is;
dQ dQ g dQ B
= +
dt dt dt
k e Ae kg A g k B AB
te
( θ1 −θ2 )=
tg
( θ1 −θ2 ) +
tB
( θ1 −θ2 )
1 1 1
= +
R e R g R B , where;
Re: Effective thermal resistance.
Rg: Thermal resistance of glass.
RB: Thermal resistance of brick.

8.0.1.3 Examples
1) A metal boiler is 1.5cm thick. Find the difference in temperature between its inner and outer surface if
every 1m2 of the boiler evaporates 40kg per hour (latent heat of vaporization of water=2268×10 3JKg-1,
metal=63Wm-1K-1)
Solutions:
dm
= L
Rate of evaporation every 1m 2 dt V
dm
= ALV
Total rate of evaporation for area A dt
This heat causing evaporation = heat being supplied by the boiler ( kAL∆ θ )
k dm
AΔθ == ALV
( )
3
k ∆ θ dm 40 x 2268 x 10 0.15
L dt L
L = dt v ∆𝛉 = 60 x 60 x 63 = 60 ̊C.
2) A brick wall of thickness 0.12m and area 20cm2 has glass windows in it of area 2cm2 and thickness
0.4mm. The outside and inside surfaces of the wall have a temperature difference of 08K
(kbrick=7.0×101WK-1m-1, kglass=0.8WK-1m-1). Find the effective rate of heat flow through the composition.
Solutions:
Method I
dQT dQ g dQB
= +
For parallel arrangement dt dt dt
k A Δθ k 2 A 2 Δθ
= 1 1 +
x1 x2

( )
−4 −4
70∗20∗10 0 .8∗2∗10
¿ + ∗8=12 .5 W
0 .12 0 . 4∗10−3
Method II
Δθ
=
Rate of heat flow
Re
1 1 1 x x
= + R g= g R B= B
R
, e
Rg RB , k g A g and kB A B
For a parallel array

3) A double gazed glass window of area 3.5m2 and thickness 5.2mm with a layer of air 10.5mm thick and
the outside surface of the window is at 40oC yet the inner surface is at 27 oC. Find
i) the rate of heat flow by conduction (kglass=0.80Wm-1K-1, kair=0.05 Wm-1K-1)
ii) the temperature at the inner surfaces of the glasses.
Solutions:

Since air is trapped between the glass of area Ag, then Aair=Aglass
Method I
Δθ
=
i) Rate of heat flow
R e for series heat flow
2x x
Re =R g +R air +R g =2 R g +R air = g + air
k g A k air A
2∗5 . 2∗10−3 10 . 5∗10−3 −1
Re = + =0 .064 KW
0 . 8∗3 . 5 0 . 05∗3 .5
 40−27
= =204 W
Rate of heat flow 0 . 064
ii)
dQ k g AΔθ
=
From
dt xg
0. 80∗3 .5
⇒ 204= ( 40−θ1 )
5 . 2∗10−3
∴ θ1 =39. 6 o C

dQ
=
But for series heat flow dt Constant
0 .80∗3 .5∗103
204=
5 .2
( θ 2−27 )
i.e.
∴ θ2 =27 .38 o C

Method II
dQ
=
Using dt Constant
( 40−θ 1 ) ( θ1−θ2 ) ( θ 2 −27 )
kg A =k air A =k g A
xg x air xg
0 . 8 ( 40−θ1 ) 0. 05 ( θ 1−θ 2 ) 0 . 8 ( θ2 −27 )
= =
5 .2 10 . 5 5 .2

⇒ For (i)=(ii)
θ1 + θ2 =67o C ……………………. (a)
For (i) = (iii)
0 . 15 ( 40−θ1 ) =0 . 0048 ( θ1 −θ2 )
31 .25 ( 40−θ 1 ) =θ1 −θ2
……………………… (b)
31 .25 ( 40−θ 1 ) =θ1 −( 67−θ1 )
∴ θ1 =39. 6 o C
 θ2 =67−39 .6=27 . 4 o C
0 .8∗3 .5 ( 40−39 . 6 )
=204 W
5 . 2∗10−3
The rate of heat flow

NB: It should be noted that the first method for calculating the rate of heat flow does not need us to know

the inner temperature of the glass surfaces.

4) A wall of a building consists of two brick layers each 100mm thick separated by 20mm thickness of air
as shown below.

a) Calculate the rate of heat flow per unit area through the brick and air (k brick=6.7Wm-1K-1, kair is 0.024
Wm-1K-1).
b) Find the values of θ1 and θ2.

Solutions:
Δθ
=
a) Heat flow per unit area R1e where

Thermal resistance x Area.

∴ R1e =2 (06 .1. 7 )+( 0.0. 02024 )=0 . 86 KW −1

m2

Δθ 25−15
⇒ 1
= =11. 6 Wm− 2
Re 0 . 86
b) For the values of θ1 and θ2 we have
( 25−θ 1 )
11. 6=6 . 7∗ ⇒θ 1=24 .8 o C
0 .1
i.e. 25-0.17=θ1 and θ2=15+0.17=15.17oC
5) A composite metal bar of uniform cross section is made up of length 25cm copper, 10cm nickel and
15cm Aluminum each being in perfect thermal contact with the ad joint part. The copper end of the
composite bare is maintained at 100oC and the Aluminum end is at 10 oC. The bar is perfectly insulated.
Find the steady temperature at the junctions, and the rate of heat flow per unit area.

Δθ
=
Rate of heat flow dt
x Cu x Ni x Al
R1e = + +
k Cu k Ni k Al
For (kCu=385Wm K ,kNi=59 Wm K-1 and kAl=209 Wm-1K-1)
-1 -1 -1

0. 25 0. 10 0. 15
R1e = + + =0 . 00306 KW -1 m2
385 59 209
90
= =29392 .8 Wm−2
Rate of heat flow per unit area 0 . 00306
dQ
=
Using dt Constant
385 ( 100−θ1 )
29392 .8=
0. 25
θ1 =100−19. 1=80 . 9 o C
θ2 =10+19 . 1=29 .1 o C

6) A blackened copper sphere of mass 10kg, area 20m2 and s.h.c 390Jkg-1K-1 is cooled inside an evacuated
enclosure whose walls are kept at 10oC. How long does it take for the sphere to cool from 200 oC to 180
o
C? (Take k=14Wm-2K-1)
Solutions:
Since a sphere has no thickness then
dQ
=kA ( θ−θo )
dt , where θ=sphere’s temperature and θo is the surrounding temperature.
dQ dθ
=kA ( θ−θo )=mc
But also dt dt
dθ kA 14∗20∗( 200−0 ) −1
dt
=
mc
( θ−θ o )=10∗390 =14 . 4 Ks
 200−180
= =1. 4 s
⇒ Time taken for the sphere to cool from 200 oC to 180 oC 14 . 4

7) Two perfectly lagged identical metal bars X and Y are arranged in (a) series and (b) parallel. When in
series, the hot end X is at 90 oC and the cold end Y is at 30 oC. When in parallel, the hot end of each bar is
at 90 oC and the cold end of each bar is at 30 oC. Find the ratio of total rate of heat flow in the parallel to
that of the series arrangements. Take thickness to be l, cross section area Am2 and kx=300Wm-1K-1,
ky==150Wm-1K-1.
Solutions:

dQ 100 AΔθ 6000 A

⇒ = = W
dt l l …………… (i)
 dQ 1 60∗450 A 27000 A
∴ = = W
dt l l ………………… (ii)
dQ 1
dt
=4 . 5
dQ1 dQ dQ
: =27 :6=9: 2
dt dt or dt

Therefore, the ratio

8) A composite rod is made from uniform rods of copper, brass and aluminium. The rods which have
equal length and diameter are placed in thermal contact and lagged as shown below.

Given that kCu:kAl;kBrass is 18:10:5, determine the steady temperature at the copper-aluminum and
aluminum-brass (Hint: assume uniform flow of heat).
Solutions:
dQ
=k Cu ( 100−θ 1 ) =k Al ( θ1 −θ 2 )=k Brass ( θ2 −0 )
dt
k :k :k
For Cu Al Brass
=18: 10:5
⇒5 θ 2=1800−18 θ1 ……………………………. (i)
100 θ1 −100 θ2 =1800−18 θ1 ……………………. (ii)
Equation (ii) – (i)
10 θ1 =15 θ2 , θ1 =1 .5 θ2 Substitute into (i)
 ⇒5 θ 2=1800−27 θ2
θ2 =56 . 25o C and θ1 =84 . 375o C

9)A copper rod 4.3cm thick and diameter 3.4cm is lagged. One end is maintained at 280 oC and the other
end is placed against a disc of 2.5cm thick of the same diameter. The free end of the disc is maintained at
40oC. If kCu=380Wm-1K-1 and kdisk=10.5 Wm-1K-1, find the steady temperature of the copper-disc interface
and the amount of heat flowing across the junctions in 10 minutes.
Solutions:

Δθ
=
Rate of heat flow
Re
4 . 3∗10−2 2. 5∗10−2
Re = 2
+ =0 . 031+0 . 656=0. 687 KW −1
−2 2
380∗π ( 3 . 4∗10 ) 10. 5∗π ( 3. 4∗10 )
−2

240
= =349 .3 W
0 . 687
Rate of heat flow
∴ The amount of heat flowing in 10 minutes =349 . 3∗10∗60=209606 . 98≈209607 J
2
380 π ( 3 . 4∗10−2 )
∴ 349. 3= ( 280−θ1 )
4 . 3∗10−2
10 . 88=280−θ1 ⇒θ 1=269 . 120 C

10) Rods of copper, brass and steel are welded together to form a Y shaped figure. The cross sectional
area of each rod is 2cm2. The end of the copper rod is maintained at 1000C and the ends of brass and steel
at 100C. Assuming no heat loss from the surrounding from the surfaces of the rods, taking the lengths of
the rods are 46cm, 20cm and 14cm, find the temperature at the junction and heat current (rate of heat
flow) through the copper rod (kCu=385Wm-1K-1, kBrass=109 Wm-1K-1 and ksteel=50.2 Wm-1K-1).
Solutions:
 Δθ
=
For uniform flow of heat, the rate of flow
Re

1
Re =
20∗10−2
RB ∗Rs 109∗2∗10−4
=
( ∗
14∗10−2
)(
50. 2∗2. 0∗10−4
=5 .53 KW −1
)
1
Re =Re + R Cu , RB+ Rs ( 9. 174 )+ ( 13. 944 )

Re =5 .53+
( 46∗10−2
385∗2∗10−4 )
=11.504 KW −1

100−10
=
=7 .82 W
∴ The rate of heat flow through the copper rod 11. 504
dQ
=
Also using dt Constant
385∗2∗10−4
7 . 82= ( 100−θ )
46∗10−2
46 . 72=100−θ ⇒θ=53 . 280 C
11) A copper kettle has a circular base of radius 10cm and thickness 3.0mm. The upper surface of the
base is covered with a uniform layer of scale 1mm thick. The kettle contains water which is brought to its
boiling point by an electric heater and at steady state 5g of steam are produced each minute. What is the
temperature of the lower surface of the base assuming that the heat conduction from the sides of the kettle
is negligible. (KCu = 390WK-1m-1,Kscale= 13.0WK-1m-1
specific heat of steam = 2.26×106 Jkg-1)
Solutions:

Steam

Δθ
=
The rate of heat flow
Re Re =RB+RS
−3
3∗10 1∗10−3
2
+ =2. 45∗10−4 +2. 45∗10−3 =2 . 695 KW −1
−2 2
Re = 390 π ( 10∗10 ) 13 π ( 10∗10 )
−2

( θ−100 )∗10−3
=
The rate of heat flow 2 . 695 …………………………….. (i)
This heat is the one which evaporates the water i.e.
 ( θ−100 )∗1000 dM 5∗10−3
= ∗Lv = ∗2 .26∗106
2 .695 dt 1∗60
( θ−100 ) 5∗2. 26
=
2. 695 60 ⇒θ=100 . 5 / 0 C

12 (a) A wall consists of two layers of thickness l1 and l2 and k1 and k2 respectively in series arrangement.
If the surfaces of the walls are maintained in temperature T 1 and T2, show that the rate of heat transfer is
A ( T 2−T 1 )

( )
l1 l2
+
k1 k2
, A is cross section area and T2>T1.
And state the assumptions based on.
(b) A cooking utensil of thickness 3mm is to be made from two layers i.e. Alluminium and brass.
Determine which combination will allow high rate of heat flow by making use of the above expression
(kAl=240Wm-1K-1, kbrass=112 Wm-1K-1).
Solutions:

k1 k
( T −T 1 ) = 2 ( T 2 −T )
Assuming a steady state then l 1 l2
k 1 l 2 T −k 1 l 2 T 1 =k 2 l 1 T 2 −k 2 l 1 T
T ( k 1 l 2 + k 2 l 1 ) =k 2 l 1 T 2 +k 1 l 2 T 1
k 2l1 T 2+ k 1 l2 T 1
T=
k 1 l 2 +k 2 l 1

∴
dt
=
l1 (
dQ k 1 A k 2 l 1 T 2 + k 1 l 2 T 1
k 1 l2+ k 2 l1
−T 1
)
 k 1 A ( k 2 l 1 T 2 −k 2 l 1 T 1 )
=
l1 k 1 l2+ k 2 l1
k 1 k 2 A ( T 2−T 1 )
¿
k 1 l2+ k 2 l1
A ( T 2 −T 1 )
¿
l2 l1
+
k2 k1
dQ 1
⇒ ∝
dt l2 l1
+
k2 k1

Therefore, for Alluminium of 2mm and brass of 1mm,

dQ k k∗105
= =
dt 2∗10−3 1∗10−3 1. 726
+
240 112
For Al=1mm and brass=2mm
dQ k k∗105
= =
dt 1∗10−3 2∗10−3 2. 202
+
240 112
dQ
Since 2.202>1.726, then dt is higher for Al=2mm and brass=1mm.
 8.0.1.4Test8
1) Two metal conductors A and B each of radius 18cm and thickness 3.5mm and 9.18mm respectively are
placed in contact with their base at 180 ̊C and the upper at 80 ̊C as shown below.

a) Given that kA=120Wm-1K-1, kB=155 Wm-1K-1, find the temperature of the interface and the rate of heat
flow through B.
b) Given that metal B is disjoined from A such that B is placed in an environment at a temperature of
25oC. One end of it is heated at a temperature of 220 oC, find how long it will take for the other end to be
raised to 170 oC if mB=2.4×10-3kg and s.h.c of B is 810Jkg-1K-1.

2) A window of height 2.0m and width 0.8m is double gazed consisting of single glass plates each of
thickness 4.0mm separated by an air gap of 2.8mm. Find the rate at which heat is conducted through the
window given that the external surfaces temperatures are 200C and 300C (kg=0.72WK-1m-1, kair=0.025 WK-
1 -1
m ).

3) A concrete floor of a hall has dimensions of 10.0m by 8.0m. It is covered with a carpet of thickness
2.0cm. Temperature inside the hall is 400C while that of the surrounding just below the concrete is 150C.
Thermal conductivities of the concrete and the material of the carpet are 2.4Wm -1K-1 and 0.05 Wm-1K-1
respectively and the thickness of the concrete is 10cm. Find
i) temperature at the interface of the concrete and carpet
ii) the rate of heat flow through the floor
Hint:
4)Water in an aluminum saucepan of diameter 16cm and thickness 4mm is kept boiling at 100 oc on a hot
stove. The water boils of at a rate of 2.28×10-4kgs-1. Find the temperature of the underside of the
saucepan, assuming it is uniformly heated and neglecting heat losses from the sides. (K Al = 2.06×102 WK-
1 -1
m , s.l.h.v of water = 2.26×106Jkg-1)

5) The bottom of a cylindrical metal can have a diameter of 10.0cm and thickness 1.5cm. Water in the can
is kept 100 ̊C over a frame. If 0.8kg of water evaporates in 1 hour, find the average temperature of the
outer surface of the can. (Kmetal = 386 WK-1m-1, Latent heat of vaporization of water 2.26×106Jkg-1).

6) Four metal rods copper, steel, brass, and aluminum are welded to form a heater in the shape of letter
“E”. Copper rod is of area 8m2 and thickness 2cm. steel brass and aluminum rods are each of area 2m 2
and thickness 6cm. the free end of copper is maintained at 120oC. and those of the other three rods are
maintained at 05oC.
a) By neglecting heat loss to the surrounding, find the temperature of the copper-aluminum
interface and rate of heat flow through the brass rod.
b) Repeat (a) above when
i) Steel rod is disordered from the above heater in No.6 above
ii) Brass rod is disordered from the above heater in No.6 above
(Kcu = 385 WK-1m-1, Ksteel = 50.5 WK-1m-1, Kbrass = 109 WK-1m-1, KAl = 206 WK-1m-1)
7) In an experiment to determine the thermal conductivity of glass, sheets of glass were cut to form a
circular disc of 5cm radius and had a uniform thickness of 2mm. One side was maintained at a steady
temperature of 100oC, while a copper block in good thermal contact with the glass was found to be at 70
o
C. The block weighed 0.75kg. Following this, the rate of cooling of the copper block was studied over a
range of temperatures and the rate of cooling at 70 oC was found to be 16.5Kmin-1. Find the value for the
thermal conductivity of glass. (s.h.c of Cu=400Jkg-1K-1)

ms θ cl
k=
A ( θ2 −θ1 )
8) A window of height 1m and width 1.5m contains a double gazed unit consisting of two single glass
planes of thickness 4mm separated by an air gap of 2mm. Find the rate at which heat is flowing through
the window. Take the temperatures of the external surfaces to be 20oC and 37 oC, kg=0.72WK-1m-1,
kair=0.025WK-1m-1.
9) A lagged copper rod 2m long and 3cm in diameter has one end maintained at 85 oC. The other end is
placed against a 2cm thick cardboard disc of the same diameter as the rod. The free end of the disc is
maintained at 40 oC (kCu=380Wm-1K-1, kcardboard=0.2Wm-1K-1). Find the interface temperature and the
quantity of heat which flows in 10minutes.

10) (a) Define thermal conductivity and temperature gradient

(b) (i) Copper, brass and Alluminium rods of length 10.0cm, 5.0cm and 10.0cm respectively are
joined as shown below
100 ̊C θ1 θ2 40 ̊C
Thermal conductivities of these metals areBrass
Copper in the ratio of 20:18:15 respectively find θ 1 and θ2
Aluminium
(ii)If their cross section area is 2cm2, find the amount of heat which would flow through Brass after
1hour.
(c) Describe the experiment for determining thermal conductivity of glass.

11) (a) (i) What is meant by conduction convection and radiation as modes of heat transfer.
(ii) Explain why double –gazed windows are commonly used in cold countries.
(iii) Explain why tea cups are made of clay other than aluminium.
(b) Show how temperature is distributed along the length of;
(i) Lagged conductor
(ii) Unlagged conductor
Whose ends are maintained at θ1 and θ2 where θ1 > θ2
c) Account for the graphs sketched in 11(b) above
d) A rectangular concrete floor of a hall has dimensions of 10.0m by 8.0m. It is covered with a
carpet of thickness 2.0cm. The inside the hall is at 40°C while that of the surrounding just below
the concrete is at 15°C. Kconcrete =2.4Wm-1k-1. Kcarpet = 0.05Wm-1k-1 and thickness of concrete is
10.0cm. Find the;
(i) Temperature at the interface of concrete and carpet.
(ii) Rate of heat flow through the floor.

e) Explain four precautions taken when determining thermal conductivity of a metal.

12) The ground floor of a house has an internal area of 5.0m2. The floor is fitted with a carpet 15mm
thick which completely covers the floor of thickness 200mm. The top of the carpet is at 15 ̊C and the
bottom of the concrete is at 10 ̊C (kfloor=0.75Wm-1K-1, and kcarpet=0.06Wm-1K-1). Calculate;
(i) Rate of energy transfer through the concrete with out the carpet.
(ii) Temperature at the carpet/concrete interface.

13) In an experiment to determine thermal conductivity of copper, heat is supplied at a rate of 80W to
one end of a well lagged uniform copper bar of cross-section area 10.0cm2 and total length 20cm. Heat
is removed by water cooling at the other end of the bar. Two thermometers T1 andT2 are used to record
the temperature of the bar at distances 5.0cm and 15.0cm from the hot end. At steady state these
thermometers read 48 ̊C and 28 ̊C respectively (s.h.c of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1). Calculate;
(i) Thermal conductivity of copper.
(ii) Rate of flow of water in (grams min-1) of cooling water for its temperature rise to be 5K.
(iii) Temperature at the cold end of the bar.

14) In an experiment for determining thermal conductivity of cardboard, a piece of area 25.0cm 2and
thickness 2.00mm is cut from it to be used as a specimen. Heat from brass plate at 99.0 ̊C enters one
end of this piece and passes to a copper block of mass 600g from which it escapes to the surrounding
air. At steady state temperature of copper block is 59.0 ̊C. The piece is removed and copper block is
heated directly further to 60.6 ̊C and properly lagged and left to cool. The rate of temperature fall for
this copper block at 59.0 ̊C is found to be 2.51Kmin-1 (kcardboard=410Jkg-1K-1). Calculate thermal
conductivity of the card board.

15) The diagram shows the variation temperature with distance for a glass window through which
thermal energy is being lost at a rate of 900Wm-2.

20.0 A B C D

Temperature/ ̊C 0.8 ̊c

(i) Explain the shape of air

this graph inglass
regions AB andair
CD.
(ii) Calculate the temperature through glass.
5.0
(iii) Calculate the “U” value for this window.
(iv) Sketch the graph you would expect for a double gazed window assuming that temperature
at the outer surfaces of the window are 20.0 ̊C andDistance/mm
5.0 ̊C.
6.4mm
 8.0.2Thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is the transfer of heat through vacuum i.e. no material medium is required for this
transmission.
A black body radiation is an electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body solely due its temperature i.e.
energy emitted depends on body’s temperature.
Electromagnetic spectrum is the distribution of electoral magnetic radiations ranging from those of
short wave length to those of longer wave length as shown below.
Type of radiation Wave length range (m)
Gamma rays 10-12
X- rays >10-12 to10-8
Ultra-violet >10-8 to 10-7
V
Visible-violet >10-7 to 4.0x10-7 I
B
Visible-red >4.0x10-7 to 7.4x10-7 G
Y
O
Infrared >7.0x10-7 to 10-3 R

Microwaves >10-3 to 10-1

Radio waves >10-1 to104

Infrared radiations
 Infrared radiations are electromagnetic radiations which are converted into heat when they strike a
surface.
 Properties of infrared radiations.
 They travel at the speed of light.
 They are reflected and refracted like light.
 When absorbed by a body, the body’s temperature is raised.
 Causes photo-electric emission from surfaces like Cesium.
 Affects special types of photographic plates which enable pictures to be taken in the dark.
 They are absorbed by glass but transmitted by rock salt and quartz.

8.0.2.0 Comparison of radiation ability for different surfaces

A cubical metal tank whose sides are painted; dull black, dull white and highly polished is filled
with hot water and radiations from each surface are detected by a thermopile as shown below.

The galvanometer deflection is greatest when the thermopile is facing the dull black surface and
least when facing a highly polished silver surface.
Therefore, a polished surface is the least radiator and a black surface is the best radiator.
NB:
 People in desert countries are always dressed in white clothes other dark clothes because;
White clothes are good reflectors of heat yet dark clothes are good absorbers of heat.
There fore people in desert countries need to put on white clothes so as to reflect much of
the heat incident on them such that less heat reaches their bodies.
 Many factory roofs are aluminum-painted because bright surfaces reduce heat lost by
radiation during winter and enable the interior to remain cooler during summer.
 In sub-Sahara desert, it is by rule to put on white clothings for the same reason.

8.0.2.1 Detection of radiant heat (detection of infrared radiation)

There are mainly three types of detectors i.e.
(a) Thermopile
  Thermopiles are connected in series and to the sensitive galvanometer.

 When radiations are incident on the thermocouples, they warm up the junction and sets up an
e.m.f which is proportional to the temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions.
 The galvanometer deflects and the magnitude of deflection is a measure of the intensity of the
incident radiations on the thermopile.
NB1:
 The hot junctions of thermopiles are conic and highly polished so as to concentrate the radiations
on the junctions.
 The hot junctions are blackened to make them good absorbers of incident radiations.
 The galvanometer should be highly sensitive so as to be in position to detect radiations of
relatively small intensity.

(b) Bolometer
This consists of two heat sensitive resistors (thermostats). One of them is coated black and exposed to
heat radiation and the other is kept at room temperature as shown below.

Radiations are absorbed by the hot resistor causing an increase in its resistance which is proportional to
the intensity of the incident radiations and this increase in resistance is determined by the use of a
wheastone bridge.

(c) The ether-thermo scope.

A blackened and clear bulbs are connected to a tube partly filled with ether i.e. each bulb contains
mixture of air and ether vapor.
When the arrangement is exposed to infrared radiations, more radiations are absorbed by the blackened
bulb than those absorbed by the clear bulb.
This raises the pressure inside the blackened bulb causing the ether liquid to be raised in the unblackened
bulb as shown below.

8.0.2.2 Black body

 A black body is one which absorbs all radiations incident on it and reflects or transmits none.
 The radiations emitted by a black body are called temperature radiations or black body
radiations.
8.0.2.2.0 Approximation of black body
 This is done by punching a small hole in an enclosure whose inside walls are rough and painted
black.
 At each reflection inside the cavity, a high percentage of the radiations is absorbed and eventually
all radiations are absorbed after multiple reflections as shown below.

8.0.2.2.1Distribution of black body radiation

 8.0.2.2.2 Description of the main features of the curve
 For every wave length, relative intensity increases as temperature is increased.
 The wavelength at which maximum intensity occur shifts to the shorter wavelength as
temperature is increased.

λ max is the wavelength of radiation emitted at maximum intensity/emission of a black body at a
particular temperature.

8.0.2.2.3 Change of colour in relation to black body radiation


λ
Relative intensity increases with increase in temperature and max decreases as temperature is
increased.
 The colour of the metal being heated depends on the position of
λ max in the visible spectrum
(ROYGBIV) i.e. a body is red if
λ max is in the red region of visible spectrum, yellow if
λ max is
in the yellow region of the visible spectrum or white when
λ max is in the middle of the visible
spectrum and finally blue when
λ max is in the blue spectrum visible region.

NB:
The center of fire scene appear white because;
The scene of fire is hottest at the center. Since intensity of emitting black body is directly proportional to
its temperature yet intensity increases rapidly for shorter wave lengths, At the center of fire scene, very
many radiations whose wave lengths are in the visible spectrum are emitted. A mixture of these radiations
of varying wave lengths constitutes the whiteness of the center of the fire scene.

8.0.2.2.4 Laws of blackbody radiation

 Wien’s displacement law.
The wavelength
λ max of radiations emitted by a black body at maximum intensity/emissions is given by
λ max T = constant=0.0029mK where; T is the body’s absolute temperature.
 Stefan’s law.
 Total power radiated per squared meter of a black body surface at equilibrium temperature T is
PT
directly proportional to T4 i.e. 𝛂 T4 i.e.PT=σT4…… (i) where; σ is called Stefan’s constant i.e. σ
A
= 5.67x10-8Wm-2K-4

NB:
It should be noted that the sun is assumed to be a blackbody because the gases at its surface absorb all
radiations incident on it. The factor “𝛔T4” is called the solar constant i.e.
Solar constant (S=𝛔T4) is the sun’s radiant power received on a squared meter of the outside surface of
the earth’s atmosphere which is perpendicular to the direction of the incident radiations at the sun-earth
mean distance.

Eλ
max on
E λ against λ curve is proportional to T5, where T is the body’s absolute
The value
temperature.

8.0.2.3 Prevost’s theory

The rate at which a black body absorbs heat depends on only its nature (emissivity) and temperature of
the surroundings and the rate at which it radiates heat depends on only its nature (emissivity) and its
temperature.
A body is said to be at equilibrium temperature when its rate of absorption is equal to its rate of emission
i.e. the total power leaving the body per squared meter must be equal to the total power falling on it.
Emissivity (e): is defined as the ratio of total power emitted per squared meter of a given body to that
emitted per squared meter of a black body at the same temperature as the body i.e.
e= ( TotalTotalpower radiated per squared meter of a black body )
power radiated per square meter of any body
…… (ii)
T
Equation (ii) above implies that;
Total power radiated per squared meter of any body P ' T =e x Total power radiated per squared meter of a
black body……… (iii)
Combining equations (i) and (iii), we deduce that; total power radiated per squared meter of any body at
temperature “T” is given by P ' T =eσT4………. (iv)
Equation (iv) implies that all perfectly black bodies, their emissivity is “1.0”
NB: The ratio of total power emitted by a body at equilibrium temperature “T” to its effective surface
which emits is called the body’s “Irradiance” i.e.
Total power radiated by a body at equilibrium temperature T
Irradiance = ' =eσT4 or σT4 for perfectly
Bod y seffective surface area of emission
black bodies.

8.0.2.4 Radiations inside a constant temperature enclosure

When a perfectly black body of surface area “A” at temperature T1 is enclosed in an enclosure at higher
4 4
temperature T2>T1, its net heat gain is given by Pg = 𝛔A (T 2−T 1 ) and if the body’s temperature was
4 4
higher than that of the enclosure then its net heat loss to the enclosure is given by P L =𝛔A (T 1−T 2 ).
 8.0.2.5 Examples
1) A cylindrical bulb filament of length 0.5m and radius 1.0×10-4m emits light as black body. 0.4A melts
the filament when connected across 240V. Calculate;
(i) The melting point of the filament
(ii) The wave length of the radiation emitted at maximum intensity/emission at its melting point.
Solutions:
−4 −4
i) Area A=2 π rl=2 π∗1. 0∗10 ∗0. 5=π∗10 m2
4
Power =IV = AδT

( ) =1522 K
1
240∗0 . 4
⇒T = 4
5. 7∗10−8∗π∗10−4
−3
ii) For λ max T =2 . 9∗10

(
λ max =
2 . 9∗10−3
1522 )
=1. 91∗10−6 m≈1. 91 μm

2) A tungsten filament lamp of 10W lamp at a temperature of 217oC and effective surface area of
0.64cm2 radiates energy at a rate equivalent to 49% of that radiated by a black body. Calculate Stefan’s
constant.
Solutions:
49
=IV = ∗δ AT 4
Power of the lamp 100
2
10=0 . 49∗( 0. 64∗10−4 ) δ ( 490 )4
40
δ=
( 0 . 49 )∗( 490 )4∗( 0. 64∗10−4 )
= 5.67x10-8Wm-2K-4

3) Find the equilibrium temperature Te of the planet earth which revolves around the sun in an elliptical
orbit of radius 1.5×1011m (Temperature of the sun temperature is Ts=5800K, Stefan’s constant=5.67×10-
8
Wm-2K-4, sun’s radius is 7.0×108m, emissivity of the sun and earth is 1.0 and earth’s radius is 6.4x106m)

2
Prad =5 .67∗10−8∗4 π ( 7 . 0∗10 8 ) ∗( 5800 )4 =4 .0∗1026 W
Assuming the area enclosed by the two planets to be spherical
 Prad
=
Power transmitted by 1m2 of this area 4 πR 2
Prad
Pa = ∗Aearth
4 πR 2
Power absorbed by the earth from the sun

Where Aearth is the effective area of the earth on which radiations from the sun are incident normally.

Experiments have proved it that this area is equivalent to area of a circular earth i.e.Aearth = πr2 “r” is

radius of the earth.

2
4 . 0∗1026∗( 6 . 4∗108 )
Pa = =1 . 82∗1017 W
11 2
4∗( 1 . 5∗10 )
4
Power emitted by the sun =δ AT e
2
=5 . 67∗10−8∗4 π ( 6 . 4∗106 ) T 4e =2. 92∗107 T 4e
At equilibrium, the power absorbed by the earth from the sun = power emitted by the earth when it is at
Te.
17 7 4
∴ 1 .82∗10 =2 . 92∗10 T e ⇒T e =281. 0 K

4) A body of surface area 7.1m2 at temperature of 38oC absorbs radiation from a spherical blackbody
which is at a distance of 5.0×103m from its centre and has a radius of 20m. Find the equilibrium
temperature of the blackbody and state the assumption made.

= 5.67x10-8x4xπx (20)2T4 = 2,85x10-4T4

Power transmitted by 1m2 of the space that surrounds the sphere (the same power is incident normally on
1m2 of X)
−4 4
2.85 x 10 x T
= 2 =9.1x10-13T4
4 π ( 500 )
This implies that total power absorbed by X of area 7.1m2 is
9.1x10-13T4x7.1 =6.44x10-12T4
=δA x T 4x
By Stefan’s law, the power radiated by X
Pe= 5.67x10-8x7.1x (311)4 ≈3766.0W
P =P
At equilibrium a e i.e.
-12 4
3766.0 =6.44x10 T
T = 4917.6K
The assumption made is that; all radiations from the black body are incident normally on the whole body.

5) The mean distance from the sun to the earth is 1.49×1011m and from the sun to Venus is 1.08×1011m.
The absorption rate of the sun and the earth is the same and the earth’s solar constant is S=1.4KWm -2.
Calculate;
i) The solar constant of the Venus.
ii) The equilibrium temperature of Venus assuming that it absorbs and radiates as a blackbody
Solutions:

112
i) Power absorbed by the earth from the sun is S∗4 πr
1 12
Power absorbed by the Venus is S ∗4 πr
At equilibrium temperature the rate of absorption by the two planets are equal
2 2
⇒ S∗4 πr 11 =S1 ¿ 4 πr 1
3 2
1 1. 4∗10 ( 1. 49 )
∴S = 2
=2 . 66∗103 Wm− 2
( 1. 08 )
1 4
ii) By definition, solar constant S =δT o

( )
1
2 . 66∗10 3
T r= 4 =465 K
5 . 67∗10−8

λ
6) Use the figure below to find max which corresponds to curves with peaks for;
i) radiation in the sun’s core where the temperature is 15×106K
ii) radiation in an interstellar space whose temperature¿ 2.7K
(b) Name the radiations emitted in each case.

Solutions:
λ T = Constant
Using Wien’s displacement law max
i) At T=15×106K
λ max∗15∗106 =600∗5800
λ max =0 . 232nm “X-ray radiation”
ii) At 2.7K
λ max∗2 .7=600∗5800
λ max =1 .3 mm “Infrared radiation”
7) 5.0A flows through a 4.0m long metal filament of an electric lamp of diameter 0.4mm and resistance
per centimeter of 22Ωcm-1. Calculate the filament temperature and frequency of the radiation emitted at
maximum intensity/emission given that the body radiates as a black body of emissivity 1.0.
Solutions:
i) Assuming the filament to radiate like a blackbody then,
I 2 R=δ AT 4
52∗22∗400=5 .67∗10−8∗2 π ( 0 . 2∗10−3 )∗4 T 4
⇒T =5270 . 99 K
ii) Using Wien’s displacement law
1
λ max ( 1234∗10 11 ) 4 =2 . 9∗10−3
5270. 99 x 3 . 0 x 10 8
∴f = =5. 5 x 1014 Hz
( 2. 9∗10 )
−3

8) A closed cube of side 1.0cm has a grey surface which radiates 50% as a black body at 700 ̊C.
Calculate;
(i) Power radiated by the cube
Solutions:
Power = 0.5x5.67x10-8x6.0x10-4x (973)4 = 15.33W
(ii) The radius of a spherical black body which would radiate the same power calculated in
10(i) above when the body it is at 300 ̊C.
Solutions:
15.33 =5.67x10-8x4xπxRx (573)4

R=
√ 15.33
−8
5.67 x 10 x 4 xπx (573 )
4 =0.014m

9) A solid copper sphere of diameter 20mm is cooled to a temperature of 500K and is then placed in an
enclosure maintained at 300K. Assuming that all the exchange of heat is caused by radiation, calculate the
initial rate of temperature fall if the sphere is assumed to emit like a blackbody.
Solutions:
−3
Assume ρCu =8930 Kgm ; enclosure to have the same shape of the sphere, s.h.c of copper is 370JKg-
1 -1
K .

=P e−Pb =δA ( T 4e −T 4b )
By principle; the net of heat loss by the body
Δθ
=mc
But by definition this rate of heat loss is given by Δt
2 4 3
∴ 5. 67∗10−8∗4 π∗( 1. 0∗10−2 ) ( 5004 −300 4 )= π ( 1. 0∗10−2 ) ∗8930∗370∗Δθ
3
 Δθ
⇒ =0 . 28 Ks−1
Δt
10) A cylindrical electric element of length 25cm and diameter 1.5cm is rated 1000W. Determine the
filament’s equilibrium temperature if it is assumed to behave like a black body.
Solutions:
4
We use IV =δ AT
1000=5. 67∗10−8∗2 π ( 0 .75∗10−2 )∗( 25∗10−2 )∗T 4
1
T =( 1 . 49704826∗10 ) 4 =1106. 1 K
12
 8.0.2.5 Test 10
1) A metal sphere of diameter 1.0×10-2m is cooled to a temperature of 250K and is then placed in an
enclosure maintained at 400K. Assumed that all heat exchange is by radiation to calculate the initial rate
of rise of temperature of the sphere, assume the blackbody to be similar to the sphere (
ρmetal =7 .20∗103 kgm−3 , s.h.c of metal is 350Jkg-1K-1andδ=5 . 70∗10−8 Wm−2 K−4 )

2) The tungsten filament of an electric lamp has a length of 0.5m and a diameter of 6×10 -5m. The power
rating of the lamp is 60W. Assuming the radiation from the lamp is equivalent is 80% that of a perfect
blackbody radiator at the same temperature, estimate the steady temperature of the filament.

3) The intensity of radiant energy from a blackbody is maximum at a wavelength of 1.5×10 -6m, find the
corresponding temperature of the blackbody.

4) The resistance of a tungsten wire of an electric lamp at 20oC is 50Ω. At an operating voltage of 240V,
the current through the filament is 0.5A. Given that the temperature coefficient of resistance of tungsten is
constant and is equal to 5.0×10-3K. Find the;
i) temperature of the filament at the above operating voltage
ii) Stefan’s constant taking the effective area of the filament to be 0.93cm 2 and assumed a
blackbody.

5) The filament of an electric bulb attains a temperature of 1600K when the power supplied to it is 25W.
i) Find the temperature of the filament if the power supply is increased to 60W.
ii) Find the length of the filament at 1600K if the diameter is 5.0×10 -5m.
iii) Calculate the difference in the wavelength of the radiation emitted with maximum intensity at the
two temperatures (Assume the filament to radiate like a blackbody).

6) A solid copper sphere of diameter 10mm and temperature 150K is placed in an enclosure maintained at
temperature of 290K. Calculate, stating the assumptions made, the initial rate of temperature rise of the
3
sphere. ( ρCu =893 kg/ m , s.h.c of Copper=310Jkg-1K-1)

7) (i) Assuming the sun is a sphere of radius 7.0×108m at temperature of 6000K; estimate the temperature
of the surface of mars if its distance from the sun is 2.28×1011m.
(ii)The energy intensity received by the earth from the sun is 2.4 x 103 Wm-2, calculate the surface
temperature of the sun and state any assumptions made

8 (a) (i) Define black body and black body radiation.

(ii)Explain the mechanism of heat transfer through good conductor metals and gases.
(b) Describe the experiment for determining thermal conductivity of a good conductor.
(c) (i) Explain why when determining thermal conductivity of cork, it is thin.
(ii) Assuming the sun to be a sphere of radius 7.0 x 108m at 6000K. Estimate the
temperature of planet mars which is at a distance of 2.28 x 1011m from the centre of the sun.

9(a) (i) Explain why when charcoal is steadily heated, it appears reddish before turning white.
(b) (i) Explain what is meant by a black body absorber.
(ii) Describe how the above body can be realized in practice.
(iii) Account for the fact that metals are good conductors of heat.
 (c) (i) State the factors which affect the rate of heat flow through a material.
10) (a) (i) State Wien’s displacement law and Stefan’s law of black body radiation.
(ii) Show how relative intensity of a black body varies with wave length at different
temperatures.
(iii) Explain how the curves in a (ii) above account for the change of color by a metal being heated.

b) (i) Define solar constant and Emissivity

(ii) State Prevost’s theory.
(c) Use the figure below to find max which corresponds to curves with peaks for;
(i) Radiation in the sun’s core where temperature is approximated to 15 x 10 6K
(ii) Radiation in an interstellar space whose temperature is 2.7k.

Relative intensity/Wm-2
T=6000K

650 Wave length/nm